Article

Exposure to Ski-Wax Smoke and Health Effects in Ski Waxers

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Abstract

Downhill as well as cross-country skis have undergone revolutionary technical development in recent decades. Parallel with innovations in ski bottoms, new types of ski wax have appeared on the market. At the same time complaints have been voiced increasingly by those who wax skis. We followed five male professional waxers at work in this combined chemical and medical study.Chemical analysis of some common ski waxes showed that they consist mainly of a mixture of straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons. Some waxes also contain mixtures of silicone compounds in unknown amounts. One brand consisted entirely of a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The individual components vaporize on heating, and on cooling in the air they condense rapidly to smoke consisting of particles less than 1 μm in diameter. Particles of this size might reach down into the pulmonary alveoli on inhalation. All ski waxes may be expected to behave in the same way, whether they contain paraffin, PTFE, or silicone.The results show that pulmonary function (measured as TLCO) was lowered in all persons tested after waxing for 2–3 hours. Some recovery was recorded after a night's break. Repeated exposure resulted again in lowering the pulmonary function. At the end of a test week a fall of 10–25 percent was seen.The results suggest that the observed impairment in pulmonary function should be related to the exposure to ski-wax smoke.

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... A plume of airborne material is often visible in waxing work spaces [12]. While waxing, the waxer is typically stooped over the ski, leading to direct inhalation exposure of volatiles, aerosols, and PM [13,14]. Both wax additives and PM may pose human health risks. ...
... In the present narrative review, we summarize the state of the science on PFAS exposure from fluorinated ski wax use, including PFAS concentrations in biological and environmental media collected from ski waxing settings and acute respiratory health effects. The exact number of people directly impacted by PFAS in fluorinated ski waxes is unknown; however, > 10,000 people in both Sweden [13] and Finland [19] are estimated to be occupationally exposed to ski waxing. In the USA, there are approximately 80,000 people employed within the ski industry as a whole [20] and approximately 7500 registered ski and snowboard coaches. ...
... Hundreds of fluoros exist and can be divided into solid, powder, and liquid forms. These waxes contain up to 100% PFAS by mass comprised of perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs), fluoroalkanes, and emerging compounds such as GenX [3,13,17,19,22,23]. Fluorinated waxes are classified as low, high, and pure fluoros depending on relative PFAS concentration, though no standardized thresholds for PFAS concentration exist. ...
Article
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Purpose Waxes containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are applied to the base of skis and snowboards (“skis”) to reduce friction with the snow surface and improve glide. PFAS exposure can adversely impact cardiometabolic, thyroid, liver, kidney, reproductive, and immune health and are associated with increased risk of certain cancers. In the present review, we summarize the state of the science on PFAS exposure from fluorinated ski wax use, including acute respiratory health effects and PFAS concentrations in biological and environmental media collected from ski waxing settings. Recent Findings Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (PFCA) concentrations in serum and air collected from professional wax technicians and the rooms where waxes are applied are among the highest of any occupation investigated to date, including the fluorochemical industry. High airborne concentrations of fluorotelomer alcohols contribute to high body burdens of certain PFCAs among ski waxers. Summary Fluorinated ski waxes are a significant source of PFAS exposure for people waxing skis and/or spending time in areas where waxing occurs. We highlight recommendations for future research, policy, and technologies needed to address PFAS exposures from fluorinated wax use.
... High number concentrations of particles smaller than 100 nm are also generated, in particular when ironing powder waxes (Freberg et al., 2014). Previous studies have reported PM concentrations up to 2.4 mg/m 3 during the melting of glide waxes and up to 9.6 mg/m 3 during the application of fluorinecontaining glide waxes as assessed by personal sampling (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Liesivuori et al., 1994). ...
... Although little studied, there have been concerns that professional ski waxers may be at risk of developing pulmonary diseases due to high aerosol exposure. Symptoms from the upper respiratory system such as coughing and breathlessness have been reported among ski waxers (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Freberg & Espeland, 2007;Knöpfli et al., 1992). Substantially reduced lung diffusion capacity (DLCO) in the range from 5% to 25%, without any restrictive or obstructive pulmonary functional impairments, was reported during waxing in some small studies (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Hoffman et al., 1997;Knöpfli et al., 1992). ...
