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An in-depth investigation of Xeriscape: As a water conservation measure
Abstract
The Las Vegas Valley in southern Nevada receives only an average of 4.5 in. of annual precipitation, has a yearly evapo-transpirational water requirement of nearly 90 in., and is one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in the United States. Like most desert cities in the southwestern United States, typically 60-90% of all water use by single-family residences is for landscape irrigation. The Southern Nevada Water Authority partnered with the US Bureau of Reclamation to fund a five-year study of the economic and conservation effects of converting turf landscapes to low-water-use Xeriscape (TM). Results indicated that conversion to xeric landscape produced significant water savings of 55.8 gal/sq ft annually. Homes that converted from turf grass to Xeriscape realized a 30% decrease in yearly total household water use, which equates to 96,000 gal annually. Xeriscape also provided savings in labor and money. Compared with owners of properties dominated by turf, the study group with xeric landscapes reported average annual reductions of 26.4 hours in labor and $206 in direct maintenance expenditures. Utilities may find it worth while to develop or strengthen incentive programs to foster conversion to Xeriscape among their residential and commercial customers.
... While the difference in watering requirements of mesic vs. xeric landscaping are well established (Mayer, Lander, & Glenn, 2015) and short-run savings have been demonstrated in a few cases (Sovocool, Morgan, & Bennett, 2006;Medina & Gumper, 2004) a number of questions remain unanswered about turf-removal subsidy programs. For example, do these programs produce long-term savings, or do they suffer from the offsetting behaviors of the rebound effect exhibited for many energy efficiency interventions (Sorrell, Dimitropoulos, & Sommerville, 2009;Gillingham, Kotchen, Rapson, & Wagner, 2013) and for the installation of low-flow plumbing (Campbell, Johnson, & Larson, 2004) and day-of-week watering restrictions (Castledine, Moeltner, Price, & Stoddard, 2014)? 1 Do they conserve water in a cost-effective manner relative to other forms of conservation or supply augmentation? ...
... Perhaps the most well-known of SNWA's efforts at curbing outdoor water use was the Water Smart Landscapes program. (Sovocool et al., 2006;SNWA, 2014). This means that for more recent WSL cohorts, the rebate incentive could cover most of the cost of a typical conversion. ...
... As a whole, we find clear evidence that the savings generated by the WSL program are consistent with (though somewhat smaller) than previous engineering estimates by Sovocool et al. (2006) and previously published estimates relying on neighborhood average consumption rather than household consumption (Brelsford & Abbott, 2017). Fig. 4 shows the β k coefficients for k ∈ [−11, 11] for the matched control group in each season. ...
Understanding the effectiveness of alternative approaches to water conservation is crucially important for ensuring the security and reliability of water services for urban residents. We analyze data from one of the longest-running "cash for grass" policies - the Southern Nevada Water Authority's Water Smart Landscapes program, where homeowners are paid to replace grass with xeric landscaping. We use a twelve year long panel dataset of monthly water consumption records for 300,000 households in Las Vegas, Nevada. Utilizing a panel difference-in-differences approach, we estimate the average water savings per square meter of turf removed. We find that participation in this program reduced the average treated household's consumption by 18 percent. We find no evidence that water savings degrade as the landscape ages, or that water savings per unit area are influenced by the value of the rebate. Depending on the assumed time horizon of benefits from turf removal, we find that the WSL program cost the water authority about $1.62 per thousand gallons of water saved, which compares favorably to alternative means of water conservation or supply augmentation.
... The terms "xeros" (a Greek word that means "dry") and "landscape" were combined to form the phrase "xeriscape," which became popular in 1981. Nancy Leavitt of the Denver Water Department in Colorado came up with the term to characterise landscaping with water conservation as a key goal (Sovocool, et al., 2006;Smetana and Crittenden, 2014). According to Dr. Douglas F. Welsh, Xeriscape is a proactive strategy for reducing the wasteful use of a precious natural resource. ...
... Simply by using more effective landscaping and watering techniques, the amount of water used for landscaping can be decreased by up to 54% without having any negative impacts. Water preservation (Sovocool, et al., 2006;Sarka , 2003) ...
... Through reduced mowing, once-per-year mulching, and the removal of unsuited plants, a well-designed landscape that adheres to Xeriscape principles can reduce upkeep by as much as 50% (Sovocool, et al., 2006,). It also saves the labour cost. ...
... Kurakçıl peyzaj düzenlemesi (Xeriscape) kavramı, ilk olarak 1978 yılında Amerika'nın Colorado kentinde gündeme gelmiştir. Aynı zamanda bu terim, 1981'de Denver Water tarafından Yunanca "xeros" (kuru-kurak) kelimesiyle "landscape" (manzara) kelimesinin bir birleşimi olarak kullanılmıştır (Sovocool et al., 2006). ...
... Su kaynaklarını korumada etkili bir araç olarak görülen kurakçıl peyzaj düzenlemesi (Xeriscape) ilk olarak, 1980'lerin ortalarında Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin kurak ya da yarı kurak bölgelerindeki çim alanlarında alternatif bir çözüm önerisi olarak kullanılmıştır. Daha sonraları, Xeriscape'in gerçek etkinliği 1990'larda yine Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin Güney Nevada bölgesinde yer alan müstakil konut sahiplerinin bahçelerinde kullandıkları sulardan %20 ile %53 arasında değişen bir tasarruf sağlandığında anlaşılmıştır (Testa & Newton, 1993;Nelson, 1994;Stinnett, 2003;Medina & Gumper, 2004;Sovocool et al., 2006). ...
... Su geçirimi yüksek topraklarda bitki ihtiyacı olan suyu alamadan su kayıpları oluşabilirken, su tutma kapasitesi yüksek olan topraklarda ise ihtiyaçtan fazla su birikmesi söz konusu olabilir. Her iki durumda da toprağın kalitesini artırmak için toprak ıslahı yapılmalıdır (Sovocool et al., 2006;Çorbacı et al., 2011). ...
İnsanlığın ortak kaygısı olan küresel ısınma, kentlerimizin iklimlerinin değişmesi ve kaynaklarının tükenmesi konusunda çağımızın temel sorunu olmuştur. Bu sorun, ülkemizin birçok kentinde olduğu gibi Kahramanmaraş’ın iklimi üzerinde de ciddi tehditler yaratmaktadır. Yeşil alanları etkisi altına alan su sıkıntıları ile bitkiler, hayvanlar ve ekosistemler olarak Kahramanmaraş’ın flora ve faunası da etkilenerek bozulma eğilimine girmektedir. Bu durum, sürdürülebilir kent peyzajlarının nitelikleri olan korunmuş çeşitlilik, çevre ve doğa ile uyum ve kentin görsel niteliklerinin giderek yitirilmesine doğru ilerleyen bir sürece dönüşmektedir. Günümüzde küresel iklim değişikliğinin olumsuz etkilerini azaltmak adına ülkeler, yenidünyanın şartları ile uyumlaştırılmış bir dizi ilke ve politikalar ile sera gazı emisyonlarının hızını sınırlandırmaya çalışmaktadır. Bu kapsamda, kentlerin su kaynaklarının kullanımı ve yönetimi konusunda suyun akılcı kullanımı kavramını temel alan yeni yaklaşımlar ön plana çıkmıştır. Bunun bir sonucu olarak, kentlerin su kaynaklarının korunması ve kent peyzajlarının sürdürülebilmesi konusunda kuraklığa dayanaklı ve su tüketimini en az seviyede tutmayı hedefleyen “kurakçıl peyzaj düzenlemeleri” anlam kazanmaya başlamıştır. Suyun etkin kullanımı yönünde geliştirilen uygulamalardan kurakçıl peyzaj düzenlemesi (Xeriscape), kuraklık tehdidiyle yüz yüze kaldığımız günümüzde çevre-mekan kalitesi bağlamında, kentsel yeşil alanların tesis edilmesi ve sürdürülebilmesi noktasında oldukça başarılı bir uygulamadır. Bu bağlamda Kahramanmaraş’ın kent peyzajlarının su tüketimini en aza indirmeyi hedefleyen fikirden yola çıkarak, Aliya İzzetbegoviç Parkı örneğinde Kahramanmaraş’ın kent peyzajlarına yönelik gelecek kurakçıl peyzaj uygulamalarına ışık tutabilmesi amacıyla pilot bir çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma bulguları çerçevesinde Aliya İzzetbegoviç Parkı örneğinde kurakçıl bir peyzaj tasarımı geliştirilmiş ve Kahramanmaraş’ın kurakçıl peyzaj düzenlemelerinde kullanılabilecek bitki türleri belirlenmiştir. Geliştirilen önerilerin, Kahramanmaraş’ın kent peyzajlarına yönelik gelecek kurakçıl peyzaj uygulamalarına katkı sağlayabilir nitelikte olduğu düşünülmektedir.
