Article

Comparison of nutritional composition and anti-nutrient status of fermented, germinated and roasted bambara groundnut seeds (Vigna subterranea)

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Abstract

Purpose This paper seeks to demonstrate that the nutritional composition of bambara groundnut (BG) seeds can be influenced when subjected to three traditional processing methods (i.e. fermentation, roasting, and germination). Design/methodology/approach Proximate, minerals, amino acids and antinutritional factors of each of the processed food samples were investigated using AOAC methods. The results of the study were as follows: For the proximate analysis, moisture content ranged between: 1.50‐2.16 g/100 g; fat 6.02‐6.57 g/100 g; protein 20.00‐20.49 g/100 g; ash 1.17‐3.46 g/100 g; carbohydrate 65.82‐68.74 g/100 g and energy 400.2‐412.18kcal. For the minerals composition, calcium ranged between 14.12± 0.01‐18.26±0.01 mg/100 g, potassium 57.61±0.01‐80.62±0.02 mg/100 g, magnesium 50.47± 0.01‐69.34±0.02 mg/100 g, sodium 19.05±0.01‐25.97±0.01 mg/100 g, iron 0.15±0.01‐0.48± 0.01 mg/100 g, selenium 0.00±0.00‐0.21±0.01 mg/100 g and phosphorus 164.73±0.01‐187.13± 0.01 mg/100 g, while the Ca/P and Na/K ratios of the food samples range between 0.10±0.01‐0.19±0.01 and 0.30±0.01‐0.35±0.01 respectively. The total amino acid and percentage of total essential amino acid for children and adults were higher in germinated BG seed flour than fermented and roasted BG flour respectively. Findings The findings were that the antinutritional content of fermented bambara groundnut seed flour was low compared with germinated and roasted bambara groundnut seed flour. Research limitations/implications The protein content of fermented bambara groundnut flour was higher and also had a low level of antinutritional factors compared with other processed bambara groundnut flour. In view of these, further study may be conducted to establish the suitability of incorporating the fermented bambara groundnut flour into weaning food. Originality/value The study showed that these traditional processing methods, that is, fermentation, germination and roasting, influenced the nutritional composition of bambara groundnut seeds.

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... Only a few studies dealt with the processing of Bambara groundnut. Apart from cooking [129], enumerated processing techniques include dehulling [83], milling [83,130,132], fermentation [130,176], roasting [83,130,176], soaking [83,129,154], infrared heating [129], steaming [83] and boiling [128]. Bambara groundnut seeds have been processed, among others, into flour [96,130,132,154,205], starch [96], and milk powder [125]. ...
... Only a few studies dealt with the processing of Bambara groundnut. Apart from cooking [129], enumerated processing techniques include dehulling [83], milling [83,130,132], fermentation [130,176], roasting [83,130,176], soaking [83,129,154], infrared heating [129], steaming [83] and boiling [128]. Bambara groundnut seeds have been processed, among others, into flour [96,130,132,154,205], starch [96], and milk powder [125]. ...
... The majority of the articles chosen for discussion on food security in connection with Bambara groundnut focus on its role in nutrition, emphasising food utilisation. Many authors underline the outstanding nutritional quality and profile of Bambara groundnut [58,71,90,93,105,128,133,141,150,154,157,163,176] to justify the need for its promotion. Bambara groundnut is rich in proteins [46,59,71,83,90,[132][133][134]150,154,176] and minerals [46,59,71,83,90,150,176,189]. ...
Article
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While Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) originates from Africa and the list of producers is topped by African countries, it is not clear whether research is developed enough to support crop promotion in the continent. Thus, this systematic review of 180 articles presents a comprehensive summary of research on Bambara groundnut (BGN) in Africa. The paper addresses bibliographical metrics, the geographic distribution of the research and themes covered (viz., food and nutrition security, climate resilience, and livelihoods). The analysis shows that BGN can help address different challenges in Africa, such as food and nutrition insecurity and poverty. However, it also highlights gaps in the research from geographical and thematic standpoints. Geographically speaking, the most important producers of BGN in Africa are not sufficiently covered in the research; instead, it is mainly carried out in Nigeria and South Africa. Thematically speaking, the gaps are related to economics and social sciences, the use of BGN in animal production, processing and marketing, irrigation, contribution to climate resilience and livelihoods, and health benefits. Collaborative research and knowledge sharing, including among producing countries and those leading the research field, are highly needed to unlock the potential of BGN and boost its contribution to sustainable development in Africa.
... There is little research on the fermentation-induced changes in the amino acid composition of BG (Adebiyi, Njobeh, and Kayitesi 2019;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009). Adebiyi, Njobeh, and Kayitesi (2019) observed an improvement in the content of some essential (isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine) and non-essential amino acids (arginine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, and proline) in the 84 h-fermented BG (Dawadawa). ...
... Adebiyi, Njobeh, and Kayitesi (2019) observed an improvement in the content of some essential (isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine) and non-essential amino acids (arginine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, and proline) in the 84 h-fermented BG (Dawadawa). Ijarotimi and Esho (2009) reported that the naturally fermented BG flour exhibited higher levels of aspartic acid (10.12 g/100 g), isoleucine (4.05 g/100 g) and glycine (4.03 g/100 g) compared to the raw, germinated and roasted samples. Such changes in amino acid content could be due to the transamination during fermentation and/or free amino acid production by the fermenting microorganisms (Adebiyi, Njobeh, and Kayitesi 2019). ...
... In contrast, Ijarotimi and Esho (2009) reported higher carbohydrate levels (68.72%) in the 96 h-fermented BG flour compared with raw (68.52%), germinated (67.53%) and roasted (65.82%) samples. Mahamat et al. (2016) and Ola and Adewole (2019) observed elevated levels of total reducing sugar in the fermented BG-sweet potato dackere and -wheat flour blends, respectively. ...
Article
Bambara groundnut (BG) offers great potential for sustainable food and nutritional security in the face of a growing population and changing climate. However, its utilization remains restricted by the hard-to-cook phenomenon of seed and the presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs). Fermentation has been reported to enhance the nutritional value and reduce ANFs in leguminous seeds. The induced fermentation technology exhibits greater control over the process parameters and ensures the fermented product’s quality, reproducibility, and safe consumption. Hence, this review highlights the importance of fermentation technology in overcoming the challenges of processing hard-to-cook BG while retaining its nutrients and flavor. This paper also reviews the food safety measure and risks of consuming fermented BG Future research on the fermented BG’s nutrient digestibility should be of concern to unlock its full potential as human food or animal feed.
... Increases in carbohydrate levels of fermented cowpea (up to 5%) [181], fermented Bambara groundnut (0.3%) [175], fermented black bean (146%) [130], fermented lima bean (3%) [186] and fermented pigeon pea (up to 8%) [193] were reported with such trends linked to activities of enzymes during fermentation that must have led to the conversion of resistant starches to available starches; subsequently, increasing the carbohydrate contents. Different studies have reported increases and decreases in the energy content during the fermentation of legumes (Table 4). ...
... A similar mechanism for the decrease in fat contents was reported by Adebowale and Maliki [145] in fermented pigeon peas and fermented soybeans [151], and was also attributed to increased activities of the lipolytic enzymes during fermentation, which hydrolysed fat components into fatty acid and glycerol. In contrast, increases in fat levels of fermented chickpea (1.8%) [147], fermented lupin (3-11%) [150], fermented African yam bean (86%) [174], fermented Bambara groundnut (2%) [175], fermented cowpea (100-133%) [181], fermented mahogany bean (3-39%), [191] and fermented tamarind (17-48.9%) [198] have been reported ( Table 4). ...
... Adebiyi et al. [142] observed significant reductions in ANFs in unhulled dawadawa samples from Bambara groundnut-phytic acid (18.06%), oxalate (59.12%) and tannin (34.16%)-, with the reduction in phytic acid attributed to the enzymatic activity of fermenting microorganisms that degrade phytic acid or the complex(es) formed by them. In fermented Bambara groundnut flour, a decrease of 16-42% in ANFs was also observed, and this was due to the effect of the biodegradation of chemicals involved during fermentation [175]. Similarly, the traditional fermentation of tamarind seed for the production of iru (daddawa) resulted in a significant reduction in ANFs, tannin contents (75%), phytic acid contents (50%) and trypsin inhibitor activity (86%), while Bacillus pumilus, B. subtilis and B. licheniformis were implicated as the organisms responsible for fermenting the legume [89]. ...
Article
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Fermented food products, especially those derived from cereals and legumes are important contributors to diet diversity globally. These food items are vital to food security and significantly contribute to nutrition. Fermentation is a process that desirably modifies food constituents by increasing the palatability, organoleptic properties, bioavailability and alters nutritional constituents. This review focuses on deciphering possible mechanisms involved in the modification of nutritional constituents as well as nutrient bioavailability during the fermentation of cereals and legumes, especially those commonly consumed in developing countries. Although modifications in these constituents are dependent on inherent and available nutrients in the starting raw material, it was generally observed that fermentation increased these nutritive qualities (protein, amino acids, vitamins, fats, fatty acids, etc.) in cereals and legumes, while in a few instances, a reduction in these constituents was noted. A general reduction trend in antinutritional factors was also observed with a corresponding increase in the nutrient bioavailability and bioaccessibility. Notable mechanisms of modification include transamination or the synthesis of new compounds during the fermentation process, use of nutrients as energy sources, as well as the metabolic activity of microorganisms leading to a degradation or increase in the level of some constituents. A number of fermented products are yet to be studied and fully understood. Further research into these food products using both conventional and modern techniques are still required to provide insights into these important food groups, as well as for an overall improved food quality, enhanced nutrition and health, as well as other associated socioeconomic benefits.
... Bambara groundnut seeds have also been subjected to several pre-treatments such as roasting, germination and fermentation. Ijarotimi and Esho (2009) described the preparation of roasted and germinated Bambara groundnut flour. For the roasted BGN flour, clean seeds were soaked in hot water for 24 h, followed by 72 h germination inside a jute bag with intermittent addition of water at intervals of 12 h. ...
... There are reports on fermented Bambara groundnut flour (Ijarotimi 2008;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009). This was carried out by soaking cleaned sorted seeds in hot water for 48 h. ...
... This was subsequently dried and milled (0.4 mm) into a fine flour. (Ijarotimi and Esho 2009) reported pretreatments such as fermentation, roasting, germination and dehulling reduced antinutrients such as tannin, phytate and oxalate and improved the protein quality making the Bambara flour safe for consumption and utilisation in weaning food formulation. ...
Chapter
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Bambara groundnut is a traditional crop in Africa that has been widely used in the preparation of many indigenous food products. These traditional foods from Bamabara groundnut play a key role in the nutrition of people in Africa where malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency are prevalent. Traditional food systems of indigenous people of Africa are characterised by rich agricultural biodiversity which contributes significantly to satisfying daily food needs and providing secure livelihoods. Various researchers have subjected Bambara groundnut seeds to several pre-treatments such as soaking, roasting, germination and fermentation, or a combination of these treatments prior to cooking or processing into flour and resulting traditional foods. This chapter presents an overviewof traditional food uses of Bambara groundnut and outlines the various traditional food products prepared from the grains.Future studies that are required for upgrade of these traditional processing technologies for quality improvement were suggested as well as the possibility for commercialisation.
... Unlike groundnut which can be prepared for snacks in the shell, preparation of BGN as food or a snack normally occurs after shelling after which it is either roasted or boiled. Roasting is done by placing BGN seeds in a frying pan and allowing it to roast for about an hour at a temperature of about 300 °C or in fine sand for about 15-20 min at 180 °C (Ijarotimi and Esho 2009). The use of traditional roasting technique may pose some challenges as control of roasting temperature is practically impossible. ...
... Roasting has been reported to impact the proximate composition of BGN. For instance, the ash content of roasted BGN was significantly higher than ash contents of raw, fermented and germinated BGN seeds (Ijarotimi andEsho 2009). Ndidi et al. (2014) also noted that roasted BGN seeds contain significantly higher protein, carbohydrate, ash and fibre than boiled BGN seeds. ...
... In the same way, fermentation lowers the effect of anti-nutrients in BGN seeds, and enhance the presence and activity of antioxidants present (Ademiluyi and Oboh 2011). The lowering effect of fermentation on the anti-nutrients present in BGN can be ascribed to the biological degradation of anti-nutrients, resulting from a long period of steeping (Ijarotimi and Esho 2009). ...
Chapter
Bambara groundnut is a hard-to-cook underutilised pulse crop that originated from Africa and now domiciled in many parts of the world. The full potential of the crop can only be harnessed when proper post-harvest handling and storage are practiced. In this chapter, some of these post-harvest handling and storage practices which starts from on-farm drying to threshing, winnowing, milling as well as roasting, germination and malting, and fermentation are discussed. These have been documented to affect the final quality of the grain and their by-products as well as their economic benefits and importance. It is recommended that government and agricultural organizations either invest in new equipment or the adaptation of old equipment to help improve efficiencies in these practices for increased productivity in the BGN value chain so that the inherent opportunities that abound in the commercialisation of the crop can be adequately harnessed..
... reported by Ofori and Kumaga [45]. However, the mean value of 0.20 is greater than 0.046 reported by Mazahib and Nuha [46] in Sudan and 0.039 reported by Ijarotimi and Esho [47] in Nigeria. However, it is lower than the tannin content in faba beans, which is between 8 and 9% [14]. ...
... e hierarchical clustering ( Figure 2) agreed with the biplot result (Figure 1), which showed that accessions with comparable nutritional and antinutrient contents were clustered together. Divergence among BGN accessions has been successfully identified using clustering based on nutritional and antinutrient components [7,[45][46][47][55][56][57][58]. To avoid inbreeding depression, the selection of accessions for crossing should focus on divergent accessions, while proposing a few accessions for production might reduce the risk posed by biotic and abiotic pressures, particularly in stressprone areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa. ...