... Symptoms from the upper respiratory system such as coughing and breathlessness have been reported among ski waxers (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Freberg & Espeland, 2007;Knöpfli et al., 1992). Substantially reduced lung diffusion capacity (DLCO) in the range from 5% to 25%, without any restrictive or obstructive pulmonary functional impairments, was reported during waxing in some small studies (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Hoffman et al., 1997;Knöpfli et al., 1992). There are also a few case reports of respiratory failure resulting in hospital treatment after ski waxing (Bracco & Favre, 1998;Hansen, 1991;Strøm & Alexandersen, 1990). ...
Article
Context: Professional ski waxers are exposed to particulate matter (PM) during work, but little is known about untoward pulmonary effects. Objectives: The aim was to study lung function and pneumoproteins in professional ski waxers before and during exposure to PM generated during ski waxing and ski preparation. Material and methods: Forty-five male professional ski waxers examined on an exposure-free day in the morning and at least 6 h later were re-examined during ski waxing 2 d later in a cross-shift study. Pulmonary function and gas diffusion capacity were measured and Clara cell protein 16 (CC-16), surfactant protein A and D (SP-A and SP-D), and C-reactive protein (CRP) were determined in serum. PM was collected by personal sampling. Results: The mean PM concentrations in the respirable and in the inhalable aerosol fraction in air samples collected during waxing were 3.1 mg/m(3) and 6.2 mg/m(3), respectively. The mid expiratory flow (MEF(75%)) was significantly lower during exposure. The concentrations of CRP increased significantly by more than 100% during ski waxing, and SP-D and CC-16 were significantly lower during the exposed day as compared with the non-exposed day. The results further suggest that SP-D and CC-16 in serum are affected by diurnal variations. No significant alterations were observed for the lung diffusion capacity. Discussion and conclusions: The results suggest that exposure to PM generated during ski waxing may induce pulmonary inflammation with reduced flow in small airways. The increased CRP concentrations indicate the induction of systemic inflammation in ski waxers during exposure.
... Ski preparation can result in contaminated workroom atmospheres. However, only a few studies have assessed workroom contaminants during ski waxing, and the main focus has been on the generation of airborne particles with application aided by a heated iron (Dahlquist et al., 1992;Liesivuori et al., 1994;Hämeri et al., 1996). Dahlquist et al. (1992) reported particle concentrations up to 2.36 mg m −3 collected by personal sampling in five subjects during melting of solid block glide waxes, however, without paying attention to the characterization of particle sizes or health-related aerosol fractions. ...
... However, only a few studies have assessed workroom contaminants during ski waxing, and the main focus has been on the generation of airborne particles with application aided by a heated iron (Dahlquist et al., 1992;Liesivuori et al., 1994;Hämeri et al., 1996). Dahlquist et al. (1992) reported particle concentrations up to 2.36 mg m −3 collected by personal sampling in five subjects during melting of solid block glide waxes, however, without paying attention to the characterization of particle sizes or health-related aerosol fractions. Hämeri et al. (1996) showed that powder gliders mainly occurred in the gas phase during heating, but due to cooling after the release, the emitted vapors rapidly recondensated to form particles in the submicromolar range, whereas Liesivuori et al. (1994) reported particle concentrations in the wax room air up to 9.6 mg m −3 during application of fluorine-containing glider powders. ...
... Thus, the determined mean inhalable mass concentration appears to increase as a function of ironing temperature for the solid gliders (Fig. 1), in contrast to the powder gliders where such relationships were not observed. This is compatible with results from thermogravimetric analyses showing that fluorinecontaining solid block glide waxes started to vaporize at 90°C (Dahlquist et al., 1992). The vaporization occurred slowly at lower temperatures but increased rapidly above 140°C. ...
Article
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Background: Preparation of skis prior to skiing competitions involves several individual work operations and the use of a wide variety of chemically based ski waxing products to improve the performance of the skis, including products used after skiing for wax removal and ski sole cleaning. Modern ski waxes consist mainly of petroleum-derived straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons, perfluoro-n-alkanes or polyfluorinated n-alkanes. The wax cleaning products contain solvents such as neat aliphatic hydrocarbons (aliphates) or a mixture with limonene. Different ski waxing work operations can result in contaminated workroom atmospheres. Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the chemical exposures related to the individual ski waxing work operations by investigating the specific work operations in controlled model experiments. Methods: Four main work operations with potential exposures were identified: (i) application of glider waxes, (ii) scraping and brushing of applied glider waxes, (iii) application of base/grip waxes, and (iv) ski sole cleaning. Aerosol particle masses were sampled using conical samplers equipped with 37-mm PVC, 5-µm pore size filters and cyclones equipped with 37-mm PVC, 0.8-µm pore size filters for the inhalable and the respirable aerosol mass fractions, respectively. For measurements of particle number concentrations, a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer was used. Results: Mean aerosol particle mass concentrations of 18.6 mg m(-3) and 32.2 mg m(-3) were measured during application of glider wax powders in the respirable and in the inhalable aerosol mass fractions, respectively. Particle number concentration of ~900 000 particles cm(-3) was measured during application of glider wax powder products. Ski sole cleaning with products containing aliphates displayed solvent air concentrations up to 62.5 p.p.m. Conclusions: This study shows that the potential exposure to generated particles during ski waxing and ski preparation is considerable, especially during work using glide wax powders.