... Another recommendation is to widely adopt xeric landscape style that mostly include individually watered and low water-use exotic and native plants as a sustainable landscaping strategy as suggested by the Xeriscape™ movement that began in Denver, Colorado in 1981 (Martin, 2001). Xeriscape is a water-efficient landscaping method that has become increasingly popular in the arid southwestern U.S. (Sovocool et al., 2006). Research has shown that in southern Nevada, Xeriscape can save an average of 55.8 gal/sq. ...
... ft. (or 2.27 m 3 /m 2 ) per year resulting from replacing turf grass with xeric landscape (Sovocool et al., 2006). Households realized a 30% annual water use reduction after converting to xeric landscape that equals approximately 363 m 3 annually (Sovocool et al., 2006). ...
... (or 2.27 m 3 /m 2 ) per year resulting from replacing turf grass with xeric landscape (Sovocool et al., 2006). Households realized a 30% annual water use reduction after converting to xeric landscape that equals approximately 363 m 3 annually (Sovocool et al., 2006). Xeriscape can also save labor and money for maintenance because of water-efficient and desert-adapted plants and efficient irrigation. ...
Cities in arid and semi-arid regions have been exploring urban sustainability policies, such as lowering the vegetation coverage to reduce residential outdoor water use. Meanwhile, urban residents express concerns that such policies could potentially impact home prices regardless of the reduced water costs because studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between vegetation coverage and home values. On the other hand, lower vegetation coverage in arid and semi-arid desert regions could increase surface temperatures, and consequently increases energy costs. The question is therefore where the point in which residential outdoor water use can be minimized without overly increasing surface temperatures and negatively impacting home values. This study examines the impacts of spatial composition of different vegetation types on land surface temperature (LST), outdoor water use (OWU), and property sales value (PSV) in 302 local residential communities in the Phoenix metropolitan area, Arizona using remotely sensed data and regression analysis. In addition, the spatial composition of vegetation cover was optimized to achieve a relatively lower LST and OWU and maintain a relatively higher PSV at the same time. We found that drought-tolerant landscaping that is composed of mostly shrubs and trees adapted to the desert environment is the most water efficient way to reduce LST, but grass contributes to a higher PSV. Research findings suggest that different residential landscaping strategies may be better suited for different neighborhoods and goal sets can be used by urban planners and city managers to better design urban residential landscaping for more efficient water conservation and urban heat mitigation for desert cities.
... The program aims to reduce water demand by offering Las Vegas water customers a subsidy for replacing lawns with desert landscape. Residential lawn irrigation accounts for over half of all residential water consumption in southwestern cities (Sovocool et al. 2006), and in Las Vegas, residential outdoor uses make up nearly 30% of total water deliveries. 1 Demand management strategies targeting lawn irrigation may therefore achieve substantial savings. ...
... 6. Deoreo et al. (2000) and Sovocool et al. (2006) assess the savings from a Cash-for-Grass pilot study taking place prior to the rollout of the full program. In the same study Sovocool et al. also assess savings from a selection of rebate participants in 2003. ...
... The participants in these middle years therefore undertook conversions yielding the lowest "bang for the buck," which suggests a potential trade-off faced by the water authority between increasing participation and increasing program efficiency. 20 Figure 4 also presents a comparison between my estimates and two estimates derived by the water authority (Sovocool et al. 2006). While I provide more discussion in appendix section A3.4, ...
... Cash-for-grass programs are a popular approach for incentivizing lawn replacement. In these programs, water agencies offer customers a rebate for replacing irrigated grass in their yards with drought tolerant landscaping [6,[12][13][14]. Even with cash incentives, however, social barriers-such as the preference for lawns, requirements for an initial expenditure outlay, and neighborhood norms and covenants-limit participation [15,16]. ...
... The incremental water savings ∆W is equal to the product of the unit water savings associated with replacing lawn with drought tolerant landscaping (w ′′ , units of liters per square meter per year), the probability a randomly chosen resident will participate (p (a), unitless), the average lawn area replaced with drought tolerant landscaping (ℓ (a), units of square meters), and the number-distribution of outdoor areas across the utility's service area n (a) (units of inverse square meters), where the product n (a) ∆a represents the number of SFR parcels with outdoor areas in the incremental range a to a + ∆a: ∆W = w ′′ p (a) ℓ (a) n (a) ∆a. The unit water savings, w ′′ , captures the influence of local climate [23], cultural preferences for outdoor plants [13,[24][25][26], and water use behavior [13] on the water savings realized when a unit area of lawn is replaced with drought tolerant landscaping. For its service area, IRWD adopts a value of w ′′ = 1711 liters per square meter per year. ...
... The incremental water savings ∆W is equal to the product of the unit water savings associated with replacing lawn with drought tolerant landscaping (w ′′ , units of liters per square meter per year), the probability a randomly chosen resident will participate (p (a), unitless), the average lawn area replaced with drought tolerant landscaping (ℓ (a), units of square meters), and the number-distribution of outdoor areas across the utility's service area n (a) (units of inverse square meters), where the product n (a) ∆a represents the number of SFR parcels with outdoor areas in the incremental range a to a + ∆a: ∆W = w ′′ p (a) ℓ (a) n (a) ∆a. The unit water savings, w ′′ , captures the influence of local climate [23], cultural preferences for outdoor plants [13,[24][25][26], and water use behavior [13] on the water savings realized when a unit area of lawn is replaced with drought tolerant landscaping. For its service area, IRWD adopts a value of w ′′ = 1711 liters per square meter per year. ...
Outdoor watering of lawns accounts for about half of single-family residential potable water demand in the arid southwest United States. Consequently, many water utilities in the region offer customers cash rebates to replace lawns with drought tolerant landscaping. Here we present a parcel-scale analysis of water savings achieved by a “cash-for-grass” program offered to 60,000 homes in Southern California. The probability a resident will participate in the program, and the lawn area they replace with drought tolerant landscaping, both increase with a home’s outdoor area. The participation probability is also higher if a home is occupied by its owner. From these results we derive and test a simple and generalizable probabilistic framework for upscaling water conservation behavior at the parcel-scale to overall water savings at the city- or water provider-scale, accounting for the probability distribution of parcel outdoor areas across a utility’s service area, climate, cultural drivers of landscape choices, conservation behavior, equity concerns, and financial incentives.
... In a review of end-use data from a series of single-family residential studies in the U.S. over time, DeOreo and Mayer (2012) found that outdoor use was strongly affected by a household's irrigated area, landscape water-use intensity, and whether the home had a pool, automatic irrigation system, or excess irrigation. Several studies have also concluded that landscape composition substantially impacts irrigation use (Boyer et al. 2014;Haley et al. 2007;Mayer et al. 1999;Nelson 1987;Sovocool et al. 2006). Given the complex interplay of factors, however, mechanisms underlying reduced irrigation use in regionally appropriate landscapes remain unknown. ...
... For example, the Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ (FFL) Program supports residential water conservation by promoting low maintenance plants and environmentally sustainable practices among Florida's homeowners (University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences [UF/ IFAS] 2008). Assessments of water consumption and parcel-level data have shown that installation of low wateruse landscaping can result in irrigation savings (Boyer et al. 2014;Sovocool et al. 2006). In Nevada, Sovocool et al. (2006) found that landscape conversions from turfgrass to water-efficient plants resulted in a 30% decrease in average annual main-meter consumption. ...
... Assessments of water consumption and parcel-level data have shown that installation of low wateruse landscaping can result in irrigation savings (Boyer et al. 2014;Sovocool et al. 2006). In Nevada, Sovocool et al. (2006) found that landscape conversions from turfgrass to water-efficient plants resulted in a 30% decrease in average annual main-meter consumption. In Florida, Boyer et al. (2014) determined that single-family homes with FFL used 50% less irrigation than traditionally landscaped homes. ...