Article
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Bambara groundnut (BGN) fits the bill when it comes to an acceptable level of nutrient and mineral composition. BGN is a balanced food that can help eradicate food and nutritional insecurity if it is incorporated into the major food system. However, there is a large degree of variation in nutrient composition and antinutritional factors among BGN accessions. Here, we show the degree of variability of nutrient and antinutrient components such as percentage ash, moisture, protein, fat, tryptophan, tannin, and phytate contents in seeds of 95 accessions of BGN. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by correlation and principal component analysis. Clustering was done to show the relatedness between the accessions in response to the various traits. A high level of heterogeneity was observed among the accessions for the various traits studied. PC1 and PC2 show 41.2% of the total observed variations. Cluster analysis grouped accessions into four main clusters. This study was able to confirm the high level of diversity in the components of nutrients and antinutrients previously reported in BGN. The results of this study are expected to aid in identifying parent lines for improved breeding programs.
... [14; 15] observed reduction of nutrients as a result of different processing methods. The highest crude protein was reported in sprouted bambaranut (19.27%) followed by cooked bambaranut (19.20%) while the lowest was recorded in roasted bambaranut (17.61%), this result is in harmony with the earlier reports of [16,17]. Fibre content decrease drastically in the differently processed bambaranut in the following order sprouted bambaranut<roasted bambaranut<cooked bambaranut<salt treated bambaranut. ...
... The different processing methods reduced the calcium content of differently processed bambaranut as reported by [17]. The phosphorus content appreciates slightly as a result of different processing methods and this confirm the earlier reports of [16] who observed increase in the phosphorus content of differently processed bambaranut. ...
Article
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The effect of feeding differently processed bambaranut was investigated using two hundred and fifty broilers chicks. Five different processed bambaranut was used to formulate diets with raw, sprouted, salt treated, cooked and roasted bambaranut. The birds were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments replicated five times in a completely randomized block design (CRBD). Results showed at the starter phase, daily feed intake, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were statistically similar (P>0.05). At the finisher and overall phases, daily feed intake, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were significantly affected (P<0.05) by the different processing methods. Most of the carcass characteristics measured were affected (P<0.05) by the different processing methods. The hematological parameters were not affected by the different processing methods. (P>0.05). The total feed cost (N 339.62 gain) was lower in roasted bambaranut and highest in sprouted bambaranut (N416.00). The feed cost gain was highest in cooked bambaranut (N 248.20) and lowest in sprouted bambaranut (N 199.04). The different processing methods enhanced the performance of broiler chickens, however sprouted bambaranut was more efficient in enhancing the performance of broiler chickens. As such it should be recommended for poultry farmers wishing to use bambaranut as a source of protein.
... [14; 15] observed reduction of nutrients as a result of different processing methods. The highest crude protein was reported in sprouted bambaranut (19.27%) followed by cooked bambaranut (19.20%) while the lowest was recorded in roasted bambaranut (17.61%), this result is in harmony with the earlier reports of [16,17]. Fibre content decrease drastically in the differently processed bambaranut in the following order sprouted bambaranut<roasted bambaranut<cooked bambaranut<salt treated bambaranut. ...
... The different processing methods reduced the calcium content of differently processed bambaranut as reported by [17]. The phosphorus content appreciates slightly as a result of different processing methods and this confirm the earlier reports of [16] who observed increase in the phosphorus content of differently processed bambaranut. ...
Article
Full-text available
The effect of feeding differently processed bambaranut was investigated using two hundred and fifty broilers chicks. Five different processed bambaranut was used to formulate diets with raw, sprouted, salt treated, cooked and roasted bambaranut. The birds were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments replicated five times in a completely randomized block design (CRBD). Results showed at the starter phase, daily feed intake, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were statistically similar (P>0.05). At the finisher and overall phases, daily feed intake, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were significantly affected (P<0.05) by the different processing methods. Most of the carcass characteristics measured were affected (P<0.05) by the different processing methods. The hematological parameters were not affected by the different processing methods. (P>0.05). The total feed cost (N 339.62 gain) was lower in roasted bambaranut and highest in sprouted bambaranut (N416.00). The feed cost gain was highest in cooked bambaranut (N 248.20) and lowest in sprouted bambaranut (N 199.04). The different processing methods enhanced the performance of broiler chickens, however sprouted bambaranut was more efficient in enhancing the performance of broiler chickens. As such it should be recommended for poultry farmers wishing to use bambaranut as a source of protein.
... The prominent amino acids in Bambara groundnut protein were glutamic acid and aspartic acid (Aremu et al. 2006;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009;Yao et al. 2015), however, the protein is rich in essential amino acids such as isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine and valine (Aremu et al. 2006;Yao et al. 2015). Although the methionine content of Bambara groundnut is comparably higher than other legumes like soya bean (Aremu et al. 2006;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009), the groundnut still has low tryptophan content when compared with the common soya bean (Yao et al. 2015). ...
... The prominent amino acids in Bambara groundnut protein were glutamic acid and aspartic acid (Aremu et al. 2006;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009;Yao et al. 2015), however, the protein is rich in essential amino acids such as isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine and valine (Aremu et al. 2006;Yao et al. 2015). Although the methionine content of Bambara groundnut is comparably higher than other legumes like soya bean (Aremu et al. 2006;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009), the groundnut still has low tryptophan content when compared with the common soya bean (Yao et al. 2015). Interestingly, the amino acid profile of Bambara groundnut protein is well composed to meet the nutritional needs of most people in developing countries when compared with the required FAO/WHO recommended levels (Table 7.3). ...
Chapter
Bambara groundnut is a neglected and underutilized legume because its industrial potential has not been fully exploited. However, the utilization of Bambara groundnut flour in the food industry especially when composited with the starch binder has been recommended for the preparation of several novel food products such as, noodles, cookies, biscuits, gravy thickeners, etc. Hence, this book chapter reviewed and presented the chemical compositions, mode of protein extraction or isolation, production of several protein and protein-derived products from Bambara groundnut as it found applicable in food and human health applications. Several studies provided in this chapter discussed broadly about the bioactivities of the groundnut, such as antioxidants, antihypertensive (Renin-Angiotensin System inhibitors), etc., which are due to its high hydrophobicity being derived from the complex disulfide protein structure of the groundnut. The bioactivity of the Bambara groundnut proteins and its subsequent protein-derived peptides was based on the quality amino acid compositions and the uncommon peptide (protein) identification (sequence) of the groundnut. The high protein digestibility and proteomic reports in this review work also described the characteristic dominance of the acidic polypeptides in helping the efficacy of the bioactive compounds present in Bambara groundnut proteins for food and human health applications.
... Bambara groundnut protein has a good balance of the essential amino acids (Yao et al. 2015) with reasonably high levels of lysine (1.20-10.32%) and a considerable amount of methionine (0.50-6.41%) which is usually limiting in most legumes (Aremu et al. 2006;Halimi et al. 2019;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009;Kudre et al. 2013;Minka and Bruneteau 2000;Nwokolo 1987a;Oyeyinka et al. 2019). The lysine content (average of 6.00%) of Bambara groundnut protein (Arise et al. 2017) was found to be comparable to those of soya bean protein (Adebowale et al. 2002;Amonsou et al. 2012) and meal from pigeon pea (Nwokolo 1987b). ...
... The ash content in the Bambara groundnut, which reflects the inorganic residue (mineral content) of foods varied between 0.63% and 4.52% (Table 4.2). Potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and sodium are the major minerals in Bambara groundnut flour (Adeleke et al. 2018;Amarteifio and Moholo 1998;Aremu et al. 2006;Halimi et al. 2019;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009;Oyeyinka et al. 2019). The potassium and magnesium in Bambara groundnut are slightly higher to those in mung bean (Amarteifio and Moholo 1998;Halimi et al. 2019) marama bean and tepary bean (Amarteifio and Moholo 1998). ...
Chapter
The knowledge of physical properties of Bambara Groundnut is not only important in the design of equipment required for handling and processing, but also determines the potential food applications of the grains. Likewise, are the nutritional and microstructural properties that play key roles in the functionality and composition of end products. These properties of Bambara grains are interwoven and variations in them are known to significantly influence the overall grain composition. This chapter discussed the morphology, microstructure, physical properties as well as the nutritional composition (carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash and fibre) of Bambara grains. Comparisons were also made with other legumes for a better understanding of these constituents and grain structure. While few studies have been presented and discussed in this chapter further detailed studies into the properties of Bambara will provide better insights and open door for more effective food application of the grain.
... Matured Bambara groundnuts are boiled in their shells and are offered for sale, already cooked (Plate 1.1f), on roadsides and in markets in various parts of Africa (Lim 2012). No doubt, the limited utilisation of Bambara groundnut may be attributed to several factors as highlighted above, but has also been associated with other factors like the beany flavour, high levels of antinutrients and the hard-to-cook defect that prolongs cooking time (Ijarotimi and Esho 2009;Oyeyinka et al. 2017b). ...
... The grains are a cheap source of protein (15-27%) and carbohydrate (57-67%) (Adebowale et al. 2002;Sirivongpaisal 2008;Ade-Omowaye et al. 2015;Oyeyinka et al. 2015) and unlike many other legumes, it contains an appreciable amount of methionine (1.8-2.84%) (Aremu et al. 2006;Ijarotimi and Esho 2009;Kudre et al. 2013;Ade-Omowaye et al. 2015). Hence, the grain can be effectively used to improve the food and nutrition security status of rural households (Mubaiwa et al. 2018). ...
Chapter
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) is a legume that originated from West Africa but has become widely distributed throughout the semi-arid zone of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Hillocks et al. 2012) and some regions in Southeast Asia like Indonesia and Thailand (Mayes et al. 2019). Bambara groundnut derived its name from a tribe in Mali called “Bambara” (Murevanhema and Jideani 2015; Yao et al. 2015). It is the third most important legume in the semi-arid Africa after groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (Bamshaiye et al. 2011). The Bambara plant is an erect- bushy or prostrate annual herb that could reach between 10 and 15 cm in height. The plant is highly branched with hairy stems having short internodes and a well-developed taproot with profuse geotropic lateral roots bearing nitrogen-fixing nodules (Lim 2012). The pods are ellipsoid-globular and can have varying lengths between 1.5 and 2.5 cm with one seed per pod (Plate 1.1a). The grains of Bambara groundnut come in different shapes, sizes and colours (Plate 1.1b–e) (Oyeyinka 2017) and may have up to seven varieties differentiated by their colour ranging from black, red to cream/black (Oyeyinka and Oyeyinka 2018).
... Bambara groundnut is rich in essential amino acids (Ijarotimi & Esho, 2009). Bambara groundnut seed consists of 49%-63.5% carbohydrate, 15%-25% protein, 4.5%-7.4% fat, 5.2%-6.4% fibre, 3.2%-4.4% ...
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In an attempt to improve the nutritional value of pankoto (a steamed cassava-overripe plantain pudding), it was supplemented with Bambara groundnut flour and the effect of its supplementation on the physicochemical and sensory properties of pankoto was evaluated. Six blends were formulated for the production of pankoto in the ratios of plantain:pupuru:Bambara; 150:50:0 (PPA), 150:45:5(PPB), 150:40:10 (PPC), 150:35:15 (PPD), 150:30:20 (PPE), 150:25:25 (PPF). Standard methods were used to carry out all the analyses. Incorporating Bambara groundnut flour at 10–50% levels increased the protein and crude fibre from 9.03%-11.23% and 2.05–2.22% respectively, while the carbohydrate content ranged from 66.16%-72.56%. The values ranged from 7.02–10.04%, 3.22–4.20% and 6.13–6.74% for fat, ash and moisture, respectively. The water absorption, oil absorption and swelling capacities were low with values ranging from 2.61–3.09%, 2.18–2.51% and 60–85%, respectively. Sensory attributes of sample PPF (150:25:25) had the highest preference in terms of appearance, taste, aroma and general acceptability.
... Bambara groundnut is the third most important grain legume in terms of production and consumption after groundnuts (peanuts) and cowpeas (Chinma et al., 2023;Hamadou et al., 2022;Ijarotimi & Esho, 2009;Maesen & Somaatmadja, 1989;Mune Mune et al., 2018). The production of Bambara groundnut has recently gained attention on a global scale due to its potential as a resilient and nutritious crop. ...
... The Bambara groundnut is often referred to as a complete food due to its balanced composition of macronutrients (Tan et al., 2020), and its energy value is higher than that of the cowpea (FAO, 1982;Ogwu et al., 2018). Its protein content, particularly essential amino acids such as methionine, is also higher than that of other legumes (Ijarotimi & Esho, 2009). Therefore, this crop has great potential for supplementation with cereals such as sorghum. ...
... These findings align with previous studies by Olaleye et al. [31] and Chelangat et al. [12]. However, the results were relatively higher compared to the values reported by Aremu et al. [32] and Ijarotimi and Esho [33]. Among the different cultivars, the black variegated with beige (NPB) cultivar exhibited the highest levels of potassium and sodium. ...
Article
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The aim of this study was to assess the mineral content of bambara groundnut seeds in the Northern regions of Côte d'Ivoire and evaluate their nutritional value. A total of 120 bambara groundnut samples were collected from five regions and categorized into seven cultivars based on seed coat color. The seeds were then analyzed at the Nutrition and Food Technology Laboratory of Félix Houphouet-Boigny National Polytechnic Institute using energy dispersive spectrophotometry. The analysis revealed the presence of macro elements, including potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus, with varying concentrations. The microelements zinc, iron, manganese, and copper were also found in the seeds. The contribution of these minerals to daily intake requirements ranged from 0.11% to 20.94%. However, zinc was found to have a higher need for adequate intake. These findings indicate that bambara groundnut seeds, regardless of cultivar, are a good source of essential minerals. Promoting the consumption of bambara groundnut could help address food security and poverty alleviation in the region. Furthermore, these results emphasize the importance of this underutilized legume in combating hunger and malnutrition in Africa.