... Despite this potential, only a few small studies of exposure are available. Particle concentrations of up to 2.4 mg·m −3 by personal sampling during the melting of paraffin glide wax or up to 9.6 mg·m −3 during application of fluorine-containing glide waxes have been reported (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Liesivuori et al., 1994). A larger model experiment study showed mass concentrations of up to 32.2 mg·m −3 in the inhalable aerosol fraction and particle number concentrations ranging from 650 000 to 900 000 particles·cm −3 with particle sizes ranging from 50 to 350 nm when applying PFA-based glide wax powders, respectively (Freberg et al., 2013). ...
... Respiratory problems during ski waxing have been reported in case studies (Strøm and Aleksandersen, 1990;Hansen, 1991;Bracco and Favre, 1998). Also reduced lung diffusion capacity for carbonmonoxide and pulmonary symptoms among a limited number of professional ski waxers have been reported (Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Knöpfli et al., 1992). ...
Article
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Background:Ski waxes are applied onto the skis to improve the performance. They contain different chemical substances, e.g. perfluoro-n-alkanes. Due to evaporation and sublimation processes as well as mechanically generated dust, vapours, fumes, and particulates can contaminate the workroom atmosphere. The number of professional ski waxers is increasing, but occupational exposure assessments among professional ski waxers are lacking. The aim was to assess exposure to airborne chemical contaminants among professional ski waxers. It was also a goal to construct a ventilation system designed for ski waxing work operations. Forty-five professional ski waxers were included. Personal measurements of the inhalable and the respirable aerosol mass fractions were executed in 36 different waxing cabins using Conical Inhalable Sampler cassettes equipped with 37-mm PVC filters (5 µm) and Casella respirable cyclones equipped with 37-mm PVC filters (0.8 µm), respectively. Volatile organic components were collected using Anasorb CSC charcoal tubes. To examine time trends in exposure patterns, stationary real-time measurements of the aerosol mass fractions were conducted using a direct-reading Respicon® sampler. Mean aerosol particle mass concentrations of 3.1 mg·m(-3) (range: 0.2-12.0) and 6.2 mg·m(-3) (range: 0.4-26.2) were measured in the respirable and inhalable aerosol mass fractions, respectively. Real-time aerosol sampling showed large variations in particle concentrations, with peak exposures of ~10 and 30 mg·m(-3) in the respirable and the inhalable aerosol particle mass fractions, respectively. The custom-made ventilation system reduced the concentration of all aerosol mass fractions by more than 90%.
... Even ordinary paraffin-based glide waxes cause a health hazard. From (Dahlqvist et al., 1992): "Transfer factor for the lung ("diffusion capacity") decreased among the ski waxers by 10-24 percent compared to the initial value", from (Hämeri et al., 1994): "Many of the harmful aspects of aerosol particles are connected to accumulation mode particles, which are produced during ski waxing. This particle size range is specially harmful when thinking of possible health effects due to inhalation", from (Knöpfli et al., 1992): "The subjects complained about burning eyes and tears, sore throat and coughing" and "In summary a reduction of the CO-diffusion capacity after inhalation hot wax exposure was observed for at least 24 hours". ...
... How smart is to exercise strenuously for a long period, but then destroy everything because glide waxing? And (Dahlqvist et al., 1992, Knöpfli et al., 1992 conclusion corresponds well to the reality. For example, in a newspaper article from the Länstidningen in Östersund (December 2006) we read a story about an elite skiers who had the capacity to win tomorrow's race ("... which is now fully geared to be one of the Swedish World Championship squad for Japan 2007"), but after "Many hours of waxing for "saturation" of the skis ..." became only 14 th . ...