Efforts to mitigate outdoor water use in Florida’s urban landscapes increasingly include promotion of regionally appropriate landscaping based on its documented effectiveness. Targeted initiatives, however, require an understanding of mechanisms underpinning low irrigation use in single-family homes with Florida-Friendly Landscaping (FFL). This paper reports survey research conducted in southwest Florida to identify factors associated with irrigation practices among FFL clients. Results indicate that approximately half of survey participants irrigated less frequently than once per week year-round. Aesthetic considerations, horticultural knowledge, and membership in a homeowner’s association (HOA) with rules regarding yard care were key variables underlying landscape characteristics and maintenance, while property values, water conservation attitudes, lawn grass, and in-ground irrigation system use significantly predicted irrigation practices. Homes with in-ground irrigation systems were more than six times more likely to water their landscapes at least once per week during the warm season when residential outdoor water use is at its peak. A $100,000 increase in a home’s market value increased the odds of weekly watering by a multiplicative factor of two, whereas a one-point increase in a six-item Likert scale used to measure a homeowner’s water conservation attitude decreased the odds by 76%. Homes with no grass in the landscape were 71% less likely to water on a weekly basis. Providing homeowners, and HOAs, with educational resources that build on existing support for water conservation could augment adoption of low maintenance plants and sustainable practices in Florida’s urban landscapes.
... Population growth and increasing competition for water between agriculture and urban areas, as well as among cities, are straining available water resources in Western North America, raising questions about the availability of water for lawns relative to other uses (MacDonald, 2007;McDonald et al., 2011). Cities such as Mesa, AZ, Las Vegas, NV, Austin, TX, Albuquerque, NM, along with several regions in California, have funded turf replacement as a way to achieve long-term reductions in water demand (Addink, 2005;Agthe, Garcia, & Goodnough, 1986;Hollis, 2014;Sovocool, Morgan, & Bennett, 2006). Even without fully removing lawns, changing the varieties of planted species and associated social expectations of yard appearances, reducing excess irrigation, and promoting tree canopy cover to reduce turf water losses can potentially yield more drought-tolerant and amenable landscapes in arid western U.S. climates (Johnson, Rossi, & Horgan, 2013;Kjelgren, Rupp, & Kilgren, 2000;Litvak, Bijoor, & Pataki, 2013). ...
... Despite investments by some water utilities in turf replacement, however, evaluative studies of the effects of turf replacement programs are limited (DeOreo & Mayer, 2012;Mayer, Lander, & Glenn, 2015). In general, retrospective evaluations can examine: (1) effects of turf removal on water use and conservation savings (Hollis, 2014;Sovocool & Rosales, 2004;Sovocool et al., 2006), (2) changes in land cover and the composition of plant species after replacing turf (Agthe et al., 1986;Sovocool & Morgan, 2005), (3) socio-demographic trends in program participation, (4) social preferences of implemented (and presumably water conserving) landscapes on the part of both residents and professional landscapers (Hooper, Endter-Wada, & Johnson, 2008;Kilgren, Endter-Wada, Kjelgren, & Johnson, 2010;McCammon, Marquart-Pyatt, & Kopp, 2009), and (5) cost-effectiveness of such programs for water savings and associated cost drivers (Addink, 2005;Agthe et al., 1986;Baker, 2017;Helfand, Sik Park, Nassauer, & Kosek, 2006;Jessup & DeShazo, 2016;Sovocool & Rosales, 2004;Testa & Newton, 1993). Here, we address two of the above topics by presenting an analysis of land cover composition and structure that results from turf replacement, as well as socio-demographic trends in program participation. ...
... The size of contemporary turf rebate programs, along with available data, has grown to support more comprehensive evaluations. Larger studies with more participants have, to date, generally (but not consistently) identified water savings from turf replacement, though a host of factors influence the effectiveness of programs, especially properly-installed irrigation systems (Hollis, 2014;Sovocool et al., 2006). Controlling for those factors requires significant data collection, including detailed account-level data, well-designed experiments, advanced statistical procedures and large datasets to control for confounding factors, and imagery (Hollis, 2014;Sovocool & Rosales, 2004;Sovocool et al., 2006;Tull et al., 2016). ...
Water utilities incentivize turf replacement to promote water conservation, but the effects of such programs have received limited evaluations. In 2014, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) undertook an unprecedented investment to incentive turf replacement throughout Southern California in response to a serious Statewide drought. MWD devoted $350 million to the program, resulting in more than 46,000 rebate payments (25,000 in Los Angeles County) to remove 15.3 million square meters of turf. The program implementation provided a unique opportunity to address research gaps on turf replacement implementation. We analyzed socioeconomic and spatial trends of program participants and assessed landscape changes from turf replacement using a random sample of properties (4% of LA County participants in 2014–16). Specifically, we used a novel and cost-effective approach Google Earth Street View to characterize landscapes in front yards and created a typology of land cover types. Results showed: post-replacement landscapes had a diversity of land cover types – diverse yards with several land cover types, as well as more homogenous yards with a single land cover such as woodchips, bare soil, gravel, and artificial turf. Analysis also indicated some evidence of “neighborhood adoption” effects. We describe the need for longitudinal studies to understand long-term effects of turf replacement and associated water use, and suggest that water utilities should also evaluate results in backyards, which requires site visits. This study provides a novel contribution that can be replicated over space and time to further knowledge of turf replacement program implementations and evaluation.
... Technological change and increasing efficiency of water fixtures and appliances contributed significantly to this decline (Suero, Mayer, and Rosenberg 2012;Cahill and Lund 2013). Further, changes in landscaping and irrigation practices decreased outdoor water use (Mini, Hogue, and Pincetl 2014;Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett 2006), particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. However, temporal and regional variation indicates further complexity and highlights the need to consider changes outside the direct control of water managers both external (e.g. ...
... As stated above, the LVVWD uses regulation, incentives and education to promote water conservation. While some of these efforts date back to the early 1990s, they were intensified in 2003 due to the ongoing drought (Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett 2006). This increased focus on conservation in 2003 corresponds with the beginning of a multi-year period of accelerated consumption decrease, making water stress response a plausible driver. ...
... Building and landscape code changes had the largest influence on model quality, due to the rapid population growth in Las Vegas during the study period. This is consistent with recent case based analyses that have found that building level technologies and landscape changes such as xeriscaping and efficient irrigation systems contributed to the observed decrease in per capita water use (Suero, Mayer, and Rosenberg 2012;Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett 2006). Additionally, Coomes et al. find that low-flow appliances was the primary contributor to the decline in per capita water use across US cities (Coomes et al. 2010). ...
Over the past twenty-five years, per capita water use has declined in many US cities. Technological and policy changes partially explain this decline, but variables beyond the control of water managers also influence water use including external (e.g. drought) and emergent (e.g. public attention) changes. Importantly, these variables interact and the relationships between these variables and water use are non-stationary. However, many models assume fixed relationships between water use and its drivers, and limited interaction between variables. Here we present a flexible socio-hydrological approach to model how conservation strategies, and external and emergent changes, interact to influence per capita water use. We apply this approach to Las Vegas and find that marginal water rates, code changes coupled with population growth, and conservation response to water stress are the key drivers of the observed decline. Critically, modeling these strategies in absence of their connections to population growth and water stress cannot fully account for observed changes.
... While the difference in watering requirements of mesic vs. xeric landscaping are well established (Mayer, Lander, & Glenn, 2015) and short-run savings have been demonstrated in a few cases (Sovocool, Morgan, & Bennett, 2006;Medina & Gumper, 2004) a number of questions remain unanswered about turf-removal subsidy programs. For example, do these programs produce long-term savings, or do they suffer from the offsetting behaviors of the rebound effect exhibited for many energy efficiency interventions (Sorrell, Dimitropoulos, & Sommerville, 2009;Gillingham, Kotchen, Rapson, & Wagner, 2013) and for the installation of low-flow plumbing (Campbell, Johnson, & Larson, 2004) and day-of-week watering restrictions (Castledine, Moeltner, Price, & Stoddard, 2014)? 1 Do they conserve water in a cost-effective manner relative to other forms of conservation or supply augmentation? ...
... Perhaps the most well-known of SNWA's efforts at curbing outdoor water use was the Water Smart Landscapes program. (Sovocool et al., 2006;SNWA, 2014). This means that for more recent WSL cohorts, the rebate incentive could cover most of the cost of a typical conversion. ...
... As a whole, we find clear evidence that the savings generated by the WSL program are consistent with (though somewhat smaller) than previous engineering estimates by Sovocool et al. (2006) and previously published estimates relying on neighborhood average consumption rather than household consumption (Brelsford & Abbott, 2017). Fig. 4 shows the β k coefficients for k ∈ [−11, 11] for the matched control group in each season. ...