... It is widely cultivated for consumption and can be consumed in many ways, eaten fresh, or grilled while immature, the fresh pods are boiled with salt and pepper and eaten as a snack in many west African countries [16]. Owing to its chemical composition, bambara groundnut is highly nutritious and has been termed a complete food [17]. ...
Article
Aim: This research was carried out to examine the inhibitory activity of protein isolate from bambara groundnut on alpha-amylase and lipase in vitro, and to study the effect of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the enzymes in vitro. Place and Duration of Study: Department of Biochemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria between August 2019 and January 2020. Methodology: Protein was isolated from bambara groundnut using alkaline extraction (isoelectric precipitation). Alpha-amylase and pancreatic lipase inhibitory assays were performed using starch solution and a stock solution of PNPB (p-nitrophenyl butyrate) as substrates respectively. The effect of variation of substrate concentration, temperature and pH on the inhibition of alphaamylase and pancreatic lipase activity was also studied. Results: At a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL, the protein isolate from Bambara groundnut exhibited 91% inhibition of alpha-amylase activity with an IC50value of 0.40±1.85 mg/mL (in comparison with acarbose which exhibited 86% inhibition at the same concentration) and 91% inhibition of lipase activity with an IC50value of 0.73±3.7 mg/mL (in comparison with Orlistat which exhibited 97% inhibition at the same concentration). The most favorable temperature for the inhibition of alphaamylase and lipase was 40°C. The optimum pH for alpha-amylase and lipase inhibitory activity was 10.5 and 9.0 respectively. Conclusion: These results showed the presence of alpha-amylase and pancreatic lipase inhibitors in bambara groundnut which indicates that this plant can be used as a feed supplement in the control of high blood-glucose level of diabetes patients
... Te mean value of tannins between 0.011 mg/g and 0.037 mg/g observed in this study was comparable with 0.039 mg/g and 0.046 mg/g reported by Ijarotimi and Esho [72] and Mazahib et al. [73] among Bambara seeds cultivated in Nigeria and Sudan, respectively but lower than 4.5 and 15 mg CE g−1 reported by Nti [59]. Although tannins are important in defense to seeds grown in unfavorable environments [74], they lower the palatability of the crops by causing bitter taste in plants [75]. ...
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Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is a highly nutritious legume with good drought tolerance attributes and is therefore a suitable candidate for food and nutritional security especially in drought prone areas. This study was conducted to determine the nutritional and phytochemical composition of seventeen Bambara groundnut landraces that were collected from Vihiga, Kakamega, Bungoma, Busia, and Kisumu Counties in Kenya. Prior to characterization, a field experiment was set up in Ishiara Ward in Mbeere North Sub-County in Embu County for two cropping seasons to standardize and multiply the seeds. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replicates. The harvested seeds were analyzed for their proximate, nutritional, and phytochemical composition using standard procedures. The moisture content ranged from 3.47 to 6.24%, total ash from 3.17 to 4.69%, crude protein from 21.18 to 26.00%, and fats from 4.56 to 7.02%. Iron levels ranged from 4.07 to 5.13 mg/100 g, sodium from 25.14 to 129.66 mg/100 g, potassium from 819.34 to 1,131.80 mg/100 g, and zinc from 0.06 to 0.42 mg/100 g. The tannin levels ranged from 0.01 to 0.04 mg/g, saponins from 0.82 to 1.06 mg/100 g, alkaloids from 0.01 to 0.12 mg/100 g, and flavonoids from 4.07 to 8.45 mg/100 g. The landraces BG-125, BS-148, and BS-145 with relatively higher nutrients composition and those with high levels of phytochemicals such as BS-104 and MU-137 are recommended to plant breeders for further selection and production of certified seeds. These selections will also be promoted to the farmers for production through various extension programs.
... In addition, Bambara nut is rich in protein (15-27%) and carbohydrate (56-68%) (Arise et al., 2018a, Arise et al., 2021. Bambara protein contains high levels of lysine (6.5-6.8%) and a reasonable amount of methionine (1.8 g per 100 g) which is normally limiting in legumes (Arise et al., 2016, Ijarotimi andEsho, 2009). Hence, it can be potentially used in food products as a protein supplement. ...
... fiber, and 3.6-7.4% fat (Ijarotimi & Esho, 2009;Murevanhema & Jideani, 2013;Oyeyinka et al., 2018). Bambara groundnut serves as an essential source of protein in the diets of a large percentage of the population in Africa (Chandra et al., 2019). ...
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Varieties with high yield stability are required to increase the yield. This study examines the strength and adaptability of seven Bambara groundnut lines in three areas. The seven lines used are CCC 1.6, PWBG 6, PWBG 521, SS 342, SS 242, BBL 11, and TVSU 86 as checks. The research sites are Brawijaya University Experimental Station, Farmer field in Madiun and Indonesia Legumes, and Tuber Crop Research Institute (ILETRI) Research Station. Research is conducted from February to October 2020. The study used a randomized block design with three replications. The Eberhart-Russel and FinlayWilkinson methods were used to analyze stability and adaptability. The Genotype x Environmental interaction (GxE) results of the 7 Bambara groundnut lines are at 50% flowering time, seed weight per plant, 100-seed weight, yield, and harvest age. The stability and adaptability analysis shows that BBL 1.1 line is the variety with an earlier harvest period, highest yield potential, good stability, and wide adaptability. The CCC 1.1, PWBG 6, PWBG 5.2.1, and SS 2.4.2 production lines are stable in all experimental environments but low productivity. The SS 3.4.2 is suitable for planting in a production environment. TVSU 86 is ideal for producing in marginal habitats such as drought conditions.
... Adequate processing methods are required in order to eliminate the presence of these toxic elements. Scientific reports on Bambara groundnut have shown that traditional processing methods such as fermentation, germination and roasting could increase the nutrient content of Bambara groundnut seeds [56] and therefore decrease the levels of these toxic elements. ...
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Background: Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is an indigenous African leguminous crop commonly con- sumed in Ebonyi State in Nigeria. Methods: This study determined the pesticide residue content, amino acids, toxic and biogenic elements of Bambara groundnut seeds obtained from three local government areas - Abakaliki, Ikwo, and Afikpo in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The digested samples were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission (ICP-OES) for determination of minerals and toxic elements, while High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) system was used to determine the amino acids and pesticide residue content. Results: Pesticide residue content varied from 0.001 ± 0.00 to 0.598 ± 0.03 μg kg−1 in Afikpo samples, 0.001 ± 0.05 to 0.50 ± 0.01 μg kg−1 in Abakaliki samples, 0.001 ± 0.00 to 0.47 ± 0.01 μg kg−1 in Ikwo samples. Pesticide residues detected in the samples were meaningless when compared to the maximum residue limit by World Health Organization (WHO). In the amino acid analysis, the composition of the essential amino acids was higher when compared to the WHO standard. Isoleucine was found to be the most abundant in the samples studied. The total percentage of amino acids in Afikpo sample (24.7 ± 1.4) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than samples from Abakaliki (17.8 ± 1.0) and Ikwo (16.8 ± 0.1). The samples contained meaningless amounts of both macro and micro biogenic elements. Toxic elements such as lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, chromium and nickel were detected but lower than the WHO standard values. Conclusion: This study indicates that this legume may be safe for consumption.
... BB [ Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.] is the third legume, the most important in production and consumption terms after groundnuts and cowpeas ( FAO 2016 ). The plant is cultivated for its seeds rich in proteins, carbohydrates, and trace elements ( Ngui et al., 2021, Mune et al., 2007, Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009 ). ...
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This study was carried out to correlate grain legume consumption to the prevention of type II diabetes and some cardiometabolic diseases (CMD) (high blood pressure, obesity, and stroke). An exploratory survey was carried out among the population (n = 468) of the Diamaré division (Far-north, Cameroon). In addition, nutritional properties of selected grain legumes (GLs) were determined. Results showed generally that consumption of soybean, Bambara bean, and cowpea was linked to the prevention of metabolic diseases within the studied population. The nutritional properties of these GLs were also noteworthy. Remarkable protein content was noted in soybean's whole flour (WF) (38.133±0.366 g/100g DM), followed by the underutilised cultivar BVB of Bambara bean (26.434±0.366 g/100g DM). The cowpea seed has the highest total carbohydrate and vitamin C content of 59.294±0.129 g/100g DM and 327.715±0.336 µg EAA/100g DM, respectively, followed by the underutilised cultivar BVB with values of 57.696±0.097 g/100g DM and 261.951±0.376 µg EAA/100g DM. Dietary fibre content of Bambara bean seeds (18 - 28%) was higher than those of the other seeds, and probably plays important role in the prevention ability of diabetes and CMD of Bambara bean. Soybean's WF and those of the three underutilised Bambara bean cultivars contained the highest levels of total phenolic compounds and flavonoids, i.e., 206.089±0.087 mg GAE/100 DM, 143.868±0.299 mg QE/100g DM for soybean, respectively. The highest free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) was noted with the polyphenolic compounds’ extracts from soybean's WF, i.e., 21.193±0.049 µg TE/100g DM, followed by those from the underutilised BVB cultivar with a value of 16.594±0.160 µg TE/100g DM. The highest ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was obtained with soybean (34.481±0.029 µg TE/100g DM), followed by the cultivar GHB (32.036±0.076 µg TE/100g DM). The significant levels of protein, phenolic compounds, and dietary fibre in these seeds confirmed these correlations and their potential therapeutic effects and nutritional properties. Given the richness of the grain legumes in proteins and other bioactive compounds, raw materials and/or protein hydrolysates (peptides) will surely be a promising raw material for the pharmaceutical industries in the fight and/or prevention of metabolic diseases, in the fight against food insecurity, in the prevention and/or reversal of neurodegenerative diseases, and the formulation of a new functional ingredient.
... ] is the third legume, the most important in production and consumption terms after groundnuts and cowpeas [20]. The plant is cultivated for its seeds rich in proteins, carbohydrates, and trace elements [6, 21,22]. ...
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Background Grain legumes (GLs) are used in food as well as in traditional medicine due to their therapeutic properties. This study was carried out to correlate grain legume consumption to the prevention of type II diabetes and some cardiometabolic diseases (high blood pressure, obesity, and stroke). Materials and methods An exploratory survey was carried out among the population (n = 468) of Diamaré’s division (Maroua, Cameroon). A correlation study was carried out to demonstrate the link between the consumption of certain GLs and the prevention of metabolic diseases. A compositional analysis of selected GLs was performed according to the referenced methods. Results Significant correlations were observed between the consumption of soybean, Bambara beans, and cowpea and the prevention of certain metabolic diseases. Remarkable protein content was noted in soybean’s whole flour (WF) (38.133 ± 0.366 g/100g DM), followed by the underutilised cultivar BVB of Bambara bean (26.434 ± 0.366 g/100g DM). The cowpea seed has the highest total carbohydrate and vitamin C content of 59.294 ± 0.129 g/100g DM and 327.715 ± 0.336 µg EAA/100g DM, respectively, followed by the underutilised cultivar BVB with values of 57.696 ± 0.097 g/100g DM and 261.951 ± 0.376 µg EAA/100g DM. The three underutilised Bambara bean cultivars’ WF have the most remarkable dietary fibre content (18–28%). Soybean’s WF and those of the three underutilised Bambara bean cultivars contained the highest levels of total phenolic compounds and flavonoids, i.e., 206.089 ± 0.087 mg GAE/100 DM, 143.868 ± 0.299 mg QE/100g DM for soybean, respectively. The highest free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) was noted with the polyphenolic compounds’ extracts from soybean’s WF, i.e., 21.193 ± 0.049 µg TE/100g DM, followed by those from the underutilised BVB cultivar with a value of 16.594 ± 0.160 µg TE/100g DM. The most notable ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was obtained with soybean (34.481 ± 0.029 µg TE/100g DM), followed by the cultivar GHB (32.036 ± 0.076 µg TE/100g DM). Conclusion The significant levels of protein, phenolic compounds, and dietary fibre in these seeds confirmed these correlations and their potential therapeutic effects and nutritional properties.
... BGN is a complete food having different composition of carbohydrate, protein, and fat enough to serve as a balanced diet (Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009;Halimi et al., 2019;Tan et al., 2020;Majola et al., 2021;Olanrewaju et al., 2022). Further processing by fermentation also improves its nutritive and mineral components (Murevanhema and Jideani, 2013). ...
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With the rise in the world population, environmental hazards caused by chemical fertilizers, and a decrease in food supply due to global climate change, food security has become very pertinent. In addition, considerable parts of agriculture lands have been lost to urbanization. It has therefore been projected that at the present rate of population increase coupled with the other mentioned factors, available food will not be enough to feed the world. Hence, drastic approach is needed to improve agriculture output as well as human sustainability. Application of environmentally sustainable approach, such as the use of beneficial microbes, and improved breeding of underutilized legumes are one of the proposed sustainable ways of achieving food security. Microbiome-assisted breeding in underutilized legumes is an untapped area with great capabilities to improve food security. Furthermore, revolution in genomics adaptation to crop improvement has changed the approach from conventional breeding to more advanced genomic-assisted breeding on the host plant and its microbiome. The use of rhizobacteria is very important to improving crop yield, especially rhizobacteria from legumes like Bambara groundnut (BGN). BGN is an important legume in sub-Saharan Africa with high ability to tolerate drought and thrive well in marginalized soils. BGN and its interaction with various rhizobacteria in the soil could play a vital role in crop production and protection. This review focus on the importance of genomics application to BGN and its microbiome with the view of setting a potential blueprint for improved BGN breeding through integration of beneficial bacteria.
... Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean (L.) Verdc) is an important grain legume mainly grown by subsistence farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The seed is considered to be nutritionally complete (Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009;Mahala and Mohammed, 2010). Bambara groundnut grains contain approximately 49-63.5% carbohydrate, 15-25% protein, 4.50-7.40% ...
Article
Bambara groundnut is a nutritious, underutilized legume crop and has the potential to mitigate problems associated with malnutrition and food security. The objectives of this study was to characterize a Southern African Bambara groundnut germplasm collection for protein content, seleccted minerals, oil content and fatty acid composition, to identify superior accessions and determine the interrelationship between all measured characteristics. There was significant variability among the accessions for all measured traits. The average values of measured characteristics were, protein (18.89%), Fe (27.26 mg kg⁻¹), Zn (24.96 mg kg⁻¹), moisture (6.65%), fat free dry matter (86.86%) and oil (6.49%). Bambara accessions contained palmitic (22.01%), stearic (3.56%) and lignoceric acid (2.31%) as the major saturated fatty acids. Bambara accessions contained linoleic (43.61%), oleic (19.19%), α-linolenic (4.32%), and eicosatrienoic (n-6) acid (3.40%) as the major unsaturated fatty acids. Significant positive correlation of protein content and Fe with few unsaturated fatty acids were observed. Bambara accessions 86 (AS 17), 127 (MAD 3), 148 (SWAZI V5) and 174 (SB 4-4 G) were associated with high protein content, Fe and few unsaturated fatty acids. These accession could be used as potential parents for future breeding and crossing, thereby enhancing the nutritional value of Bambara groundnut in South Africa.
... It has been reported that children with primary PEM are usually found in developing countries due to an For instance, the protein isolates are the refined form of protein products containing about 80-85% protein contents unlike flour ( < 20%) and concentrates (70-74%), hence could be used for the supplementation of cereal-based foods ( Garba & Kaur, 2014 ). Interestingly, Bambara groundnut protein is composed of essential amino acid, methionine as well as lysine, which are low and lacking in other legume seed amino acid and cereals, respectively ( Ijarotimi & Esho, 2009 ;Arise & Malomo, 2021 ). Previously, the protein content of custard enriched with soya bean protein isolate increased from 0.95 to 9.99% after enrichment ( Akinwale et al., 2017 ), thus revealing the efficacy of protein isolates in aiding protein increment in processed foods. ...
Article
Custard, a sole cornstarch-made weaning food in developing country, was enriched with Bambara groundnut protein isolate (BPI) in order to increase its protein content and reduce the cases of protein energy- malnutrition (PEM) that accounted for average global deaths in children. The pasting and functional properties, proximate and amino acid compositions as well as sensory attributes of the supplemented products were determined and evaluated according to the standard methods. The CS-BPI blends had low setback (1636-1186 RVU) but high peak time (5.14-5.37 min) and pasting temperature (75.30-79.57 °C) when compared with the control sample (100% CS). Although, the functional properties of the blends significantly (p<0.05) decreased at the elevated BPI inclusion but their water interaction (WAC) and gelatinization temperature increased appropriately. Moreso, the CS-BPI blends had high essential and non-essential (∼2-8 and 3-11 g/100 g protein) but low sulphur-containing amino acids, respectively. Majorly, the carbohydrate (56.56 %) and moisture contents of the control (37.61 %) increased with elevated BPI levels in the supplemented samples (41-53%), which might be attributed to the increase in their WAC (67-91%) when compared to 100% CS (60.83%). Meanwhile, the protein content (∼12%) of the CS-BPI blends is 500-fold higher than 100% CS (2.28%). The increase in the protein contents of the blends observably led to a significant (p<0.05) decrease in the carbohydrate contents of the blend formulations. The 80% CS + 20% BPI blend was the most acceptable sample when compared to the control sample (100% CS), hence could be useful to combat PEM cases.
... However, the anti-nutritional properties of these compounds can bind to nutritional components making them completely or partially unavailable for digestion (Obasi and Agbatse, 2003). Fortunately, treatments such as dehulling, soaking, cooking, and fermentation can potentially reduce antinutritional factors and improve the bioavailability of nutrients (Obasi, 1996;Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009). In addition, KG exhibits several medicinal and therapeutic benefits according to local communities; the decoction of its seeds (mainly the Black and Brown landraces) or leaves is used to treat stomach aches (Tamini, 1995;Amujoyegbe et al., 2007;Akohoué et al., 2018). ...
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Kersting’s groundnut [Macrotyloma geocarpum (Harms.) Maréchal and Baudet], Fabaceae, is an important source of protein and essential amino acids. As a grain legume species, it also contributes to improving soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. However, the crop is characterized by a relatively low yield (≤500 kg/ha), and limited progress has been made so far, toward the development of high-yielding cultivars that can enhance and sustain its productivity. Recently, there was an increased interest in alleviating the burdens related to Kersting’s groundnut (KG) cultivation through the development of improved varieties. Preliminary investigations assembled germplasms from various producing countries. In-depth ethnobotanical studies and insightful investigation on the reproductive biology of the species were undertaken alongside morphological, biochemical, and molecular characterizations. Those studies revealed a narrow genetic base for KG. In addition, the self-pollinating nature of its flowers prevents cross-hybridization and represents a major barrier limiting the broadening of the genetic basis. Therefore, the development of a research pipeline to address the bottlenecks specific to KG is a prerequisite for the successful expansion of the crop. In this paper, we offer an overview of the current state of research on KG and pinpoint the knowledge gaps; we defined and discussed the main steps of breeding for KG’ cultivars development; this included (i) developing an integrated genebank, inclusive germplasm, and seed system management; (ii) assessing end-users preferences and possibility for industrial exploitation of the crop; (iii) identifying biotic and abiotic stressors and the genetic control of responsive traits to those factors; (iv) overcoming the cross- pollination challenges in KG to propel the development of hybrids; (v) developing new approaches to create variability and setting adequate cultivars and breeding approaches; (vi) karyotyping and draft genome analysis to accelerate cultivars development and increase genetic gains; and (vii) evaluating the adaptability and stability of cultivars across various ecological regions.
... However, the anti-nutritional properties of these compounds can bind to nutritional components making them completely or partially unavailable for digestion (Obasi and Agbatse, 2003). Fortunately, treatments such as dehulling, soaking, cooking, and fermentation can potentially reduce antinutritional factors and improve the bioavailability of nutrients (Obasi, 1996;Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009). In addition, KG exhibits several medicinal and therapeutic benefits according to local communities; the decoction of its seeds (mainly the Black and Brown landraces) or leaves is used to treat stomach aches (Tamini, 1995;Amujoyegbe et al., 2007;Akohoué et al., 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Kersting's groundnut [Macrotyloma geocarpum (Harms.) Maréchal and Baudet], Fabaceae, is an important source of protein and essential amino acids. As a grain legume species, it also contributes to improving soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. However, the crop is characterized by a relatively low yield (≤500 kg/ha), and limited progress has been made so far, toward the development of high-yielding cultivars that can enhance and sustain its productivity. Recently, there was an increased interest in alleviating the burdens related to Kersting's groundnut (KG) cultivation through the development of improved varieties. Preliminary investigations assembled germplasms from various producing countries. In-depth ethnobotanical studies and insightful investigation on the reproductive biology of the species were undertaken alongside morphological, biochemical, and molecular characterizations. Those studies revealed a narrow genetic base for KG. In addition, the self-pollinating nature of its flowers prevents cross-hybridization and represents a major barrier limiting the broadening of the genetic basis. Therefore, the development of a research pipeline to address the bottlenecks specific to KG is a prerequisite for the successful expansion of the crop. In this paper, we offer an overview of the current state of research on KG and pinpoint the knowledge gaps; we defined and discussed the main steps of breeding for KG' cultivars development; this included (i) developing an integrated genebank, inclusive germplasm, and seed system management; (ii) assessing end-users preferences and possibility for industrial exploitation of the crop; (iii) identifying biotic and abiotic stressors and the genetic control of responsive traits to those factors; (iv) overcoming the cross-pollination challenges in KG to propel the development of hybrids; (v) developing new approaches to create variability and setting adequate cultivars and breeding approaches; (vi) karyotyping and draft genome analysis to accelerate cultivars development and increase genetic gains; and (vii) evaluating the adaptability and stability of cultivars across various ecological regions.
... A nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.25 was used for the calculation of crude protein. Total carbohydrate was calculated 'by difference'-protein, lipid, ash, and moisture contents were determined and subtracted from the total weight of the sample [47,48]. Fatty acid composition of seed lipid was determined using the hydrolytic extraction gas chromatographic analysis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) method (AOAC996.06) in a Agilent 6890 Series Gas Chromatogram (Santa Clara, CA, USA) equipped with a Sephadex BPX70 capillary column (SGE054603; 50 mm × 0.22 mm ×1 µm film thickness)(Victoria, Australia) and Flame Ionised Detector (FID) (Santa Clara, CA, USA) . ...
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The underutilised grain legume bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) has the potential to contribute significantly to nutritional security. However, the lack of commercial cultivars has hindered its wider adoption and utilisation as a food source. The development of competitive cultivars is impeded by (1) lack of systematic data describing variation in nutritional composition within the gene pool, and (2) a poor understanding of how concentrations of different nutritional components interact. In this study, we analysed seed lipid and protein concentration and lipid composition within a collection of 100 lines representing the global gene pool. Seed protein and lipid varied over twofold with a normal distribution, but no significant statistical correlation was detected between the two components. Seed lipid concentration (4.2–8.8 g/100 g) is primarily determined by the proportion of oleic acid (r2 = 0.45). Yield and composition data for a subset of 40 lines were then used to test selection parameters for high yielding, high lipid breeding lines. From five selection indices tested using 15 scenarios, an index based on the seed number, seed weight, and oleic acid yielded a > 50% expected increase in each of the mean values of seed number, pod dry weight, seed dry weight, and seed size, as well as an expected 7% increase in seed lipid concentration.
... Among the most commonly consumed foods in Ebonyi State includes Abacha (African salad) and Okpa (Bambara bean pudding) due to their availability, low cost and nutritional value. These foods have been documented to possess incredible nutrients and loaded with lots of minerals and vitamins [4]. The health benefits associated with these foods include anti-glycemia, healthy bones due to the high content of calcium and phosphorus [5], cancer prevention, boost immune health, promote digestionand preventingglaucoma amongst others [5,6,7]. ...
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Introduction: Dyslipidaemia is a medical condition characterized by disorders in lipid metabolism leading to changes or abnormalities in the blood levels of lipids and lipoproteins. The type of food consumed and inactivity and/or reduced physical activities asides from medication and genetics has been widely linked to dyslipidemia. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of dyslipidemia among the students of Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki. Research Methods: The study was a cross-sectional prevalence study comprising of 200 participants who consented to the study. Fasting blood samples were collected for the estimation of total cholesterol (TChol), triglyceride (TG) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) while low-density lipoprotein was calculated using Friedewald’s equation. Anthropometric data were collected using meter rule, flexible tape and digital scale for calculation of body mass index (BMI) and waist/hip ratio (WHR). Results: The prevalence of dyslipidemia was 62%, dominated by HDL dyslipidemia (22%) and TCholdyslipidemia (21%) while other were TG dyslipidemia (11%) and LDL dyslipidemia (8%). The prevalence was higher among females than males. The differences in the levels of cholesterol within and between the different age groups were statistically not significant (p > 0.05). The levels of cholesterol were observed to increase with increasing BMI and WHR. Conclusion: The findings of this study necessitate the need for increased awareness of healthy feeding habits as well as reduction of BMI and WHR as strategies to prevent lipid-associated complications in old age.
... The chemical properties of legume products, such as nutritional and antioxidant properties, are influenced by their respective processing methods, such as germination, fermentation, soaking and dehulling (Jain et al., 2009). According to Ijarotimi and Esho (2009), the percentage of tannin of Bambara groundnuts increased after roasting. Besides that, roasting Bambara groundnuts at 120 8C for 20 min reportedly amplified the water and oil absorption of Bambara groundnut flour from 174% to 210% (Yusuf et al., 2008). ...
Article
Purpose This review provides an overview of the applications of Bambara groundnuts in various food products. The genetic diversity, physical properties and chemical compositions of the crop are also elucidated. Design/methodology/approach This paper critically reviewed the physicochemical properties and applications of Bambara groundnuts from recent literature. Findings Bambara groundnut ( Vigna subterranea ) is a drought-tolerant crop from West Africa that contains not only carbohydrates and fats but is also high in protein. The cultivars of Bambara groundnut can be distinguished by the colours of seeds, which range from red, blue-eye, brown and black-eye. Bambara groundnuts contain carbohydrate (57–67%), protein (15–25%), fat (4–8%), fibre (1.4–1.5%) and ash (2.9–4%). As a percentage of protein, the essential amino acids, lysine, methionine and cysteine are relatively high in Bambara groundnuts. Meanwhile, linoleic, palmitic and linolenic acids are the fatty acids present in this crop. Practical implications Several studies have shown that Bambara groundnuts can be used as fat substitutes, emulsifiers, water binders, bulking agents and thickeners due to its water and oil absorption properties, gelling, pasting, emulsifying and foaming abilities. Bambara groundnuts are used in the development of many intermediate or final products like flour blend, cookies, bread and fermented milk. It has a positive impact on the overall proximate, functional, mineral and amino acid profiles of the food products. Originality/value Despite its high nutrient density, Bambara groundnuts are an underutilised legume due to unavailability and lack of knowledge among consumers on its benefits. There is a need to promote the use of Bambara groundnuts as a future food.