Article
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There is a large group of performance-enhancing substances, that are both harmful to health and the environment hostile, but no one will prohibit those substances. Even more surprising, that in the environmentally friendly (de jure) Sweden, are no discussion about this. No discussion regarding this paradoxical and absurd situation: ski preparation for a skiing trip or a skiing competition must include environmental and health risks.
... Även vanliga paraffinbaserade glidvallor orsakar en hälsofara. Ur (Dahlqvist et al., 1992): "Transfer factor for the lung ("diffusion capacity") decreased among the ski waxers by 10-24 percent compared to the initial value", ur (Hämeri et al., 1994): "Many of the harmful aspects of aerosol particles are connected to accumulation mode particles, which are produced during ski waxing. This particle size range is specially harmful when thinking of possible health effects due to inhalation.", ur (Knöpfli et al., 1992): "The subjects complained about burning eyes and tears, sore throat and coughing" and "In summary a reduction of the CO-diffusion capacity after inhalation hot wax exposure was observed for at least 24 hours". ...
... glidvallningen? Och (Dahlqvist et al., 1992, Knöpfli et al., 1992 slutsatsen stämmer bra med verkligheten. Till exempel, i en tidnings artikel från Länstidningen i Östersund (december 2006) kan vi läsa en berättelse om en elitskidåkare som hade kapacitet att vinna morgondagens tävling ("… som nu satsar allt på att vara en i den svenska VM-truppen till Japan 2007"), men efter "Många timmar i vallningsboden för "mättning" av skidor…" blev det bara 14 plats. ...
Article
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Oerhört underligt, att i miljövänlig Sverige förs ingen diskussion om hälsofarlig och miljöfientlig glidvallning. Ingen diskussion om denna paradoxal och absurd situation, att förberedelsen inför en skidtur eller en skidtävling måste inkludera till och med miljö- och hälsorisker.
... People who wax their ski could absorb PFAS in their body, which can lead to health problems in the long term (Crawford et al., 2022;Dahlqvist et al., 1992;Freberg et al., 2010;Gomis et al., 2016;Paris-Davila et al., 2023). Moreover, PFAS applied in ski wax abrade onto snow during use, which contaminates the environment (Carlson and Tupper, 2020;Chropeňová et al., 2016;Müller et al., 2023;Plassmann and Berger, 2013;Plassmann et al., 2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are often environmentally exposed via discharge through human consumer products, such as ski waxes. In our study we analyzed various ski waxes from the 1980s and 2020s, to determine both the sum parameter values total fluorine (TF), extractable organically bound fluorine (EOF), hydrolysable organically bound fluorine (HOF) as well as targeted PFAS analysis. This showed that modern high performance waxes contain up to 6 % TF, but also PFAS-free labelled ski waxes contain traces of PFAS with EOF/HOF values in the low mg kg-1 range. With the ban of all fluorine-based waxes with the start of the 2023/2024 winter season this will probably change soon. Moreover, we applied our analysis methods to snow samples from a frequently used cross country ski trail (Kammloipe) in the Ore Mountain region in Germany, assessing the potential PFAS entry/discharge through ski waxes. Melted snow samples from different spots were analyzed by the adsorbable organically bound fluorine (AOF) sum parameter and PFAS target analysis and confirmed the abrasion of the ski waxes into the snow. Moreover, on a PFAS hotspot also soil samples were analyzed, which indicate that PFAS from the ski waxes adsorb after snow melting into the soil.
... Perhaps, it can be used just for the temporal smoothing of the ski running surface. Also, the use of the glide waxes because of high environmental [109][110][111] and health risks [112][113][114][115][116][117] might have to be re-considered. ...
Article
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It is no doubt, that the ski glide over the snow is a very complicated object of research. However, ski glide is just a one area of many other areas of human knowledge. As a rule, the scientists and practitioners, who work in these areas, operate with some publicly expressed more or less solid hypotheses. These researchers work with one hypothesis until another and a better one comes up. Our literature studies and our own observations regarding modern skis preparations, did not give us any solid hypotheses, which are able to explain the actual form and content of this procedure. The present work is an attempt to reveal such hypotheses. Conclusion: To achieve an optimal glide on skis with the base (the ski sole) made of some high hydrophobic durable polymer, e.g. UHMWPE, PTFE; we only have to create an adequate topography (texture) on the ski running surface, adequate to the actual snow conditions.