Understanding the effectiveness of alternative approaches to water conservation is crucially important for ensuring the security and reliability of water services for urban residents. We analyze data from one of the longest-running "cash for grass" policies - the Southern Nevada Water Authority's Water Smart Landscapes program, where homeowners are paid to replace grass with xeric landscaping. We use a twelve year long panel dataset of monthly water consumption records for 300,000 households in Las Vegas, Nevada. Utilizing a panel difference-in-differences approach, we estimate the average water savings per square meter of turf removed. We find that participation in this program reduced the average treated household's consumption by 18 percent. We find no evidence that water savings degrade as the landscape ages, or that water savings per unit area are influenced by the value of the rebate. Depending on the assumed time horizon of benefits from turf removal, we find that the WSL program cost the water authority about $1.62 per thousand gallons of water saved, which compares favorably to alternative means of water conservation or supply augmentation.
... Household-level adaptation to climatic threats can contribute to increasing the resilience and flexibility of interacting physical and social systems (Qin et al., 2015;Wamsler and Brink, account for 50-90% of household water consumption. The majority of this water is used to irrigate lawns (Hurd, Hilaire, and White, 2006;Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett, 2006). 1 Adopting drought tolerant plants (DTPs) is one way for households to manage residential landscapes to deal with changing water availability induced by climate change. Residential landscapes with more DTPs can reduce the costs of irrigation and maintenance and contribute to sustainable use of water resources. ...
... An effective way to conserve water and prepare for uncertain water availability is to develop lowwater-consuming landscapes (Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett, 2006), specifically by planting water- (Hurd, Hilaire, and White, 2006;Shober, Denny, and Broschat, 2010), and xeriscape conversion (Chow and Brazel, 2012;Sovocool, 2005;Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett, 2006). Some fundamental xeriscaping principles include rational planning, low irrigation, and planting low-water-consuming plants (Hurd, Hilaire, and White, 2006). ...
... An effective way to conserve water and prepare for uncertain water availability is to develop lowwater-consuming landscapes (Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett, 2006), specifically by planting water- (Hurd, Hilaire, and White, 2006;Shober, Denny, and Broschat, 2010), and xeriscape conversion (Chow and Brazel, 2012;Sovocool, 2005;Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett, 2006). Some fundamental xeriscaping principles include rational planning, low irrigation, and planting low-water-consuming plants (Hurd, Hilaire, and White, 2006). ...
Adopting drought tolerant plants (DTPs) to conserve water is a potential adaptation to the
predicted effects of climate change in the Midwest. Survey responses from 624 Missouri
households were analyzed using a univariate probit model. DTP adoption was positively correlated
with both low and high household incomes, living in rural subdivisions, time spent gardening, proenvironment
attitudes, and concerns about drought. Policy interventions in newly drought-prone
areas might include subsidizing the up-front cost of DTPs, requiring their use in new housing
developments so DTPs are the default for buyers, and targeted educational efforts to environmental
and gardening groups and rural residents.
... Scenarios S2 and S3 are with the modification of bylaw on lot coverage, whereas Scenario S4 is an application of xeriscaping in all 11 designs as shown in Table 1. Xeriscaping is low water-use landscaping in place of traditional turf ( Sovocool et al., 2006). A xeriscaping of 15% of turf and 85% of water conserving species was designed in a typical SF building lawn of the neighborhood and its detail is given in Supplementary Material C. The results of scenario analysis show that the reduction in per capita EF (aggregated WEC nexus) of water distribution and landscaping was highest in Scenario S4 (xeriscaping) among four scenarios ( Figure SM.4 in the supplementary materials) and Design D1 among all designs. ...
... The xeriscaping would reduce per capita water demand, energy use, and considerable carbon sequestration. Xeriscaping can save a high amount of water, such as up to 54% ( Gleick et al., 2003) and 76% of irrigation demand ( Sovocool et al., 2006). The estimated water saving of 51% of irrigation demand in xeriscaping in this study is comparable with Gleick et al. (2003) and Sovocool et al. (2006). ...
... Xeriscaping can save a high amount of water, such as up to 54% ( Gleick et al., 2003) and 76% of irrigation demand ( Sovocool et al., 2006). The estimated water saving of 51% of irrigation demand in xeriscaping in this study is comparable with Gleick et al. (2003) and Sovocool et al. (2006). The reduced water demand will also save the energy use in water distribution and upstream energy. ...
Neighborhood densification is a strategy primarily applied to reduce per capita infrastructure and land requirement. In particular, densification alters residential landscaping that in turn affects water distribution systems. An integrated study of the water-energy-carbon (WEC) dynamics of water distribution and residential landscaping under neighborhood densification is lacking in the published literature. A conceptual framework was developed and applied as a case study to a planned neighborhood in the Okanagan Valley (BC, Canada). For this neighborhood, 11 alternative designs with varying combinations of single-family and multi-family lots representing different residential densities were investigated. Water consumption, energy use, and net carbon emissions by water distribution and residential landscaping systems were combined and represented by ecological footprint. The results show that per capita ecological footprint has a power relationship with net residential density despite of a linear relationship between population and net residential density. The power relationship reveals a high dependency of per capita ecological footprint on residential density, which helps to identify an optimal density. Two-dimensional analysis of the WEC nexus scenarios indicates that xeriscaping can reduce per capita ecological footprint ranging from roughly 1% reduction in high density to 66% in low density neighborhood. Also, the effects of xeriscaping on the WEC nexus are highly density dependent. This research can be extended by including varying neighborhood configuration and building stories. The results emphasize the importance of amending relevant policies for constructing medium to high-density buildings in urban neighborhoods to achieve an optimal WEC nexus.
... In parts of the United States that experience periodic drought and increasing costs for water management, cities have especially incentivized water conservation to support short-term drought management, long-term reliability, and regulatory compliance (AWE 2022;Chesnutt 2020;Cooley et al. 2019;DeOreo and Mayer 2012;Garcia et al. 2019;Gilligan et al. 2018;Hess et al. 2017;Richter et al. 2020;Sovocool et al. 2006). Messaging, drought-based surcharges, and fallowing of lawns have primarily been used by water utilities to manage short-term water scarcity, while conservation-based rate structures, educational programs, and technology and infrastructure investments have supported long-term strategies to reduce demand (Lee et al. 2024;Nieswiadomy 1992;Pint 1999;Quesnel et al. 2019;Smith and Wang 2008;Wang and Chermak 2021). ...
... Historic replacement rates from rebate programs are low. Some agencies in California, especially Southern California, invested significantly in turf replacement during the 2011-2016 drought, supported by studies that evaluated cost-effectiveness and lessons from varying program designs in California and other regions(MWD 2013;Pincetl et al. 2019;Sovocool et al. 2006;Sovocool and Morgan 2005). However, recent studies indicate that turf replacement investments result in multiplier effects, whereby one funded turf rebate results in one or more voluntary turf replacements by nearby properties ...
In the United States, to promote water conservation, water agencies can offer rebates and incentives for adopting efficient fixtures, appliances, irrigation systems, and low‐water landscapes. Limited research has evaluated the prevalence of rebate programs and the rates of replacement achieved by the programs. Using a statewide survey of program offerings and a database of over 1.78 million rebates in California from 2009 to 2020, we investigate two questions. First, what is the prevalence of urban water conservation programs and what activities do they fund? Second, at what rate do programs implement efficiency measures and how do rates vary across years? Results indicate that approximately two hundred agencies in California have incentive programs for customers and many also have education and outreach programs. Rebates for toilets, clothes washers, irrigation controllers, and turf replacement are prominent. The average annual rates of replacement from 2011 to 2020 differ across regions and spiked during drought. Annual replacement rates of toilets ranged from 0.1% to 2%, but rose to as much as 5% in years with drought. Average annual replacement rates for clothes washers, turf replacement, and irrigation controllers were lower (less than 1%). The presented approach offers insights for utilities to use in conservation planning and demand forecasting.
... This indicates that climate-related differences in outdoor water use contribute significantly to the high water use in arid western states (Emrath, 2000). Landscape irrigation contributes to most of southern Nevada's consumptive water use (Sovocool et al., 2006). With reports that landscape water use averages 40% to 70% of residential water use in the United States (Ferguson, 1987) and increasing frequency of summer droughts in parts of the United States (such as the northeast) that are unaccustomed to droughts (Wolfe et al., 2008), it is clear that efficient water use in the outdoor environment will become part of long-term public strategies for conserving natural resources. ...