... And for Ch-SP, roasting caused a larger decrease than microwave heating at 600 W/7 min, the reason might be that heating methods act depending on the food composition, physical and chemical properties of the food, and the exact power/temperature and duration applied (Soni et al., 2020). Makinde and Akinoso (2014) also found that roasting caused a decrease in the contents of total essential amino acids of sesame seeds, while Ijarotimi and Esho (2009) reported that the content of essential amino acids of groundnut increased after roasting. ...
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Heating is a key procedure in producing sesame paste. The effects of microwave heating and conventional roasting on the physicochemical features, protein profiles, and volatile compounds of black sesame pastes made of black sesame seeds from Burma and China were evaluated in this study. All heating treatments decreased the moisture contents of black sesame pastes, and roasting yielded lower moisture levels, although with similar chroma (p < 0.05). The samples subjected to microwave heating had remarkably lower peroxide values than those heated with roasting (p < 0.05). Chinese microwave‐heated samples had a higher nitrogen solubility index than roasting (p < 0.05). Both microwave and roasting increased the contents of the volatiles notably. SDS‐PAGE showed that the intensity of the 2–15 kDa band decreased markedly after heating and nearly diminished for roasting samples, suggesting that roasting was more remarkable for the promotion to the protein aggregation. The results indicated that the quality traits of black sesame paste not only depend on the heating methods, but also the heating power/temperature and duration, and the source of the materials.
... Thus, the efforts are aimed to improve the functionality and taste of sorghum flour by gamut of processing techniques such as germination, cooking, hydration, fermentation, roasting etc. (Singh et al., 2017). Germination enhances nutrient digestibility, vitamins and minerals' availability (Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009), dietary fiber (Singh et al., 2017), health-promoting bioactive compounds i.e. total phenolics (Chinma et al., 2015) and total flavonoids (Sharanagat et al., 2019a) etc. It also triggers enzymatic activity (proteases), breakdown of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates into simpler forms (Nout and Ngoddy, 1997), reduction/elimination of various anti-nutritional factors Department of Food Engineering, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM), Kundli, Sonepat, Haryana, India such as tannins, phytates and protease inhibitors (Sharma et al., 2015). ...
Article
Published literature shows significant impact of sorghum type and flour on end-product quality, while demonstrating paucity in the studied varieties with respect to processing aspects (such as bread making) despite of enormous accessions available worldwide. Limited studies have reported usage of germinated flour for the above said purpose. The present study thus aimed at mitigating these gaps by utilizing results of sorghum (HJ-513) germination (Day 1-5) and flour derived from optimized condition (Day 3 as identified by partial least square analysis) to develop a composite functional bread (partial replacement of wheat). The germination process enhanced the total phenolics compounds (TPC, till day 3), water (14.01%) and oil absorption capacity (25.97%) while reducing the bulk density (760.99-644.69 kg/m ³ ). This demonstrated increased potential of sorghum flour for development of bakery and confectionery products. The process also affected the pasting properties, total flavonoids compounds (TFC) and DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) significantly (p < 0.05). The bread developed from partial replacement (10% and 20%) of refined wheat flour by sorghum was hard and darker than the control wheat bread. The bread developed at 20% was more dense and porous than the bread developed with 10% replacement. Specific volume of bread at 10% replacement was found higher than at 20% replacement. The study reports effective utilization of germinated sorghum flour for development of composite-functional bread without incorporation of any other additives/improvers. Future research however is warranted in the field to further increase the replacement of wheat flour by germinated sorghum flour to develop gluten free bread.
... Bambara groundnut is regarded as the third most important legume crop after groundnut and cowpea in Africa but due to its low status, it is seen as a snack or food supplement but not a lucrative cash crop [15]. The seeds of Bambara make a nutritious and complete food due to its sufficient quantities of protein (20.5 -24.0%), carbohydrate -(54.5 -69.3%), and fat (5.3 -7.8%) with the level of essential sulphur containing amino acid higher than that found in most legumes [9]. These values are considered sufficient to make this legume a complete food. ...
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This study evaluated the proximate composition, microbial analysis and sensory properties of freshly produced 'Robo'. The melon seeds and bambara groundnut were sorted, roasted and milled into paste. The Robo samples were produced using various proportions of melon seed and Bambara groundnut flour mixes. The proximate composition of the produced 'Robo' varies from 15.18-25.69, 5.20-10.13, 23.18-39 .19, 6.52-6.94, 4.04-6.10, and 16.88-40.15% for protein, moisture, fat, crude fibre, total ash and carbohydrate contents, respectively. Microbial analysis of Robo showed that total viable count increased as substitution level with bambara groundnut increases. No growth was observed for total coliform in the samples. Sensory properties of the produced Robo indicated that sample B produced from 90% melon seeds and 10% bambara groundnut was comparable to sample A produced from 100% melon seeds in term of overall acceptability. The study shows that bambara nuts could be incorporated in the production of Robo and other snacks in order to improve their nutritional quality.
... However, they are deficient in some essential amino acids like lysine and tryptophan. These amino acids can be supplied to the food by complementing maize with legumes such as bambara groundnut, groundnuts and soybeans which are better sources of sulphur and amino acids (Okaka, 2005 have reported on the nutritional composition of bambara groundnut seeds, particularly as a protein source (Belewu et al., 2008;Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009;Oyeleke, 2012). The seed is regarded as a balanced food because when compared to most food legumes, it is rich in iron and protein, contains high lysine and methionine (Adu-Dapaah and Sangwan, 2004). ...
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This work investigated the compositional characteristics of donkwa produced from maize and bambara groundnut blends at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 50% of substitution levels of bambara groundnut. Samples were compared with donkwa prepared from60:40maize to peanut (control) as conventionally prepared and were analyzed for proximate composition, microbiology and sensory attributes. The results indicated the increasing trends with increased substitution levels with bambara groundnut for moisture (4.44-4.82%), protein (16.97-20.73%) and fibre (4.55-4.61%) contents while the decreasing trend was observed for ash (4.94-4.93%), fat (10.77-8.76%) and carbohydrate (58.32-56.13%) contents of the donkwa from maize and bambara flour mixes and the control sample. Microbial analysis indicated a decrease trend in the total viable count and an increase trend in yeast counts with increased substitution levels with bambara groundnut. No mould count was observed in the produced donkwa. Sensory attributes revealed that sample made from maize and peanut (60:40%) was most preferred, followed by sample prepared from 30% bambaragroundnut substitution, though there were no significant differences in all samples in term of other attributes except in taste. In conclusion, the produced donkwa showed increases in nutritional composition with increased in substitution levels of bambara groundnut. This suggests that bambara groundnut is a good alternative raw material for producing acceptable donkwa. Also, it is a way of improving utilization of bambara groundnut.
... Insoluble phenolics can be covalently bound to cell wall components such as cellulose (Naczk and Shahidi 2004). BGN consist of mostly soluble phenolic compounds in free and conjugated forms (Hwa 2017). The main types of phenolic compounds reported in BGN are phenolic acids, flavonoids and tannins. ...
Chapter
Bambara groundnut (BGN) is considered to be the third most important African legume because of its nutritional and health promoting properties. Specifically, phytochemicals present in BGN occur in different forms including phenolic acids, flavonoids, phytates, tannins and their derivatives. Ingestion of Bambara phytochemicals have been linked to the prevention of chronic diseases and the forms in which these bioactive phytochemicals exist directly affect their bioavailability and bioaccessibility in the body to promote different health benefits. Different food processing operations enhance the availability of these phytochemicals and aid bioconversion. The different forms, characteristic and benefits of BGN phytochemicals are discussed in this chapter.
... It is often referred to as a complete food because of its reasonably high protein content (Adebowale et al., 2002;Arise et al., 2015;Oyeyinka et al., 2015;Sirivongpaisal, 2008) and a good balance of the essential amino acids (Yao et al., 2015). The high levels of lysine (6.5-6.8%) in Bambara groundnut and the considerable amount of methionine (1.8-2.84%), which is normally limiting in most legumes, further confirm the grain as a balanced diet (Aremu et al., 2006;Kudre et al., 2013;Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009). Bambara groundnut is a drought-tolerant crop that has potentials for cultivation during extreme conditions of drought. ...
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Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) is an important grain legume crop predominantly grown in India. Changes in the microbial and chemical qualities of pigeon pea during wild (96 h) and controlled (72 h) fermentations were investigated. Sensory properties of the resulting condiments were also evaluated. Organisms associated with 96 h wild fermentation of pigeon pea included Bacillus species, Lactobacillus species, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Escherichia faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. pH decreased with wild (from 7.5 to 5.0) and controlled (from 7.4 to 6.0) fermentations. There was a steady decrease in crude fibre, crude fat and carbohydrate but an increase in ash, moisture and crude protein with increasing length of fermentation periods. Phytate, oxalate, tannins, and trypsin inhibitory activity of fermented condiment decreased with increasing fermentation period. Sensory evaluation showed that pigeon pea produced from controlled fermentation had higher scores in colour and texture compared with commercial condiment (iru). This study has revealed the feasibility of producing pigeon pea condiment using wild and controlled fermentation, and this presents a veritable strategy to increase the utilization of the crop.
... It is often referred to as a complete food because of its reasonably high protein content (Adebowale et al., 2002;Arise et al., 2015;Oyeyinka et al., 2015;Sirivongpaisal, 2008) and a good balance of the essential amino acids (Yao et al., 2015). The high levels of lysine (6.5-6.8%) in Bambara groundnut and the considerable amount of methionine (1.8-2.84%), which is normally limiting in most legumes, further confirm the grain as a balanced diet (Aremu et al., 2006;Kudre et al., 2013;Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009). Bambara groundnut is a drought-tolerant crop that has potentials for cultivation during extreme conditions of drought. ...
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Masa is a traditionally fermented meal usually made from cereals. The aim of this research was to produce an enriched meal from rice and Bambara groundnut. The colour, functional properties and microbial quality of composite blend of rice and Bambara groundnut flour, in the ratio of 100:0, 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, were evaluated using standard methods. Sensory properties of freshly made masa and masa prepared from stored flours were also determined. The microbial load of the masa flour blend increased over the storage period. Water absorption capacity, swelling capacity and bulk densities increased, while the oil absorption capacity decreased with the storage period. The objective colour result showed a decrease in the lightness (L*) value. Sensory properties of masa were not substantially altered with Bambara groundnut inclusion, but the ratings reduced with storage. Instant masa may be prepared from flour stored for 4 weeks without considerable changes in quality.
... Limited achievements are made on genetic advancement and gains on yield and nutritional traits in Bambara groundnut [80]. The hitherto limited progress includes breeding for yield potential [81], nutritional composition [82], drought tolerance [83], adaptations to marginal soils [84], and N-fixation ability [85]. Breeding progress and genetic gain on the crop is relatively slow when compared to other traditional legumes. ...
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Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) is a nutritionally rich grain legume crop indigenous to Africa. It is tolerant to drought stress and has become adapted to grow under low input and marginal agricultural production systems in Africa and Asia. Bambara groundnut is an orphan crop, and represents a neglected and under researched plant genetic resource. Modern crop management, production technologies, and value chains are yet to be developed in Africa to achieve the potential economic gains from Bambara groundnut production and marketing. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) the production and productivity of Bambara groundnut is low and stagnant because of diverse abiotic and biotic stresses and socioeconomic constraints. Improved crop management and post handling technologies, modern varieties with high yield and nutritional quality, value addition, and market access are among the key considerations in current and future Bambara groundnut research and development programs. This paper presents progress on Bambara groundnut production, utilization, and genetic improvement in SSA. It presents the key production constraints , genetic resources and analysis, breeding methods and genetic gains on yield, and nutritional quality and outlook. The information presented will guide the sustainable production and effective breeding of the crop in order to pursue food and nutrition security, and improve livelihoods through Bambara groundnut enterprises.
... The bivariate correlations revealed that ADF and NDF were negatively correlated to ash, which could be attributed to anti-nutrient properties of lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, and silica that make up a large proportion of ADF and NDF (Ijarotimi and Esho, 2009). Ash is required for human consumption, and lines that contain high ADF and NDF may not be suitable for human diets. ...
Article
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) has the potential to address food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa. However, a lack of cultivars with improved nutritional quality hinders its potential. This study evaluated nutritional content in the grain of 19 Bambara groundnut lines. The nutritional content of the lines varied significantly (p < 0.05) with lines Mix, Tiganecuru, and Pong-Br-UNK exhibiting the highest means for starch protein and fat contents, respectively. The first principal component (PC) accounted for 21.9% of the variation and was strongly correlated with K (which contributed 20.1%), ash (19.5%), NDF (16.4%) and ADF (14.8%). The second PC explained 16.1% of the variation and was significantly correlated to moisture content (21.5%), magnesium (19.7%), starch (17.3%) and protein (10.7%). This is essential to select superior lines for developing Bambara groundnut breeding populations for improving nutrition in SSA. The negative correlations between some of the nutrient such NDF and ash, NDF and K, and Mg and Mn would be a challenge for simultaneous selection to breed nutritious Bambara groundnut lines. Further, an analysis of anti-nutrient chemicals is recommended.