... Ces mêmes imperméabilisants ont pu être aussi à l'origine d'accidents graves en teinturerie/pressing [5]. Des manifestations respiratoires chez des préparateurs de skis après utilisation de farts fluorés ont été rapportées, notamment dans la littérature d'origine scandinave [6,7,8]. Un cas de syndrome de détresse respiratoire de l'adulte (SDRA) a été décrit en Suisse après fartage intensif [9]. ...
Article
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Objective Three cases of polymer fume fever after intensive waxing of snowboards with fluorinated ski-waxes are reported. These poisonings are very uncommon among ski technicians, as in practionners who often do the waxing by themselves. Predisposing exposure conditions are underlined. Case reports Three previously healthy snowboard instructors developed typical polymer fume fever after intensive waxing in an enclosed room. Fever up to 39.3 °C with chills, cough, and breathlessness at rest rapidly occurred, and required hospitalization for supportive treatment, oxygen administration and pulmonary oversight. All were hypoxic at admission, two with abnormal findings on chest X-ray. The following day, all of them had fully recovered. Discussion Ski or snowboard waxing with fluorinated ski waxes is a very common and usually safe activity. In these three cases, intensive waxing in a poorly ventilated room, and especially active smoking are responsible for the disease. Inhalation of the pyrolysis by-products of the fluorocarbon resins in contact with the burning cigarette induces cytokine from alveolar macrophages. A review of the literarure is proposed.
... The gliders melt and to some extent evaporate during heating, and when cooled, they will nucleate and form small particles that will grow by condensation and coagulation (3). Aerosol concentrations from 0.62 to 2.36 mg/m 3 generated during the heating process have been measured previously (4). ...
Article
The concentration levels of 11 perfluorinated carboxylic (PFCA) and eight sulfonic (PFSA) acids were determined in the serum of 13 professional ski waxers. The same components were also determined in workroom aerosols and in fluoro containing solid ski waxes and ski wax powders. The highest median concentration (50 ng/mL) was detected for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which is around 25 times higher than the background level. For the first time perfluorotetradecanoic acid (PFTeDA) has been found in human serum. Positive statistically significant associations between years exposed as ski waxer and seven different PFCAs were observed. The serum concentrations of the PFCAs with carbon chain lengths from C(8) to C(11) were reduced by around five to 20% on average during the eight month exposure free interval, whereas the reduction was substantially larger when the carbon chain lengths were smaller than C(8) or larger than C(11). This study links for the first time PFCAs in the ski waxers serum to exposure from the work room aerosols. Not only professional ski waxers but also the significant larger group of amateur skiers and waxers are potentially exposed to these compounds.
Article
Background Skiers and snowboarders apply waxes and solvents to their equipment to enhance glide across the snow. Waxing results in exposures to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and particulate matter, which have been associated with adverse health effects among professional wax technicians in Scandinavia. However, little is known about exposure among people who participate at other levels of sport, including recreationally, in other regions. Objective We sought to characterize wax-related exposures among US skiers and snowboarders who participate across numerous levels of sport to expand scientific understanding of environmental health risks among this population. Methods We used an anonymous electronic survey to evaluate wax-related exposures among US cross-country and downhill skiers and snowboarders. Specifically, we assessed (Fang et al., 2020): duration of time involved with each sport in any role (Freberg et al., 2013), intensity of wax-related exposures based on time spent in waxing areas, wax use, and wax type (Rogowski et al., 2007), frequency of fluorinated wax application, and (Freberg et al., 2010) use of exposure interventions. Results Participants tended to be long-term winter sports enthusiasts (e.g., median downhill skiing duration: 31 years). Nearly all (92%) participants personally applied some wax to their skis/snowboards and most applied waxes containing PFAS (67%) and solvents (62%). Ski professionals waxed the most pairs of skis with fluorinated waxes annually (median (IQR): 20 (1, 100)), though individuals participating recreationally also applied fluorinated waxes regularly. Exposure interventions were not widely used. Significance Waxing activities may pose significant risk of exposure to PFAS and other environmental contaminants among the US ski and snowboard community. Efforts are needed to reduce these exposures through changes to wax use patterns and broader adoption of exposure reduction strategies.