... Thus, a properly implemented xeriscapeä has the potential to reduce water consumption without compromising functionality and beauty of the urban landscape. A 5-year study has shown that xeriscapes in Las Vegas, NV, single-family homes use 76% less water than turfgrass landscapes (Sovocool et al., 2006). To fully realize the water savings of xersicapes, emphasis must be placed on the irrigation system. ...
In the United States, urban population growth, improved living standards, limited development of new water supplies, and dwindling current water supplies are causing the demand for treated municipal water to exceed the supply. Although water used to irrigate the residential urban landscape will vary according to factors such as landscape type, management practices, and region, landscape irrigation can vary from 40% to 70% of household use of water. So, the efficient use of irrigation water in urban landscapes must be the primary focus of water conservation. In addition, plants in a typical residential landscape often are given more water than is required to maintain ecosystem services such as carbon regulation, climate control, and preservation of aesthetic appearance. This implies that improvements in the efficiency of landscape irrigation will yield significant water savings. Urban areas across the United States face different water supply and demand issues and a range of factors will affect how water is used in the urban landscape. The purpose of this review is to summarize how irrigation and water application technologies; landscape design and management strategies; the relationship among people, plants, and the urban landscape; the reuse of water resources; economic and noneconomic incentives; and policy and ordinances impact the efficient use of water in the urban landscape.
... In 2015, 77 cities in 16 US states offered financial incentives to encourage homeowners to replace their lawns. This land cover change from turfgrass to mixed shrubs and trees reduces water and often fertilizer use (Sovocool et al 2006, Hilaire 2009) but may have unintended consequences for water quality (Amador et al 2007). In non-urban ecosystems, the change from grassland to shrubland leads to loss of nitrogen (N) from the plant-soil system through erosion, runoff, and leaching (Parsons et al 1996, Turnbull et al 2010, Yusuf et al 2015. ...
... However, lawns require substantial water inputs (on average 1 liter/m 2 daily) and consume 7-10 times more water in semi-arid climates compared to mesic regions (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) 2003, Milesi et al 2005, USDA, National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) 2011). As an alternative, shrub-dominated landscapes are promoted for their water savings (35%-75% reduction compared to turfgrass) in addition to aesthetic and biodiversity benefits (McPherson 1990, Sovocool et al 2006, Beumer and Martens 2015. ...
As a result of uncertain resource availability and growing populations, city managers are implementing conservation plans that aim to provide services for people while reducing household resource use. For example, in the US, municipalities are incentivizing homeowners to replace their water-intensive turfgrass lawns with water-efficient landscapes consisting of interspersed drought-tolerant shrubs and trees with rock or mulch groundcover (e.g. xeriscapes, rain gardens, water-wise landscapes). While these strategies are likely to reduce water demand, the consequences for other ecosystem services are unclear. Previous studies in controlled, experimental landscapes have shown that conversion from turfgrass to shrubs may lead to high rates of nutrient leaching from soils. However, little is known about the long-term biogeochemical consequences of this increasingly common land cover change across diverse homeowner management practices. We explored the fate of soil nitrogen (N) across a chronosequence of land cover change from turfgrass to water-efficient landscapes in privately owned yards in metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, in the arid US Southwest. Soil nitrate (NO 3 –N) pools were four times larger in water-efficient landscapes (25±4 kg-NO 3 –N/ha; 0–45 cm depth) compared to turfgrass lawns (6±7 kg-NO 3 –N/ha). Soil-NO 3 –N also varied significantly with time since landscape conversion; the largest pools occurred at 9–13 years after turfgrass removal and declined to levels comparable to turfgrass thereafter. Variation in soil-NO 3 –N with landscape age was strongly influenced by management practices related to soil water availability, including shrub cover, sub-surface plastic sheeting, and irrigation frequency. Our findings show that transitioning from turfgrass to water-efficient residential landscaping can lead to an accumulation of-NO 3 –N that may be lost from the plant rooting zone over time following irrigation or rainfall. These results have implications for best management practices to optimize the benefits of water-conserving landscapes while protecting water quality.
... Throughout the program's history, there have been limits on the maximum rebate available for residential consumers, and a tired structure where the first area converted receives the full rebate value, and additional areas beyond that receive a lower rebate per-square foot. The tiers and caps on rebate area and total rebate amount are set at high enough values that they are likely to have had little influence on conversion behavior for single family residential homes. 1 SNWA notes that typical landscape conversions cost about $15 per m 2 ($1.40 per square foot in 2000 dollars), although higher end landscapes can cost substantially more Sovocool et al. (2006); Southern Nevada Water Authority (2018) This means that for more recent WSL cohorts, the rebate incentive could cover most of the cost of a typical conversion. A more detailed history of the WSL rebate structure and limits is outlined in Brelsford (2014). ...
We test the existence of a neighborhood based peer effect around participation in an incentive based conservation program called `Water Smart Landscapes' (WSL) in the city of Las Vegas, Nevada. We use 15 years of geo-coded daily records of WSL program applications and approvals compiled by the Southern Nevada Water Authority and Clark County Tax Assessors rolls for home characteristics. We use this data to test whether a spatially mediated peer effect can be observed in WSL participation likelihood at the household level. We show that epidemic spreading models provide more flexibility in modeling assumptions, and also provide one mechanism for addressing problems associated with correlated unobservables than hazards models which can also be applied to address the same questions. We build networks of neighborhood based peers for 16 randomly selected neighborhoods in Las Vegas and test for the existence of a peer based influence on WSL participation by using a Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Recovered epidemic spreading model (SEIR), in which a home can become infected via autoinfection or through contagion from its infected neighbors. We show that this type of epidemic model can be directly recast to an additive-multiplicative hazard model, but not to purely multiplicative one. Using both inference and prediction approaches we find evidence of peer effects in several Las Vegas neighborhoods.
... One such sustainable landscape design approaches is xeriscaping proposed in Colorado, America, in 1982(Sovocool et al., 2006. Due to concerns about urban water distribution and quality, public policy has shifted to xeriscaping (Martin and Stabler, 2001). ...
... The study concluded that turf took 8.2 hours per month and $680 per year to maintain, while smartscape took 6 hours per month and $474 per year to maintain. Landscape conversion costs are dependent upon the area, the contractor, and scale of the project; however, on average, the cost ranged from approximately $.50 to $2.04 per square foot conversion (Sovocool et al. 2006; Rymer n.d.). ...
In times of water scarcity, water conservation measures from authorities are primarily directed to the residential sector—homeowners and renters who engage in individual activities to reduce water consumption. Business owners, manufacturers, and institutional workers—the ICI sector, generally, do not receive targeted information and education on water savings measures, and when they do, the information, typically, refers to indoor technologies, and behavior choice. In answer to this shortfall, this research illustrates how the ICI sector might engage in outdoor water conservation and, thus, realize water savings using the well-established Pittenger’s Simplified Landscape Irrigation Design Estimation (SLIDE) formula that estimates outdoor water conservation/savings for the lesser studied industrial, commercial, and institutional (ICI) sector. We applied the SLIDE formula five diverse climate areas in Texas to demonstrate the potential water savings in each, as well as identifying the type of water technology measures that yielded the greatest water savings for outdoor ICI landscapes. Overall, the greatest water savings for outdoor ICI landscapes was realized through smartscape design with soil moisture sensors-SMS technology, second best. Our findings will provide ICI facility owners/managers with knowledge and examples of a simplified system for quantitative decision making when considering choices among technologies and/or practices toward outdoor water conservation for their own facilities.
... Bretzel et al. (2009) in Tuscany, Italy, showed the reduction in maintenance costs and increase in water saving when urban UGS were managed as wildflower meadows. Additionally, "xeriscaping" (Smith and Hilaire, 1999), creating meadow-like vegetation using drought tolerant native plants in arid urban areas, can conserve a significant amount of freshwater compared to lawns (Sovocool et al., 2006). This will provide a greater amount of freshwater for drinking and other essential services (Naguourney, 2015). ...
... Water conserving landscapes offer a potential solution to reduce the impact of suburban development and improve water quality and quantity. In this paper, we use water conserving landscapes broadly to describe a range of green infrastructure practices (Benedict and McMahon 2006) focused on water conservation, including low impact development (LID) (US EPA 2020), water sensitive urban design (WSUD) (Donofrio et al. 2009), xeriscaping (Sovocool et al. 2006), and other residential practices that reduce demand on potable water (Rostad et al. 2016). For example, rain barrels and cisterns harvest stormwater runoff from roofs, reducing stormwater volume, and, if stored, water is used to replace potable water, reducing water demand (Steffen et al. 2013). ...