Chapter
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a vital oilseed crop known for its high protein content. It also serves as a critical source of fodder for the cattle industry in many developing nations. Nevertheless, the overall productivity of groundnuts is hindered by a range of biotic and abiotic stressors due to their geocarpic growth habit. Prior endeavours to tackle these challenges by creating enhanced groundnut cultivars and integrating resistance and tolerance mechanisms are often needed to be improved due to subpar pod and kernel quality. A promising option resides in biotechnological interventions, particularly the direct or indirect alteration of foreign genes, which can augment overall crop production. The study involved genetically modifying groundnuts using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens system to introduce the AtNHX1 gene, which codes for a vacuolar-type Na+/H+ antiporter, under the supervision of the 35S promoter. The findings demonstrated that transgenic plants harbouring the AtNHX1 gene displayed excessive resistance to elevated salt levels and water scarcity among off-type fauna. Significantly, the genetically modified plants exhibited heightened concentrations of salt and proline in their leaves, suggesting enhanced resistance to stress. The effectiveness of biotechnological interventions, such as gene transformation, is demonstrated by genetically modified groundnut genotypes that possess inherent resistance to stressors and improved yield characteristics. These contemporary molecular biotechnological methods demonstrate heightened resilience to different stresses, ultimately improving crop growth and yield. The stress-tolerant groundnut varieties that have been modified can be used as parent plants in conventional breeding initiatives. This enables the cultivation of cultivars that are immune to bacterial, viral, fungal, and other ailments, as well as resilient to drought and salinity. This chapter explores the historical background and future potential of genetic modification technologies that enhance groundnut varieties against significant biological and environmental challenges.
Chapter
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) represents an untapped potential for developing robust food systems. This promising but underutilized African grain legume has high nutritional qualities comparable to popular and widely consumed legumes, as well as exceptional resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In addition, the crop can grow on a range of soils, fix atmospheric nitrogen, and enhance soil fertility, making its production truly climate-resilient. Third to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) in terms of production and consumption in sub-Saharan Africa, Bambara groundnut is set to increase in importance as current food production systems become more diverse, and this is also evident in the steady increase in yield and area harvested across the west, east, and southern Africa over the past 25 years. Despite these relevant characteristics, the potential of Bambara groundnut in improving food systems is hindered by a lack of agricultural policy around the value chain, consistent phenological development, i.e., sensitivity to long photoperiods, and a phenomenon referred to as hard-to-cook (HTC) during poststorage processing. Over the years, research efforts have led to a more optimistic outlook for Bambara groundnut’s ability to overcome these challenges. However, a concerted policy push by African governments, with technical and financial support from regional organizations, is still required to boost research uptake to realize the crop's full potential. This chapter provides comprehensive evidence of Bambara groundnut as a “future smart food.” It details the challenges that need to be addressed and production systems thinking solutions to harness the full potential of this less-mainstream crop.
Chapter
Stable and sustainable food systems are required to meet the increasing global food demands due to climate change, global population pressure, urbanization and life style changes. Underutilized legume crop species such as Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) have exceptional nutritional value and genetic plasticity to be cultivated in marginal production environments for the benefit of farmers and the marketplace. Bambara groundnut has been regarded as a “complete food” due to its nutrient-dense grains having an ideal balance of carbohydrate, protein, oil, and essential and non-essential amino acids. Despite its potential benefits in the feed and food industry, the crop has been neglected by research communities globally. There are no commercial varieties of the crop in SSA and farmers are still cultivating low yielding and unimproved landraces. However, a high level of genetic diversity in the crop exists in SSA, with distinct and diverse economic attributes. The genetic diversity available would assist in variety design, and product development and commercialization. The aim of this chapter is to present past progress and future opportunities for Bambara groundnut genetic improvement, and to identify key research gaps to guide breeding of the crop for enhanced yield, quality and sustainable production in SSA. The first section of the chapter presents the economic benefits of Bambara groundnut, current production status, germplasm collection, and its nutritional composition and utilization. This is followed by highlights on the agronomic responses of the crop to fertilizer and water use for yield gains. The chapter highlights the need for a dedicated pre-breeding program with a demand-led product profile, variety design and a pathway to commercialization. Lastly, the chapter summarizes the need for a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) to clarify farmers’ preferred traits in an ideal variety, and as an initial step of market research for demand-led breeding. Information presented in this chapter should aid Bambara groundnut breeders and agronomists to develop and deploy a new generation of varieties with farmer- and market-preferred attributes.
Article
Enzymatic crosslinking has gained attention in improving plant protein heat-induced gels, which are composed of weak network structures. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of laccase crosslinking on the rheological and microstructural properties of heat-induced Bambara groundnut protein gels. The rheological properties of laccase modified Bambara groundnut protein isolate (BPI¹) gel formed in situ were investigated. Changes in viscoelastic properties were monitored during heating and cooling ramps and gel structure fingerprints were analyzed by frequency sweep. Laccase addition induced an initial protein structure breakdown (G“>G') at an enzyme dose-dependent (1-3 U/g) before gel formation and stabilization. Gel point temperatures were significantly decreased from 85°C to 29°C (∼3 folds) with increasing laccase activity 0 and 3 U/g protein, respectively. For laccase crosslinked gels, G' was substantially greater than G” (>1 log) with no dependency on angular frequency, which suggests the formation of relatively well-structured gels. The highest gel strength (tan δ of 0.09, G* of 555.51 kPa & An of 468.04 kPa) was recorded at laccase activity of 2 U/g protein and the gels formed at this activity appeared homogeneous with compact lath sheet-like structure. The crosslinking effects of laccase were corroborated by the decrease in thiol and phenolic contents as well as the crosslinking of amino acids in model reactions. Overall, the use of laccase improved gel properties and significantly altered the gelation profile of BPI. Laccase modified Bambara groundnut protein gels have potential to be used in food texture improvement and development of new food products. For instance, they can be used in plant-based milk products like yoghurt and cheese.
Article
Legumes, being angiosperm’s third-largest family as well as the second major crop family, contributes beyond 33% of human dietary proteins. The advent of the global food crisis owing to major climatic concerns leads to nutritional deprivation, hunger and hidden hunger especially in developing and underdeveloped nations. Hence, in the wake of promoting sustainable agriculture and nutritional security, apart from the popular legumes, the inclusion of lesser-known and understudied local crop legumes called orphan legumes in the farming systems of various tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world is indeed a need of the hour. Despite possessing tremendous potentialities, wide adaptability under diverse environmental conditions, and rich in nutritional and nutraceutical values, these species are still in a neglected and devalued state. Therefore, a major re-focusing of legume genetics, genomics, and biology is much crucial in pursuance of understanding the yield constraints, and endorsing underutilized legume breeding programs. Varying degrees of importance to these crops do exist among researchers of developing countries in establishing the role of orphan legumes as future crops. Under such circumstances, this article assembles a comprehensive note on the necessity of promoting these crops for further investigations and sustainable legume production, the exploitation of various orphan legume species and their potencies. In addition, an attempt has been made to highlight various novel genetic, molecular, and omics approaches for the improvement of such legumes for enhancing yield, minimizing the level of several anti-nutritional factors, and imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. A significant genetic enhancement through extensive research in ‘omics’ areas is the absolute necessity to transform them into befitting candidates for large-scale popularization around the globe.
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Legumes, being angiosperm’s third-largest family as well as the second major crop family, contributes beyond 33% of human dietary proteins. The advent of the global food crisis owing to major climatic concerns leads to nutritional deprivation, hunger and hidden hunger especially in developing and underdeveloped nations. Hence, in the wake of promoting sustainable agriculture and nutritional security, apart from the popular legumes, the inclusion of lesser-known and understudied local crop legumes called orphan legumes in the farming systems of various tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world is indeed a need of the hour. Despite possessing tremendous potentialities, wide adaptability under diverse environmental conditions, and rich in nutritional and nutraceutical values, these species are still in a neglected and devalued state. Therefore, a major re-focusing of legume genetics, genomics, and biology is much crucial in pursuance of understanding the yield constraints, and endorsing underutilized legume breeding programs. Varying degrees of importance to these crops do exist among researchers of developing countries in establishing the role of orphan legumes as future crops. Under such circumstances, this article assembles a comprehensive note on the necessity of promoting these crops for further investigations and sustainable legume production, the exploitation of various orphan legume species and their potencies. In addition, an attempt has been made to highlight various novel genetic, molecular, and omics approaches for the improvement of such legumes for enhancing yield, minimizing the level of several anti-nutritional factors, and imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. A significant genetic enhancement through extensive research in ‘omics’ areas is the absolute necessity to transform them into befitting candidates for large-scale popularization around the globe.
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In Europe, there is an increasing interest in pulses both for their beneficial effects in cropping systems and for human health. However, despite these advantages, the acreage dedicated to pulses has been declining and their diversity has reduced, particularly in European temperate regions, due to several social and economic factors. This decline has stimulated a political debate in the EU on the development of plant proteins. By contrast, in Southern countries, a large panel of minor pulses is still cropped in regional patterns of production and consumption. The aim of this paper is to investigate the potential for cultivation of minor pulses in European temperate regions as a complement to common pulses. Our assumption is that some of these crops could adapt to different pedoclimatic conditions, given their physiological adaptation capacity, and that these pulses might be of interest for the development of innovative local food chains in an EU policy context targeting protein autonomy. The research is based on a systematic review of 269 papers retrieved in the Scopus database (1974–2019), which allowed us to identify 41 pulses as candidate species with protein content higher than 20% that are already consumed as food. For each species, the main agronomic (e.g., temperature or water requirements) and nutritional characteristics (e.g., proteins or antinutritional contents) were identified in their growing regions. Following their agronomic characteristics, the candidate crops were confronted with variability in the annual growing conditions for spring crops in Western European temperate areas to determine the earliest potential sowing and latest harvest dates. Subsequently, the potential sum of temperatures was calculated with the Agri4cast database to establish the potential climatic suitability. For the first time, 21 minor pulses were selected to be grown in these temperate areas and appear worthy of investigation in terms of yield potential, nutritional characteristics or best management practices.
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In the Global North, there is an increasing interest in pulses both for their beneficial effects in cropping systems and for human health. However, despite these advantages, the acreage dedi-cated to pulses has been declining and their diversity reduced, particularly in European temperate regions, due to several social and economic factors. This decline has stimulated a political debate in the EU on the development of plant proteins. By contrast, in the Global South, a large panel of minor pulses is still cropped in regional patterns of production and consumption. The aim of this paper is to investigate the for cultivation of potential minor pulses in European temperate regions as a complement to common pulses. Our assumption is that some of these crops could adapt to different pedo-climatic conditions, given their physiological adaptation capacity, and that these pulses might be of interest for the development of innovative local food chains in an EU policy context targeting protein autonomy. The research is based on a systematic review of 269 papers retrieved in the Scopus database (1974–2019), which allowed us to identify 41 pulses as candidate species with a protein content higher than 20% that are already consumed as food. For each spe-cies, the main agronomic (e.g. temperature or water requirements) and nutritional characteristics (e.g. proteins or antinutritional contents) were identified in their growing regions. Following their agronomic characteristics, the candidate crops were confronted with variability in the annual growing conditions for spring crops in European temperate areas to determine the earliest poten-tial sowing and latest harvest dates. Subsequently, the potential sum of temperatures was calcu-lated with the Agri4cast database to establish the potential climatic suitability. For the first time, 21 minor pulses were selected to be grown in these temperate areas and appear worthy of inves-tigation in terms of yield potential, nutritional characteristics or best management practices.
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Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by increased blood glucose levels due to either lack of insulin production or inefficient as in the activity of insulin. Hence, this study aimed to produce and evaluate nutritional quality, glycaemic index, carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes and blood glucose lowering potential of composite flour samples from wheat, soybeans and rice-bran and oat-bran. The precooked wheat, soycake, rice-bran and oat-bran flour samples were blended (wheat 70% and soycake 30% (WSC); wheat 70%, soycake 25% and rice bran 5% (WSR); wheat 70%, soycake 25% and oat bran 5% (WSO); and wheat 70%, soycake 20%, rice bran 5% and oat bran 5% (WSRO) using material balance equation with reference to 25% of daily requirement for protein (14 g/day) and fibre (5 g/day) for adults. Formulated foods and controls (Cerolina (CERO) & 100% wheat (WF)) were evaluated for nutritional quality, glycaemic index, carbohydrate hydrolyzing inhibitory and antidiabetic potentials using standard methods. Nutritional parameters of formulated composite flour samples showed that WSRO exhibited higher protein content (23.94 g/100g), biological value (98.01%) and growth performance in rats than other food samples including controls, i.e., WF (14.56 g/100g; 66%) and CERO (17.59 g/100g; 97.59%). The α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme inhibitory activity of the experimental food samples ranged from 49.25% - 66.75% and 37.53% 57.40% in WS and WSRO, respectively. While glycaemic load and glycaemic index of the food samples varied from 24.64 - 28.50% and 40.03 - 46.41%, while that of CERO were 25.63% and 40.05%, respectively. Antidiabetic potential of experimental foods showed that WSRO (79.62%) had the highest blood glucose lowering activity; while those rats fed on WS sample (65.65%) had the least activity. However, the antidiabetic activity of WSRO was significantly (p
Chapter
Bambara groundnut has great potentials as an industrial raw material as documented by several authors. The emergence of climate change has threatened the cultivation and yield of currently commercialized legume crops indicating the need for alternative crop. This challenge has attracted the attention of researchers in search of alternative crops and cropping systems that are more resilient to climate change. The agro-ecological adaptability of Bambara groundnut is one of the excellent factors that are capable of projecting this crop to be cultivated on a large scale as a possible novel alternative or supplement to some commercial legumes such as soybean, cowpeas, groundnut, peas and certain beans in different food formulations. Due to its agro-ecological adaptability, wide distribution, nutritional, functional potentials, different food applications and medicinal properties as documented by a large body of researchers across the globe, Bambara groundnut, as a potential industrial raw material in several agro-processing industries, worths good exploration. This chapter summarised the several industrial areas of application of Bambara groundnut ranging from snacks, dairy products analogues, other foods to non-food uses.