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There is a possibility of exposure to ambient nanoparticles. In the atmospheric environment, an increase in nanoparticles, due to traffic was observed in the roadside area during rush hour. Diesel engines release a large number of nanoparticles. Due to their extremely small size, nanoparticles have new chemical, electrical, optical magnetic properties, and a different correspondence to external stimuli (light, heat, voltage, and etc), compared with larger particles. Manufactured nanoparticles are utilized in a variety of industrial fields such as chemistry, electronics, cosmetics, medicine, food, and environmental technology. The possibility of exposure to these nanoparticles in workplaces might increase. However, little has been done regarding exposure assessment and the assessment of health effects of both ambient and manufactured nanoparticles. In this paper, the present status and issues of exposure and an assessments of the health effect of nanoparticles have been taken up as topics. Regarding the exposure assessment, further studies on the possibilities of exposure in atmospheric environment and workplaces, selection of appropriate indices of exposure and development of methods for measurement of the metrics under consideration of life cycles of nanomaterials are needed. For the evaluation of the health effect assessment, behavior and translocation of nanomaterials and toxicological assessment under consideration of physico-chemical properties of nanomaterials and development of exposure methods for assessing the toxicity, are needed.
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The formation processes and the final size distributions of airborne particles produced by ski waxing with fluor-powder were investigated. For the present study the flow system for controlled production of inhalable particles from ski wax was constructed. The particle formation was studied as a function of time and temperature. The particle size distributions were obtained using both electrical (DMA) and optical method (OPC). The mean diameter of particles was some hundred nanometers and the mass concentration was found to be tens of milligrams per m3 in maximum.
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Previous reports show that professional ski waxers have elevated blood levels of perfluorinated substances (PFAS) such as perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and are exposed to very high concentrations of PFAS in air during ski waxing. Aerosol exposure increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, and PFOA is a potential hormonal disruptor and carcinogen, and can affect the fatty acid metabolism. Animal studies have shown that 8:2 FTOH can undergo biotransformation to PFOA. For the first time, this study presents an occupational scenario of professional ski waxers who are exposed to extremely high dust levels as well as per- and polyfluorinated compounds. Personal and fixed measurements of total aerosol, inhalable and respirable fractions were performed during World Cup events 2007-2010. The occupational exposure limit (OEL) is exceeded in 37% of the personal measurements with concentrations up to 15 mg m(-3) in air. There are differences between personal and area total aerosol concentrations with levels from personal measurements twice as high as those from the area measurements. The personal levels for FTOH ranged up to 996 μg m(-3) (mean = 114 μg m(-3)) and for PFOA up to 4.89 μg m(-3) (mean = 0.53 μg m(-3)) in ENV+ sorbent samples as compared to the general exposure levels from air reaching only low ng m(-3) (<30 ng m(-3)) levels. FTOHs were not detected in aerosols but PFOA showed an average level of 12 μg m(-3) (range = 1.2-47 μg m(-3)). The ski waxers' exposure to paraffin fumes and PFAS is not in compliance with the occupational exposure standards and by far exceed the general populations' exposure. Preventive measures must be taken to minimize the exposure in this occupational group.
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A time trend study focusing on ski waxing technicians' exposure to perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) from fluorinated wax fumes was performed in 2007/2008. Levels of eight perfluorocarboxylates and three perfluorosulfonates were analyzed in monthly blood samples from eight technicians. Samples were collected before the ski season, i.e., preseason, then at four FIS World Cup competitions in cross country skiing, and finally during an unexposed 5-month postseason period. The perfluorinated carboxylates perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) bioaccumulate, and continued exposure may contribute to elevated levels in ski technicians compared to the general population. The wax technicians' median blood level of PFOA is 112 ng/mL compared to 2.5 ng/mL in the general Swedish population. A significant correlation was found between number of working years and levels of perfluorocarboxylates. The PFOA levels in three technicians with "low" initial levels of PFOA (<10.0 ng/mL in preseason blood) increased by 254, 134, and 120%, whereas five technicians with "high" initial levels (>100 ng/mL in preseason sample) were at steady state. PFHxA is suggested to have a short half-life in humans relative the other perfluorocarboxylates. The levels of perfluorosulfonates were unaffected by the wax exposure.
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Acute temporary changes in lung function may be of use as a biological exposure indicator. However, studies of humans occupationally exposed to complex airborne irritants are often expensive and time demanding. Therefore, an animal model could be a valuable complement. A rabbit model has been evaluated where transfer factor was measured twice during the same day, and with the rabbit awake and available for exposure, in between. Anaesthesia and intubation in 22 rabbits (2–6 [0–2] kg [Mean (SD)]) were immediately followed by two measurements of transfer factor and alveolar volume. Transfer factor was estimated by the single breath CO-technique used in humans. The samples were analysed for CO and He on a gas chromatograph. After one pair of measurements the rabbit was allowed to wake up and after 5 h the duplicate measurements were repeated. The mean values of transfer factor, alveolar volume and transfer constant were 0–50 (0–09) mmol min-1 kPa-1, 127 (8) ml and 3–9 (0–6) mmol min-1 kPa-11-1, respectively. The intraindividual coefficients of variation were 7-3%, 5-3% and 6–7%, respectively. Five hours later when the duplicate measurements were repeated, transfer factor, alveolar volume and transfer constant were unchanged still. The results suggest that relatively small changes in transfer factor may be detected without losing power, and thus that this model could be used as a biological exposure indicator.