... States in the mid-1980s. Afterwards, the real effectiveness of Xeriscape was realized when a savings of between 20% and 53% was achieved from the water used in the gardens of the detached house owners located in the Southern Nevada region of the United States in the 1990s (Testa and Newton, 1993;Nelson, 1994;Stinnett, 2003;Medina and Gumper, 2004;Sovocool et. al., 2006;Abacıoğlu Gitmiş, 2020). Sovocool and Morgan (2005) stated that an average of 2271 liters of water was saved on an area of 1 m 2 in the planted spaces in the regions designed with xeriscape. In another study conducted in the State of California, it was determined that annual water consumption decreased by 54% and maintenance costs decrea ...
... Hotter and drier climates globally, coupled with periodic drought, often necessitate large quantities of irrigation water to maintain visual quality, growth, and development of landscape plants (Mee et al., 2003). Approximately 60-90% of household water is used for urban landscape irrigation in the western United States (Sovocool et al., 2006;Center for Water-Efficient Landscaping, 2020;Arizona Department of Water Resources, 2022). However, due to the increasing water demand of a growing population, designing landscapes with drought-tolerant adaptive plants or plants native to arid and semiarid areas is important for longterm water conservation in the western United States. ...
Many arid lands across the globe are experiencing more frequent and extreme droughts due to warmer temperatures resulting from climate change, less predictable precipitation patterns, and decreased soil moisture. Approximately 60–90% of household water is used for urban landscape irrigation in the western United States, necessitating the establishment of landscapes using drought-tolerant plants that conserve water. Shepherdia ×utahensis (hybrid buffaloberry) is a drought-tolerant plant with dense leaf trichomes (epidermal appendages) that may limit excessive water loss by transpiration. However, little is known about how S. ×utahensis regulates leaf heat balance when transpirational cooling is limited. The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of substrate water availability on plant growth and development and trichome density of S. ×utahensis. Ninety-six clonally propagated plants were grown using an automated irrigation system, and their substrate volumetric water contents were controlled at 0.05–0.40 m³·m⁻³ for 2 months. Results showed that water stress impaired plant growth and increased the proportion of visibly wilted leaves. Shepherdia ×utahensis acclimates to drought by reducing cell dehydration and canopy overheating, which may be accomplished through decreased stomatal conductance, smaller leaf development, leaf curling, increased leaf thickness, and greater root-to-shoot ratio. Leaf trichome density increased when stem water potential decreased, resulting in greater leaf reflectance of visible light. Cell and leaf expansion were restricted under water stress, and negative correlations were exhibited between epidermal cell size and trichome density. According to our results, plasticity in leaves and roots aids plants in tolerating abiotic stresses associated with drought. Acclimation of S. ×utahensis to water stress was associated with increased trichome density due to plasticity in cell size. Dense trichomes on leaves reflected more lights which appeared to facilitate leaf temperature regulation.
... Since the 1980s, xeriscaping, a form of adaptive landscaping in dry climates that strongly promotes efficient irrigation technology and uses drought-tolerant plants, has been adopted by water agencies in the southwestern United States (Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett 2006). Finding that 66 percent of water savings in xeriscapes are realized through irrigation efficiency, Hilaire et al. (2008) underlined that the "emphasis must be placed on irrigation systems" (2086). ...
Historically, urban developers, politicians, and public water utilities have invented Los Angeles as a semi-tropical oasis in a dry climate. But during the Californian drought of 2011–2016, the city’s residential gardens became a new frontier of water conservation policy. Water agencies started to subsidize the replacement of lushly irrigated lawns with California Friendly® landscapes, thereby endorsing a technology-centered “infrastructuring” of gardens to increase water conservation. This approach contrasts with California native plant gardening promoted by nature conservationists, which uses vernacular horticultural techniques to restore native plant biodiversity and reduce irrigation. The article shows that each approach has important political implications for urban space and water use, the value accorded to nature and gardening work, and relations between citizens and experts. Analyzing the differences between these approaches, we critically interrogate Los Angeles’ modern infrastructure regime that shapes water conservation policy. Particular attention is paid to how new material objects, knowledges, and practices in gardening recompose relationships between water, plants, technology, humans, and urban space. We argue that the notion of infrastructuring gardens offers a fruitful lens for ascertaining how expert cultures shape urban environmental change and how alternative gardening practices (re)produce urban nature differently.
... Xeriscaping, which is the practice of replacing lawns and other irrigation-dependent landscapes with drought-tolerant plants, mulch, and efficient irrigation, is being incentivized through innovative programs by a number of utility providers. In southern Nevada, for example, a five-year study showed that homes that had converted turf lawns to xeriscaped landscapes saw a 30% annual reduction in total household water use, equating to nearly 100,000 gallons annually (Sovocool et al. 2006). ...
“Nature-based Solutions” (NbS) can play an important role in community
adaptation and resilience by not only ameliorating climate-related risks but also through
enhancing the quality of life for community residents. This guide delves into the opportunities for integrating NbS into community adaptation planning processes with a special focus on the U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit's “Steps to Resilience” framework.
... Intensive landscaping of mixed plant materials consumes a huge amount of water, whereas xeriscaping, low water-use landscaping, and water-efficient landscaping are the key approaches for water conservation in arid and semi-arid regions [8]. Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett [9] found that single-family homes in Las Vegas, Nevada with water-efficient landscaping conserved 76% of the water used to irrigate turfgrass landscapes. ...
The scarcity of water available for landscape irrigation is a great challenge facing urban greenery and landscaping initiatives in arid and semi-arid regions. The Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University (IAU) has established a new campus on 3,2000,000 M² of land extended to the eastern coast of the Arabian Gulf. Since moving to the Eastern Campus in 2014, the IAU has been working hard to increase the green spaces to minimize the environmental impact of harsh climate, hard surfaces, and building masses. In its endeavor to achieve this goal, the management of landscape plant materials and irrigation systems has not kept pace with the development of the campus. Almost 800 M³/day of irrigation water has been pumped into the system however it fails to maintain good quality landscape plants. As a result, green spaces suffer great degradation especially during hot months due to insufficient irrigation management and other factors.
This study is an attempt to explore the relationship between the expansion of green spaces on the IAU’s Eastern Campus and their irrigation requirements. It applied the investigative analytical method to study and analyze the green spaces elements and their daily water budget, which led to the proposal of a synchronous management approach balancing the amount of water available for irrigation purposes and the qualities and expansion of landscape plant materials.
The study found that applying the required water budget to plants since their establishment on their permanent locations is a waste of available resources, but it must be gradually increased based on the plant's size, its growth rate, and seasonal changes. However, a synchronous management approach is required to ensure that good quality landscapes are maintained while using limited available resources.
... Arid landscaping does not necessarily mean zero water use (Çorbacı, et al, 2011). Recently, the advantages with having cost and benefit, encourage people to convert to xeric landscaping associated with Xeriscape" (Sovocool, et al., 2006). However, municipalities can contribute to less irrigation by making different visual arrangements in areas such as highway walls where people cannot perform recreational activities, while landscaping. ...
The world has realized the fact that the limited resources can't be sustainable for a long time. Sustainable transformation is a key issue to save the current resources and natural environment for the next generation. 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can help governments to focus on main issues to achieve a balance between social, environmental, and economic development. At this point, Goal 6 points out the importance of saving clean and safe freshwater resources. This chapter aims to present the link between municipalities and water security in Turkey. Turkey case was selected according to its risky position in the level of water stress. This study used recent reports and statistical data on environmental indicators related with freshwater resources and the implications of municipalities in Turkey. Environmental Indicators 2020 Report guided the authors to determine water indicators in Turkey. In addition, the available open access data from TURKSTAT is used to determine water supply services of municipalities.
... Xeriscaping, which is the practice of replacing lawns and other irrigation-dependent landscapes with drought-tolerant plants, mulch, and efficient irrigation, is being incentivized through innovative programs by a number of utility providers (Nolon 2016). In southern Nevada, a five-year study showed that homes that had converted turf lawns to xeriscaped landscapes saw a 30% annual reduction in total household water use, equating to nearly 100,000 gallons annually (Sovocool et al. 2006). In California, average annual turf-replacement water savings for among programs at ninewater agencies range from 18% to as much as 83%, depending on geographic climate differences, programmatic variability in landscape and irrigation replacement options, and other factors (Seapy 2015). ...