Chapter
The potentials of Bambara groundnut for food and industrial applications have been recognized. Considering its nutrient profile and agronomic traits, the crop is a good candidate to alleviate food and nutrition insecurity in Africa. Unfortunately, there are yet notable concerns that processors and consumers of Bambara groundnut have to contend with, hence its limited level of utilisation. Hard to process phenomenon, which develops during storage, poses a huge challenge in a world where demands for convenience foods are rather on the rise. Again, as if the nutrient loss incurred during rigorous processing is not enough, the array of antinutrients present beyond permissible limits constitute another limitation. Other challenges include oxidation of some polyunsaturated fatty acids resulting in repulsive flavour development, starch gelatinisation and sedimentation associated with milk production, limited protein quality and functionality, and safety controversies with respect to the use of processing aids. However, some remarkable efforts aimed at circumventing these setbacks are currently being made through research and there are bright prospects for Bambara groundnut if the momentum can be at least sustained.
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Abstract: Complementary diets were prepared from vegetable proteins. The grains (maize, rice and cowpea) were germinated. The blend was formulated and studied for viscosity, bulk density, swelling and water holding capacity. The germination period was 72 h for maize and rice and 48 h for cowpea. The germinated diet indicated significant (P<0.005) reduction in the paste viscosity from over 10,000 cps to about 3,000 cps at 10% matter. (Link of the Abstract: https://www.wflpublisher.com/Abstract/647) ---(Link of the website: https://www.wflpublisher.com)
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Malnutrition increases morbidity and mortality and affects physical growth and development, some of these effects resulting from specific micronutrient deficiencies. While public health efforts must be targeted to improve dietary intakes in children through breast feeding and appropriate complementary feeding, there is a need for additional measures to increase the intake of certain micronutrients. Food-based approaches are regarded as the long-term strategy for improving nutrition, but for certain micronutrients, supplementation, be it to the general population or to high risk groups or as an adjunct to treatment must also be considered. Our understanding of the prevalence and consequences of iron, vitamin A and iodine deficiency in children and pregnant women has advanced considerably while there is still a need to generate more knowledge pertaining to many other micronutrients, including zinc, selenium and many of the B-vitamins. For iron and vitamin A, the challenge is to improve the delivery to target populations. For disease prevention and growth promotion, the need to deliver safe but effective amounts of micronutrients such as zinc to children and women of fertile age can be determined only after data on deficiency prevalence becomes available and the studies on mortality reduction following supplementation are completed. Individual or multiple micronutrients must be used as an adjunct to treatment of common infectious diseases and malnutrition only if the gains are substantial and the safety window sufficiently wide. The available data for zinc are promising with regard to the prevention of diarrhea and pneumonia. It should be emphasized that there must be no displacement of important treatment such as ORS in acute diarrhea by adjunct therapy such as zinc. Credible policy making requires description of not only the clinical effects but also the underlying biological mechanisms. As findings of experimental studies are not always feasible to extrapolate to humans, the biology of deficiency as well as excess of micronutrients in humans must continue to be investigated with vigour.
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Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata or Vigna sinensis), also known as blackeye beans or southern peas, are important grain legumes in Africa and other developing countries where they serve as good sources of protein, energy and other nutrients. Despite their potential in upgrading diets of the poor people of the world, there are certain constraints to optimal utilization of cowpeas as food. These are attributed to factors such as pest infestation of the beans, beany flavors, extended cooking times and presence of antinuthents that cause low digestibility and abdominal upsets. Methods of circumventing these constraints to cowpea utilization are outlined. the literature on various processing techniques such as milling, dehulling, soaking, germination, fermentation and heat treatment are reviewed, and popular ways of preparing cowpea foods are discussed. Utilization of cowpeas in both infant and adult foods is recommended in the preparation of traditional and novel products in order to avert the perennial problems of malnutrition in developing countries.
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Significant varietal differences were observed in the contents of phytic acid, saponin and trypsin inhibitor activity of four varieties of Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia Jacq.). Tannins and lectins were absent. The dry seeds were given different treatments including soaking, sprouting and cooking and the changes in the level of the antinutritional factors were estimated. Soaking the seeds in plain water and mineral salt solution for 12 hr decreased phytic acid to the maximum (46–50%) whereas sprouting for 60 hr had the most pronounced saponin lowering effect (4466%). The other methods of processing were less effective in reducing the levels of these antinutritional factors. The processing methods involving heat treatment almost eliminated trypsin inhibitor activity while soaking and germination partly removed the activity.
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The objective of the present study was to investigate the inter-relationships between nutritional status (past and current nutrition), brain development, and scholastic achievement (SA) of Chilean high-school graduates from high and low intellectual quotient (IQ) and socio-economic status (SES) (mean age 18.0 (SD 0.9) years). Results showed that independently of SES, high-school graduates with similar IQ have similar nutritional, brain development and SA variables. Multiple regression analysis between child IQ (dependent variable) and age, sex, SES, brain volume (BV), undernutrition during the first year of life, paternal and maternal IQ (independent variables) revealed that maternal IQ (P<0.0001), BV (P<00387) and severe undernutrition during the first year of life (P<0.0486), were the independent variables with the greatest explanatory power for child IQ variance (r2 0.707), without interaction with age, sex or SES. Child IQ (P<0.0001) was the only independent variable that explained both SA variance (r2 0.848) and academic aptitude test variance (r2 0.876) without interaction with age, sex or SES. These results confirm the hypotheses formulated for this study that: (1) independently of SES, high-school graduates with similar IQ have similar variables of nutritional status, brain development and SA; (2) past nutritional status, brain development, child IQ and SA are strongly and significantly inter-related. These findings are relevant in explaining the complex interactions between variables that affect IQ and SA and can be useful for nutritional and educational planning.
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A series of tests was made with two varieties of pea (Pisum satirum L) to measure the effects of extrusion temperature (105–140°C) and moisture level (14-33%) on the level of antinutritional factors (ANF). Twin-screw extrusion cooking of peas showed the dependence of proteinaceous ANF (such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins) on the processing variables used. For the round-seeded pea variety (Finale), the moisture level as well as the temperature proved to be an important variable, although inactivation of trypsin inhibitor activity was complete for all processing conditions investigated. For the wrinkle-seeded pea (var C306), the temperature used during extrusion cooking largely inactivated ANF. The costs of extrusion vary considerably according to the processing conditions and are confined to the desired objectives of extrusion cooking. The objectives, in terms of the inactivation rates for pea ANF, must therefore, be clearly defined and based on threshold levels established from experiments with monogastric animals. Regression models for the inactivation of ANF are given to facilitate the choice of twin-screw extrusion-cooking variables for the upgrading of the nutritional value of pea protein.
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In this study African yam bean Seed (cream colour variety) were fermented naturally at 30±2°C for 72, 96 and 120 h, respectively. The bacteria isolated during the process include Lactobacillus jensenii, Bacillus coagulans, Aerococcus viridans and Pediococcus cerevisiae while the yeast were Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida mycoderm. Aspergillus niger was the only mould isolated from raw seed which disappeared after dehulling. The microbial loads increased with period of fermentation up to 72 h but decreased at 96 and 120 h of fermentation. Before fermentation, the bacterial count was 6.0×102 cfu g-1 While at 24, 48 and 72 h the bacterial load increased to 7.0×103, 7.8×103 and 8.5×103 cfu g-1, respectively. The highest bacterial load was observed after 72 h of fermentation. The load decreased to 4.3×103 and 2.1×103 cfu g-1 at 96 and 120 h of fermentation. In addition the yeast cells load increased up to 72 h of fermentation and the load decreased at 96 and 120 h, respectively.
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The effects of soaking, soaking and dehulling, boiling, roasting, autoclaving and sprouting on the phytic acid content and the protein, carbohydrate, fat, ash, moisture and crude fibre in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) were studied. All the processing methods reduced the phytic acid in the legumes to various extents. Boiling the sprouts had the greatest reducing effect on the phytic acid levels in both legumes as it was significantly reduced by as much as 56% in bambara groundnut and 53% in pigeon pea, respectively (P < 0.05). Sprouting of the legumes increased their protein content and moisture level significantly (P < 0.05), while roasting tended to reduce the levels of all the constituents except carbohydrate.
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Fermented foods are of great significance because they provide and preserve vast quantities of nutritious food in a wide diversity of flavours, aromas and textures which enrich the human diet. Fermented foods have been with us since humans arrived on earth. They will be with us far into the future as they are the source of alcoholic foods/beverages, vinegar, pickled vegetables, sausages, cheeses, yogurts, vegetable protein amino acid/peptide sauces and pastes with meat-like flavours, and leavened and sour-dough breads. While the Western world can afford to enrich its foods with synthetic vitamins, the developing world must rely upon biological enrichment for its vitamins and essential amino acids. The affluent Western world cans and freezes much of its food but the developing world must rely upon fermentation and dehydration to preserve and process its foods at costs within the budget of the average consumer. All consumers today have a considerable portion of their nutritional needs met through fermented foods and beverages. This is likely to expand in the 21st century when world population reaches 8–12 billion (109).
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Mineral contents of agricultural products (maize, sorghum, cowpea, soybean, cassava, sweet potato, water yam and white yam) grown in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria, were determined by the use of atomic absorption spectrophotometric and colorimetric methods. The grains (maize, sorghum, cowpea and soybean) had low moisture levels (7·8–15·3%) while the tubers (cassava, sweet potato, water yam and white yam) had high moisture levels (56·8–81·2%).The ash content of the samples varied between 0·6–6·2%. Magnesium and potassium contents varied between 377–4510 mg/100 g food sample. All other minerals (iron, calcium, zinc, manganese) were present in low amounts compared with potassium and magnesium. Mercury and lead contents were found to be below 0·1 mg/100 g food sample.Cowpea was found to have the highest level of mineral nutrients of the grain samples, while sweet potato was found to have the highest level of mineral nutrients of the tuber samples.
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Purpose – The objectives of this study are to develop low cost weaning food for the economically disadvantaged nursing mothers and also to prevent protein energy malnutrition among the infants in Nigeria. Design/methodology/approach – The blends (sweet potato and soybean flour) were prepared (homogenously) in the ratio of 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50 of sweet potato and soybean respectively. Triplicate samples of each blend were analyzed for moisture, fat, protein (N × 6.25), crude fiber and ash. Total lipid was estimated by petroleum ether extraction. Carbohydrate content was estimated by difference. Gross energy was determined. Water absorption capacity and bulk density were determined using standard procedures. The pasting characteristics of the flours were evaluated using a standard procedure. The sensory evaluation was carried out on the following parameters: taste, appearance, aroma, mouth (texture), colour and overall acceptability by a panel of ten members using a nine‐point hedonic scale. Findings – The results of nutritional composition of the supplements showed protein 11.2–33.72 per cent, carbohydrates 42.91–76.51 per cent, fat 3.10–12.78 per cent, energy values 329.5–366.74 kcal/100 g and appreciable quantities of P, Zn, Fe, Mg, Ca, K and Na. The soy‐sweet potato flours had peak viscosity values between 180–365 BU. These values increased when cooled to 50°C, (420–760 BU). Results of this study showed that at 30 per cent soy flour supplementation, the meal could meet satisfactorily the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for children of 1–3 years old, and that the developed soy‐sweet potato diets were nutritious, inexpensive and can easily be prepared from locally available raw food materials by using simple domestic processing techniques. Originality/value – Evidence has shown that the cost of commercial weaning formula is very high and most of the low‐income family cannot afford to purchase this commercial weaning food and for such people an alternative low cost weaning formula is helpful.
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Eight cultivars of bambara groundnut [Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars] were studied to determine their rehydration characteristics. Seeds from all cultivars approximately doubled their weight after 36 h and were then easily dehulled. Losses of nutrients to the soak water during this period were small. Mature seeds from one cultivar were evaluated for suitability as a base for a vegetable milk. Homogenisation of whole seed flour in water together with coconut or soya bean oils yielded an emulsion containing 20 g protein (Nx 5.71) and 30 ml oil litre-1. Good emulsion stability was maintained after pasteurisation. Curds, similar to those traditionally prepared from soya beans, were easily prepared from bambara groundnut milk. The bland, creamy-white product which was high in protein had a trypsin-inhibitor content very much lower than that of the untreated vegetable milk.
Article
Eight cultivars of bambara groundnut [Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars] were examined for their protein, non-protein nitrogen, starch, reducing sugar, tannin and trypsin inhibitor contents. Protein (N × 5.71), starch and reducing sugar contents showed little inter-cultivar variation giving mean values of 18.7, 42.1 and 1.26 g 100 g−1 whole seed, respectively. Tannin contents ranged from 0.36 to 0.94 g 100 g−1 whole seed and trypsin inhibitory activity from 6.75 to 15.44 units mg−1. The majority of the protein nitrogen present was extractable in water or dilute salt solution. Trypsin inhibitory activity was directly correlated with the quantity of protein nitrogen extracted from each of the cultivars, which in turn, was found to be inversely related to their tannin contents. This latter effect was modified by both the pH and the molarity of the extractant used.
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Analysis of fluted pumpkin seed Telfairia occidentalis Hook f. gave protein of 31.1% and oil 47%. The protein is markedly deficient in the sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine and cystine) followed by lysine, valine, isoleucine and phenylalanine. The oil could be useful for cooking purposes, and the high degree of unsaturation might enable it to be used as a drying oil for paints and varnishes.