Article
Heating of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) has been described to release fumes containing ultrafine particles (approximately 18 nm diam). These fumes can be highly toxic in the respiratory tract inducing extensive pulmonary edema with hemorrhagic inflammation. Fischer-344 rats were exposed to PTFE fumes generated by temperatures ranging from 450 to 460 degrees C for 15 min at an exposure concentration of 5 x 10(5) particles/cm3, equivalent to approximately 50 micrograms/m3. Responses were examined 4 hr post-treatment when these rats demonstrated 60-85% neutrophils (PMNs) in their lung lavage. Increases in abundance for messages encoding the antioxidants manganese superoxide dismutase and metallothionein (MT) increased 15- and 40-fold, respectively. For messages encoding the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines: inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin 1 alpha, 1 beta, and 6 (IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, and IL-6), macrophage inflammatory protein-2, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha) increases of 5-, 5-, 10-, 40-, 40-, and 15-fold were present. Vascular endothelial growth factor, which may play a role in the integrity of the endothelial barrier, was decreased to 20% of controls. In situ sections were hybridized with 33P cRNA probes encoding IL-6, MT, surfactant protein C, and TNF alpha. Increased mRNA abundance for MT and IL-6 was expressed around all airways and interstitial regions with MT and IL-6 demonstrating similar spatial distribution. Large numbers of activated PMNs expressed IL-6, MT, and TNF alpha. Additionally, pulmonary macrophages and epithelial cells were actively involved. These observations support the notion that PTFE fumes containing ultrafine particles initiate a severe inflammatory response at low inhaled particle mass concentrations, which is suggestive of an oxidative injury. Furthermore, PMNs may actively regulate the inflammatory process through cytokine and antioxidant expression.
Article
The objective of this study was to determine whether pulmonary function is acutely affected by moderate exposure to ski waxing. Ten healthy nonsmoking young adult volunteers were exposed to 45 min of ski waxing in a small unventilated room. The exposure occurred in pairs with one individual performing the waxing while the other overlooked the waxing process. During the period of waxing, two pairs of cross-country skis were waxed with a paraffin wax and then scraped and brushed, and two pairs of cross-country skis were waxed with a fluorinated wax and then brushed. Spirometry and single-breath carbon monoxide lung diffusion capacity (DLCO) were measured immediately before and after exposure to ski waxing, and again 5-6 h after waxing. A subset of five subjects repeated the measurements on a separate day without receiving exposure to ski waxing. Data were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVA. Exposure to ski waxing induced no significant changes in spirometry and DLCO measurements. We conclude that moderate exposure to ski waxing has no significant acute effect on lung function.
Article
Both acute and chronic impairments of lung function have been demonstrated in humans after exposure to diesel exhaust. The concentration of soot particles in the diesel exhaust is significantly related to its effects on health. The aim of the present analysis was to study the relationship between the concentration of respirable dust as an indicator of exposure to soot particles in diesel exhaust and a biologic exposure indicator variable, i.e., transient lung function decrease. Daily time-weighted average concentrations of carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide amounted to 9 % and 25% of the applicable hygienic limit values. Time-weighted average concentration and the proportion of respirable dust in total dust during a workshift were significantly correlated with across-shift decreases in lung function. In the absence of a suitable measure for total diesel exhaust exposure, the ratio of the proportion of respirable dust in total dust in a workplace may serve as an indicator of the concentration of soot particles in diesel exhaust.