The Protective Value of Nature summarizes the latest science on the effectiveness of natural infrastructure in lowering the risks to communities from weather- and climate-related hazards. Over the past two decades, the body of research evaluating and quantifying the protective performance of natural infrastructure has increased significantly. Both model-based assessments and empirical evidence from recent floods, hurricanes, wildfires, and other natural disasters underscore the considerable risk reduction services that natural systems such as wetlands, reefs, dunes, floodplains, and forests provide. At the same time, natural infrastructure offers numerous additional benefits to society, from provision of food and clean water for people and habitat for fish and wildlife, to recreational opportunities, and cultural and spiritual fulfillment.
As we highlight throughout the report, evidence suggests that both natural and nature-based approaches for hazard mitigation can be equally or more effective than conventional structural approaches, and they are often more cost-effective. Since healthy, intact ecosystems are often adapted to natural disturbances such as floods and wildfires, they may have the capacity to withstand or recover from extreme weather- and climate-related hazards and adjust to ongoing environmental changes. Conventional structural approaches (i.e., “gray infrastructure”), on the other hand, often require ongoing maintenance, and may need costly repairs when they fail or are damaged. Thus, natural defenses can play a critical role in enhancing the resilience of human and ecological systems to natural disasters and climate change.
To advance the use of natural infrastructure across the country, the report offers key policy recommendations in the following areas:
--Protect and restore existing features providing natural defenses
--Mainstream use of natural infrastructure across sectors
--Improve risk assessment and encourage smart development
--Dramatically scale up investments in community resilience and supporting research
... Gage and Cooper (2015) report that land cover, including the amount of vegetation, explained water use more than physical or socioeconomic variables. Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett (2006) show that conversion from irrigated turf landscapes to less water-intensive xeric landscaping can produce up to 30% water savings in Las Vegas (NV). Remotely sensed estimations of both vegetated area and evapotranspiration have been used to estimate water savings potential in residential areas (Farag, Neale, Kjelgren, & Endter-Wada, 2011). ...
Problem, research strategy, and findings: Cities across the United States must have reliable and consistent water supplies to support public health, promote economic growth, and protect the environment. The way we build and design cities influences water consumption patterns; however, the most significant factors of the built environment and their associations with water use are not well explored. In this study we seek to reveal the ways in which characteristics of the built environment influence urban water use. We analyze spatially detailed data sets of water use and the built environment in four different cities in the western United States. Our findings indicate the built environment in these cities has a substantial influence on single-family residential water use. Specifically, we find that vegetated land cover, housing density, and lot size are influential determinants of water use. However, we did find variation in the strength and significance of these variables between the cities, and there remains a need for city-specific analyses.
Takeaway for practice: The results indicate even small changes to design and permitting for single-family residential properties can produce substantial cumulative water savings for cities. Based on our findings, we propose planning and design strategies such as form-based codes, zoning, and municipal ordinances to help growing cities reduce their water use. We present estimates of the water conservation impacts these strategies might achieve and provide specific examples of planning documents, municipal ordinances, and land use plans some cities are already using to reduce their water use. Overall, our study provides empirical evidence to further support integrating land use planning and water management.
... These traditional landscapes are not perceived to be appropriate for arid environments from a Sustainability 2018, 10 conservation standpoint, because of their increased reliance on supplemental water. Households with desert-type landscapes are reported to have lower water use than those with traditional landscapes [3][4][5][6]. Al-Ajlouni et al. [3] show that reduction in size of the irrigated area in the desert landscape is likely to be the major cause of their reduced water use, since only the planted areas in a desert landscape would require irrigation versus an entire lawn in a traditional landscape. What has not been demonstrated is whether reduced irrigation in both desert and traditional landscapes could aid water conservation, and how plants in these landscapes perform when subjected to reduced irrigation. ...
With increased interest in water conservation, traditional residential landscapes, which often include turfgrass and other high-water use plants, are often eliminated in favor of low water use desert landscape plants. But even with a desert landscape, home owners often overwater, thereby reducing any water conservation possibility. This experiment was designed to demonstrate that plants can retain physiological health even when on reduced irrigation. Three 26.8-m² plots each of two contrasting landscapes, designated as either traditional or desert, were installed in a desert environment using a pot-in-pot in-ground system. Plots were irrigated at 100% or 50% of evapotranspiration (ET) with either sprinklers (turf) or drip emitters (trees and shrubs) using a modified crossover design. Midday stem water potentials (Ψmd) for Arizona ash, Indian hawthorn and Cleveland sage exhibited seasonal differences. In Chinese pistache, Ψmd remained stable when irrigation treatments were lowered from late spring/early summer (−0.26 MPa) to late summer (−0.35 MPa). Chinese pistache maintained less negative osmotic potential when irrigation increased from 50% ET (−5.13 MPa) to 100% ET (−3.68 MPa) in early fall. The ability of Chinese pistache to maintain Ψmd and osmotic potential may indicate this species’ resilience to drought. Surprisingly, Arizona ash sustained greater relative water content in late fall when irrigated at 50% ET (92% elative water content (RWC)) than when irrigated at 100% ET (76% RWC) and this might be due to osmotic adjustment. The plants used in this study recovered after two weeks of full (100% ET) irrigation suggesting that landscape managers could irrigate at 50% ET for a limited period (approx. four weeks) as a way to conserve water.
... Throughout the program's history, there have been limits on the maximum rebate available for residential consumers, and a tired structure where the first area converted receives the full rebate value, and additional areas beyond that receive a lower rebate per-square foot. The tiers and caps on rebate area and total rebate amount are set at high enough values that they are likely to have had little influence on conversion behavior for single family residential homes. 1 SNWA notes that typical landscape conversions cost about $15 per m 2 ($1.40 per square foot in 2000 dollars), although higher end landscapes can cost substantially more (Sovocool et al. 2006;Southern Nevada Water Authority 2018). This means that for more recent WSL cohorts, the rebate incentive could cover most of the cost of a typical conversion. ...
We test the existence of a neighborhood based peer effect around participation in an incentive based conservation program called `Water Smart Landscapes' (WSL) in the city of Las Vegas, Nevada. We use 15 years of geo-coded daily records of WSL program applications and approvals compiled by the Southern Nevada Water Authority and Clark County Tax Assessors rolls for home characteristics. We use this data to test whether a spatially mediated peer effect can be observed in WSL participation likelihood at the household level. We show that epidemic spreading models provide more flexibility in modeling assumptions, and also provide one mechanism for addressing problems associated with correlated unobservables than hazards models which can also be applied to address the same questions. We build networks of neighborhood based peers for 16 randomly selected neighborhoods in Las Vegas and test for the existence of a peer based influence on WSL participation by using a Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Recovered epidemic spreading model (SEIR), in which a home can become infected via autoinfection or through contagion from its infected neighbors. We show that this type of epidemic model can be directly recast to an additive-multiplicative hazard model, but not to purely multiplicative one. Using both inference and prediction approaches we find evidence of peer effects in several Las Vegas neighborhoods.
... Findings differ with regard to the value of replacing turfgrass lawns with drought-tolerant landscaping as a water conservation measure. Sovocool, Morgan, and Bennett (2006) consider the value of low-water use landscaping in Las Vegas as a means of conserving urban water resources in a six-year study that tracks a xeric (low-water use) landscape group, a turf group, and a control group, monitoring their water consumption and landscape-related costs, including conversion and maintenance. Their results show an average decrease of 76% in outdoor irrigation and 30% in total water consumption among the households with a xeric landscape, with a marked reduction in peak summer water use. ...
Turf replacement rebate programs are a water-conservation measure promoted by many local and regional government agencies in California. In an effort to reduce outdoor water use, these programs offer financial incentives to homeowners who replace water-intensive lawns with drought-tolerant landscaping and more efficient irrigation systems. Previous studies, however, have found that landscaping choices are based on more than just economic factors; social pressure, neighborhood norms, and property value are also important considerations, and homeowners tend to opt for landscaping similar to that of their neighbors. This study uses GIS, linear regression, binary logistic regression, and a comparison of means to characterize a spatiotemporal spillover effect in turfgrass replacement rebate program participation data for Long Beach, California. The study determines that residents are more likely to participate in a Lawn-to-Garden program when one or more neighbors on the same block have already completed turfgrass replacement projects. In fact, a block with a single project completion is 5.8 times more likely to see a future application submission than blocks where no projects have been completed, and the highest future application rates occur on blocks where more than 8% of households have already completed a Lawn-to-Garden project. Project completions on adjacent blocks were found to be far less influential. These findings indicate that residents are more willing to replace their conventional landscaping with drought-tolerant gardens after an alternative norm has been established on visually adjacent properties, suggesting that local governments should consider focusing their turf replacement program marketing and support efforts on blocks with no prior participation.