Article
Bambara groundnut seeds, produced under five levels of irrigation (0–300 mm range) in a suite of controlled-environment glasshouses, were analysed for their proximate composition. There was no significant effect of water treatment on the seed composition. Mean values (g kg–1 DM) of dry matter, protein, starch, free sugars, non-starch polysaccharides and lipids were 8.91, 2.53, 4.28, 0.15, 2.56 and 0.79, respectively. Bambara groundnut protein was deficient in the sulphur amino acids, methionine and cysteine but met the FAO requirements for all other essential and non-essential amino acids. Of the non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) of bambara groundnut, the ratio of insoluble to soluble fractions was 57:43. Cellulose accounted for 36% of the total NSP. Approximately 12.8% of the total NSP was resistant to acid and enzymic hydrolysis. This fraction was attributed to lignified seed coat material and low molecular weight phenolic compounds. Tannin complexes capable of precipitating 142.6 g BSA (bovine serum albumin) per kg seed and trypsin inhibitor activity (13 g kg–1 DM) were measured in all five bambara groundnut treatments. The presence of these anti-nutrients may have implications for the bio-availability of bambara groundnut protein.
Article
Five different recently released Brazilian soybean cultivars (Bays, BR-10, Rio Balsas, Serido and Tropical) were compared for their proximate analyses and presence of antinutritional or toxic factors. As expected, the seeds are rich in proteins, varying from 360·7 to 485·4 g kg−1 flour, and they also have a high amount of fat (from 183·0 to 215·3 g kg−1 flour). Crude extracts from seeds of Bays, BR-10, Serido and Tropical were highly toxic to mice within 1–12 h, depending on the administration route (intraperitoneal, intramuscular or subcutaneous) and dose used while Rio Balsas was not. These acute effects were very similar to those produced by the soytoxin, a neurotoxin that has been recently purified from the commercial soybean sold in Brazil. The amount of trypsin inhibited in the presence of crude extracts ranged from 28·5 to 62·5 g kg−1 flour. Urease was also present and the seed lectin agglutinated preferentially rabbit erythrocytes. A heat treatment at 92°C for 1 min destroyed completely the toxic activity while the haemagglutinating and trypsin inhibitor activities were abolished within 5 min. At these conditions urease was still active. Due to its high protein content, lack of soytoxin, and low levels of trypsin inhibitor, lectin, and urease it is suggested that Rio Balsas could be an alternative for breeding programmes aimed to improve the nutritional quality of soybeans. ©1997 SCI
Article
Three studies were conducted to evaluate the nutritive potential of Glyricidia leaf protein concentrate (GLPC) and Leucaena leaf protein concentrate (LLPC) in infant weaning foods. The first two trials evaluated 10 laboratory-formulated weaning foods, in which soybean meal (SBM) was replaced at levels of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% with either GLPC or LLPC, and subsequently compared them nutritionally with three commercial weaning foods (coded CFB, CFC and CFN) currently on sale in Nigeria in a 28 day feeding trial using weanling albino rats. Thereafter the best GLPC- and LLPC-based weaning foods, in terms of animal performance consistent with low cost of the foods (designated GL50 and LL25 respectively), were compared with the best commercial weaning food (CFB) in a 14 day rehabilitative potential trial using rats that had previously been protein depleted. In the first trial the final weight was highest in rats fed the 50% GLPC-based food (159.8 ± 9.5 g) and lowest in rats fed CFN (114.7 ± 9.7 g), while the feed efficiency was best in rats fed the 50% GLPC-based food and CFC and worst in rats fed the 100% GLPC-based food and CFN. The nitrogen retention (NR) did not differ significantly (P ≥ 0.05), while the apparent nitrogen digestibility (AND) and ‘operative’ protein efficiency ratio (PER) decreased with increasing level of replacement of SBM with GLPC (R2 = 0.61, P ≤ 0.05 and R2 = 0.67, P ≤ 0.05 respectively). In the second trial the highest weight gain was observed in rats fed the 25% LLPC-based food (3.4 ± 0.5 g day−1). Feed consumption was not significantly (P ≥ 0.05) influenced by dietary treatment, but rats fed the laboratory-formulated diets containing 0 and 25% LLPC utilised their food more efficiently (3.0 ± 0.4/0.2 respectively) than rats fed the other diets, including the commercial foods. While NR did not differ significantly (P ≥ 0.05), there was a decrease in AND and PER with increasing level of SBM replacement with LLPC (R2 = 0.96, P ≤ 0.01 and R2 = 0.89, P ≤ 0.05 respectively). Among all the organs weighed in the first two trials, only the relative weight of the lungs was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected. Neither the haematological variables nor the serum metabolites were significantly influenced by dietary treatment, except for the packed cell volume of rats fed the LLPC-based foods. The economics of food production showed that all the laboratory-formulated foods were cheaper than the commercial foods, with the 50% SBM + 50% GLPC (GL50) and 75% SBM + 25% LLPC (LL25) formulae proving to be the most nutritious. On rehabilitation, rats fed LL25 recovered lost weight faster than those fed GL50, followed by rats fed the best commercial diet (CFB), while the whole-body and liver protein contents were identical. The incorporation of LPC/SBM mixtures into local food formulae is suggested as a valid intervention strategy for tackling the endemic protein under-nutrition, especially among vulnerable groups, in sub-Saharan Africa. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry
Article
Tannins are one of several antinutritional factors present in dry beans and are located mainly in the seed coat or testa. The tannin content of dry beans ranges from 0.0 to 2.0% depending on the bean species and color of the seed coat. Many high tannin bean varieties are of lower nutritional quality than low tannin varieties of beans. Naturally occurring food legume tannins are reported to interact with proteins (both enzyme and nonenzyme proteins) to form tannin-protein complexes resulting in inactivation of digestive enzymes and protein insolubility. Both in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that bean tannins decrease protein digestibility, either by inactivating digestive enzymes or by reducing the susceptibility of the substrate proteins after forming complexes with tannins and absorbed ionizable iron. Other deleterious effects of tannins include a lowered feed efficiency and growth depression in experimental animals. The antinutritional activity of bean tannins can be reduced by processing (1 or a combination of 2 or more methods), for example dehulling, soaking, cooking and germination. Genetic selection also may help in breeding varieties low in tannins. Potential chemical treatments such as use of tannin complexing agents are discussed.
Article
Bambara groundnut is an underutilized African legume which provides security for many farmers as it shows considerable drought resistance. The possibility of producing a vegetable milk for local use or an extracted protein with functional properties for use in food processing applications was studied. Milks were made by soaking bambara groundnut overnight, homogenizing and removing insoluble material to give a milky liquid. The beany taste could be removed by dry-frying the beans after soaking but before homogenization. Milks produced in this way were preferred by the taste panel (composed largely of Africans). A comparison of bambara groundnut milk and milks prepared from cowpea, pigeonpea and soybean was made using sensory and instrumental analysis. Sensory analysis showed all milks were acceptable with bambara groundnut ranked first in the preference trial. The lighter colour of bambara groundnut milk was more acceptable to the taste panel but there was no correlation between viscosity measured on a viscometer and viscosity perceived by the taste panel. A crude protein isolate (76% protein) from bambara groundnut was subjected to standard protein functionality tests but it was inferior to the standard used (egg albumen and soy isolate). It did not show any useful properties in emulsification, foam stabilization, or gelation or in a model cake system.
Article
The proximate and mineral compositions, amino acid profile and the quality of the protein of three varieties of African yambean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) seed, in the raw, autoclaved and cooked forms, were assessed. The average crude protein, crude fibre and ash values of the raw yam bean were 23·3%, 4·9% and 3·9%, respectively. Mineral concentrations, on dry weight basis, were: 3·3–4·2 g kg−1 for P; 0·70–0·80 g kg−1 for Ca; 1·3–1·7 g kg−1 for Mg; 9·7–12·0 g kg−1 for K; 0·04–0·06 g kg−1 for Na; 27·8–46·2 mg kg−1 for Mn; 38·2–44·0 mg kg−1 for Zn; 52·0–63·0 mg kg−1 for Fe and 8·1–11·8 mg kg−1 for Cu. The amino acid composition of the protein indicated lysine, ; tryptophan, and methionine + cystine, to be above, or close to, the values recommended by FAO/WHO. Cooked yam bean seeds contained relatively lower amounts of the nutrient components determined. Significant differences (P < 0·05) between raw, autoclaved and cooked seeds were found for the protein quality indices. The findings are discussed in terms of the nutritional potential for this resource for man and livestock.
Article
The functional properties of the seed flour of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) were studied. Results showed that the flour had a good gelation propensity and that the least gelation concentration was 12%. The foaming capacity was found to be 68% while the foam stability was 20%. This foam stability was found to be comparably higher than those of soy flour and sunflower. The emulsion capacity was determined to be 49·4% while the oil and water absorption capacities were 80·7 and 138%, respectively. Protein solubility of the flour was also determined and found to be pH-dependent with minimum solubility at about pH 5.
Article
Forty-eight rats (80-125 g) were used to determine the nutritive value of two sprouted varieties of African yam bean. The cream and brown varieties were each sprouted for 36, 48 and 72 h and blended with corn in a 70:30 ratio (protein basis) to provide 1.6 g N/100 g diet for the entire study period. Sprouting for 48 h caused an increase in most of the parameters tested for both varieties. Sprouting increased natural enhancement of nutrients.
Article
This study was designed to determine the effect of soaking, sprouting, fermentation and cooking on nutrient composition and some antinutritional factors of sorghum seeds (guinesia). Standard assay procedures were adopted to resolve both the nutrients and the antinutritional factors content of the products. Combination of cooking and fermentation improved the nutrient quality and drastically reduced the antinutritional factors to safe levels much greater than any of the other processing methods tested.
Article
Three procedures, commonly used for the determination of tryptophan, were found to be unsatisfactory for the assay of cereals. A method using p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde was unsatisfactory because cereals dissolved slowly in the sulphuric acid reagent, produced turbid solutions and gave high blank values. Racemisation of L-tryptophan was found to be incomplete on hydrolysis with barium hydroxide; therefore, microbiological assays are invalidated. Neutralisation of the barium hydroxide with sulphuric acid or carbon dioxide resulted in considerable loss of tryptophan. A method is described based on hydrolysis with barium hydroxide, precipitation of barium sulphate from an acid solution and colorimetric analysis using p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde. The procedure has proved useful for the routine analysis of cereals and other feedingstuffs.
Article
The trypsin inhibitor activity of processed foods can be determined by measuring the loss of activity of added trypsin under standard conditions. Observed values are not usually independent of the degree of inhibition, and averaging over a range of inhibition levels or extrapolation to zero inhibition may not produce a more reliable value. A somewhat modified method is described which has been tested in two laboratories and used for large numbers of different samples on a routine basis; its application and limitations are discussed.
Article
There are a number of components present in soybeans that exert a negative impact on the nutritional quality of the protein. Among those factors that are destroyed by heat treatment are the protease inhibitors and lectins. Protease inhibitors exert their antinutritional effect by causing pancreatic hypertrophy/hyperplasia, which ultimately results in an inhibition of growth. The lectin, by virtue of its ability to bind to glycoprotein receptors on the epithelial cells lining the intestinal mucosa, inhibits growth by interfering with the absorption of nutrients. Of lesser significance are the antinutritional effects produced by relatively heat stable factors, such as goitrogens, tannins, phytoestrogens, flatus-producing oligosaccharides, phytate, and saponins. Other diverse but ill-defined factors appear to increase the requirements for vitamins A, B12, D, and E. The processing of soybeans under severe alkaline conditions leads to the formation of lysinoalanine, which has been shown to damage the kidneys of rats. This is not generally true, however, for edible soy protein that has been produced under milder alkaline conditions. Also meriting consideration is the allergenic response that may sometimes occur in humans, as well as calves and piglets, on dietary exposure to soybeans.
Article
Some chemical and physical properties of bambara groundnut seed were determined. The proximate composition of the bambara groundnut seed was found to be 9.7% moisture, 16.6% protein, 5.9% fat, 2.9% ash, 4.9% crude fibre and 64.9% carbohydrate. Maximum water absorption was attained after soaking for 11, 9, 6, and 4 h at 25, 40, 50, and 60 degrees C, respectively. Maximum dehulling efficiency was attained when the seeds absorbed 54.7% water and drying for 9 h at 60 degrees C. Study of the microstructure of the raw flour and seed showed that they contained differently shaped and sized starch granules and protein materials within the cell wall in the cotyledon. Milling disorganised the arrangement of these components in the cotyledons. In the steamed moin-moin ('okpa'), all components in the seed had lost their identity and integrity.
Local (gut) and systemic response of rats to dietary soybeans (glycine max) proteins”
  • G Grant
  • S W B Ewne
  • S Bardocz
  • D S Brown
  • P M Dorward
  • W B Watt
  • J C Stewart
  • A Puszztai
Weaning food with improved energy and nutrient density prepared from germinated cereals, 1 - Preparation and dietary bulk of gruels based on barley food
  • M Hassen
  • B Pedersen
  • I Munck
  • B O Eggum
Weaning foods and their impact on child feeding practice among low-income Nigerian mothers: evaluation of nutritional composition
  • O S Ijarotimi
  • F Aroge
Cultivation of bambara groundnut in northern Nigeria
  • A R Linnemann
Household processing and utilization of soybean in Nigeria”, paper presented at the Society for International Development (SID) and West African Farming Systems Research Network (WAFSRN) Joint Workshop
  • F O Olowoniyan
Proximate and amino acid composition of some under-utilized Nigerian legume flour and protein concentrates
  • A A Oshodi
  • K O Esuoso
  • E T Akintayo
Influence of variety and treatment on phytic acid content of wheat”
  • S M Young
  • J S Graves
An evaluation of natural versus synthetic substrates for measuring antitryptic activity of soya bean samples
  • M L Kakade
  • N Simons
  • I E Leiner
Food Legume Crops and Production. Digest 3, Tropical Products Institute
  • D E Kay
Note of the amino acid compositions of some legume seeds grown in Tanzania, East Africa”, Agric and For
  • L A Mlanga
  • T A Sujiyama
The determination of trypsin levels in food stuffs”
  • C Smith