Article
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) fumes consisting of large numbers of ultrafine (uf) particles and low concentrations of gas-phase compounds can cause severe acute lung injury. Our studies were designed to test three hypotheses: (i) uf PTFE fume particles are causally involved in the induction of acute lung injury, (ii) uf PTFE elicit greater pulmonary effects than larger sized PTFE accumulation mode particles, and (iii) preexposure to the uf PTFE fume particles will induce tolerance. We used uf Teflon (PTFE) fumes (count median particle size approximately 16 nm) generated by heating PTFE in a tube furnace to 486 degrees C to evaluate principles of ultrafine particle toxicity. Teflon fumes at ultrafine particle concentrations of 50 microg/m(3) were extremely toxic to rats when inhaled for only 15 min. We found that when generated in argon, the ultrafine Teflon particles alone are not toxic at these exposure conditions; neither were Teflon fume gas-phase constituents when generated in air. Only the combination of both phases when generated in air caused high toxicity, suggesting either the existence of radicals on the surface or a carrier mechanism of the ultrafine particles for adsorbed gas compounds. Aging of the fresh Teflon fumes for 3.5 min led to a predicted coagulation to >100 nm particles which no longer caused toxicity in exposed animals. This result is consistent with a greater toxicity of ultrafine particles compared to accumulation mode particles, although changes in particle surface chemistry during the aging process may have contributed to the diminished toxicity. Furthermore, the pulmonary toxicity of the ultrafine Teflon fumes could be prevented by adapting the animals with short 5-min exposures on 3 days prior to a 15-min exposure. Messages encoding antioxidants and chemokines were increased substantially in nonadapted animals, yet were unaltered in adapted animals. This study shows the importance of preexposure history for the susceptibility to acute ultrafine particle effects.
Article
A review of the physical characteristics of sulfur-containing aerosols, with respect to size distribution of the physical distributions, sulfur distributions, distribution modal characteristics, nuclei formation rates, aerosol growth characteristics, and in situ measurement, has been made. Physical size distributions can be characterized well by a trimodal model consisting of three additive lognormal distributions. When atmospheric physical aerosol size distributions are characterized by the trimodal model, the following typical modal parameters are observed: 1. 1. Nuclei mode - geometric mean size by volume, DGVa from 0.015 to 0.04 μm, σgn, = 1.6, nuclei mode volumes from 0.0005 over the remote oceans to 9μm3 cm-3 on an urban freeway. 2. 2. Accumulation mode - geometric mean size by volume, DGVa, from 0.15 to 0.5μm, σgn = 1.6-2.2 and mode volume concentrations from 1 for very clean marine or continental backgrounds to as high as 300μm3cm-3 under very polluted conditions in urban areas. 3. 3. Coarse panicle mode - geometric mean size by volume, DGVa, from 5 to 30 μm, σgn, = 2-3. and mode volume concentrations from 2 to 1000 μm3 cm-3. It has also been concluded that the fine particles (Dp < 2 μm) are essentially independent in formation, transformation and removal from the coarse particles (Dp> 2μm). Modal characterization of impactor-measured sulfate size distributions from the literature shows that the sulfate is nearly all in the accumulation mode and has the same size distribution as the physical accumulation mode distribution. Average sulfate aerodynamic geometric mean dia. was found to be 0.48 ± 0.1 μm (0.37 ± 0.1 μm vol. dia). and ν = 2.00 ± 0.29. Concentrations range from a low of about 0.04 μg m -3 over the remote oceans to over 80μm-3 under polluted conditions over the continents. Review of the data on nucleation in smog chambers and in the atmosphere suggests that when SO2 is present, SO2-to-aerosol conversion dominates the Aitken nuclei count and, indirectly, through coagulation and condensation, the accumulation mode size and concentration. There are indications that nucleation is ubiquitous in the atmosphere, ranging from values as low as 2 cm-3 h-1' over the clean remote oceans to a high of 6 × 106 cm -3 h-1' in a power plant plume under sunny conditions. There is considerable theoretical and experimental evidence that even if most of the mass for the condensational growth of the accumulation mode comes from hydrocarbon conversion, sulfur conversion provides most of the nuclei.
Article
A high speed automated machining process on gray iron has been functioning over a period of 70 months with a variety of coolant-lubricant-additives used. The author followed 118 employees for variable lengths of time, with 12 having a 70-month exposure period. To date, no significant chest x-ray, pulmonary function, lung cytology, or liver function abnormalities have been discovered. Any respiratory symptomatology seems to be related to either smoking or preexisting respiratory pathology. This is the initial report of an on-going surveillance program.
Article
A 64-year-old woman died after 12 years of progressive pulmonary disease which was initially diagnosed as sarcoidosis but later correctly identified as mineral oil pneumonia due to insufflation of paraffin instilled as nasal drops. In view of the potential damaging effect of liquid paraffin on the lungs, the current indications for its use must be strongly questioned.