... In Colorado, water conservation messages also became more prominent during the 1980s, beginning to challenge the status quo of limitless water supply ( Figure 11). In 1981, a Denver Water employee coined the term "xeriscape," which is now commonly known in the western U.S. and elsewhere as a minimal water use landscape design [63]. Near Denver, the large Foothills water treatment plant was opened by Denver Water in 1983 after years of obstacles [49]. ...
Many population centers in the American West rely on water from the Colorado River Basin, which has faced shortages in recent years that are anticipated to be exacerbated by climate change. Shortages to urban water supplies related to climate change will not be limited to cities dependent on the Colorado River. Considering this, addressing sustainable water governance is timely and critical for cities, states, and regions facing supply shortages and pollution problems. Engaging in sustainability transitions of these hydro-social systems will increase the ability of such systems to meet the water needs of urban communities. In this paper, we identify historical transitions in water governance and examine their context for three sites in the Colorado River Basin (Denver, Colorado, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Phoenix, Arizona) to provide insight for intentional transitions towards sustainable, or “water sensitive” cities. The comparative historical approach employed allows us to more fully understand differences in present-day water governance decisions between the sites, identify past catalysts for transitions, and recognize emerging patterns and opportunities that may impact current and future water governance in the Colorado River Basin and beyond.
... La causa del gran consumo de agua era que, por mucho tiempo, los inmigrantes traían sus modelos de paisajes urbanos, propios de la costa este de Estados Unidos, y plantaban especies exóticas con vegetación exuberante y grandes extensiones de pasto verde (The New York Times 2007). En un estudio de Sovocool et al. (2006) se comparó el gasto de agua de antes y el de después de la adopción del xeriscape, y se encontró que entre 60 y 90 por ciento del consumo doméstico se usaba para regar el pasto de los jardines. Figura 3 Las especies de árboles no adaptadas a la zona requieren riego constante. ...
The goal of this paper was to assess the pattern of species encompassing the present treescape of the city of Hermosillo. The period studied was 1992-2014, during which time the city experienced a prolonged hydrological drought lasting almost 13 years. This study sought to determine to what extent this water shortage influenced the adoption of drought-tolerant trees, especially native species. Data about the frequency and pattern of tree species was collected by sampling sidewalks and residential front yards. The study found that there were changes in the pattern of species comprising the present treescape. The Indian laurel (Ficus nitida) was a common and abundant tree in Hermosillo, but the study suggested that it was substituted by weeping fig (Ficus benjamina). Another species that became important was the black olive tree (Bucida buceras). Native species were more abundant in recently developed areas of the city, but not as much as black olive and weeping fig trees, which were the more abundant and well-distributed trees.
Increasing the area of drought‐tolerant native vegetation in urban parks is a potential strategy to adapt to growing water scarcity under climate change. With a case study in Perth, Australia, we undertake benefit–cost analyses to understand the potential impacts of modifying urban park landscape designs away from conventions dominated by watered grass towards alternatives with more native vegetation. Considering the costs of establishing and maintaining alternative designs alone, we find that local governments can save money by reducing the extent of watered grass cover in parks. Incorporating nonmarket benefits into the analyses provides evidence of positive community net benefits from making changes to conventional park designs. We show that an alternative park design featuring a mix of 60% native vegetation and 40% watered grass delivers the highest net benefits for both new park development and retrofits to existing parks. These findings suggest it is time to rethink urban park design norms in Australia to better align landscaping choices with community preferences under a changing climate.
Xeriscaping is the type of landscaping or gardening, which reduces or
eliminates the need for supplemental water or irrigation. It is promoted in regions
which do not have accessible, plentiful, or reliable supply of fresh water, and is
gaining acceptance in other regions as access to irrigation water is becoming
limited. Xeriscaped landscapes can reduce water use upto 60% or more compared
to regular landscapes. Green spaces are very important in maintaining the
ecological balance, but due to climate change and other problems like decreased
water “resources” the green spaces are being reduced in number so, xeriscaping
is an alternative approach to increase the number of green spaces mainly in water
scarcity areas. The aim of xeriscaping is to create a beautiful landscape in water�scare areas. Some areas use terms like water-conserving landscaping, drought�tolerant landscaping, and smart scaping instead of xeriscaping. Xeriscaping is a
type of natural landscaping in which emphasis is given on the plant selection for
water conservation. In areas with water scarcity or to reduce water usage,
xeriscaping can be recommended which not only adds beautification but also
serves as green spaces.
Fresh water is a scarce resource that needs to be conserved. Landscape irrigation, a large portion of the outdoor water use, can be accomplished with water of less-than-potable quality. The use of effluent water generated from residential graywater in landscapes would go a long way toward conserving potable water for other essential uses. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of effluent versus fresh water irrigation on the performance of 11 lawn-height perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) cultivars in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, USA, and determine the effects of effluent water irrigation on soil and tissue analyses. A two-year field trial was established in October 2015 on native soil, and the experimental design was an 11 by 2 strip-plot design with three replications. Synthetic effluent water (water-softening salt, two laundry detergents, and a chelating agent) was applied twice-weekly over perennial ryegrass plots in the summers of 2016 and 2017 and compared to a freshwater control. Small reductions in turf color and density were observed with effluent water irrigation only in June and July of 2017. Our results suggest that effluent water is a viable alternative to freshwater irrigation in the Willamette Valley, where there is little to no precipitation during summer. However, the accumulation of Na, Cl, and B in the soil and plant tissue indicates that future research is warranted to determine any long-term effects from effluent water irrigation on turfgrass and soil health.
Xeriscaping is the process of landscaping or gardening that reduces or eliminates the need for supplemental water from irrigation. It is promoted in regions that do not have accessible, plentiful or reliable supplies of fresh water and is gaining acceptance in other regions as access to irrigation water is becoming limited. Xeriscaped landscapes can reduce water use up to 60% or more compared to regular lawn landscapes. Green spaces are very important, but due to climate change and other problems like decreased water resources the green spaces are being reduced in number so xeriscaping is an alternative approach to increase the number of green spaces mainly in water scarcity areas. The goal of xeriscaping is to create a beautiful landscape in water- scare areas. Some areas use terms like water-conserving landscaping, drought- tolerant landscaping, and smart scaping instead of xeriscaping. Xeriscaping is a type of natural landscaping in which the emphasis is on plant selection for water conservation. In areas with water scarcity or to reduce water usage xeriscaping is recommended which not only adds beautification but also serves as green spaces.
A comparison of water use and maintenance effort was made between traditional and Florida-Friendly Landscaping (FFL). Traditional Florida landscapes are generally turf dominated with minimal shrubbery, all indiscriminately irrigated using single-zone, large-rotor sprinklers. Conversely, FFL landscapes feature reduced turf cover, substantial areas with mulched ornamental beds, and zoned irrigation that includes microirrigation and smart controllers. This study used three identically sized landscape replicates (each 455 m2; 4,900 ft2), with half of each landscaped in a traditional Florida manner using 75% turf, and the other half using an FFL landscape that reduced turf extent to 25% but incorporated groundcovers and mulched beds. During a 12-month establishment period, the FFL landscape used 69.7% less irrigation water than the traditional landscape, and 83.9% less water in a 34-month postestablishment period. Substantial postestablishment water savings were realized by simply turning off the microirrigation to the ornamental beds and visually inspecting for drought stress. After establishment, the average maintenance labor was similar in both landscape types; however, the time spent mowing or hand weeding between the two landscape types was nearly reciprocal.
From 2014 to 2016, water agencies in Southern California provided more than $350 million in rebates to owners who converted their turf to drought‐tolerant landscaping. In order to provide a fuller understanding of the water savings of this program, this study establishes that there was a behavioral contagion, or a multiplier effect, from rebate participants in the program. An imagery‐based, time‐series analysis of 20 Southern California neighborhoods from 2012 to 2018 was performed to detect what parcels converted their lawns without a rebate and how they were spatially correlated with rebate participants. This correlation was then used on almost 55,000 rebate participants to estimate the multiplier benefits for the entire program at 132%. For every 100 rebate participants, the multiplier effect helped contribute to an additional 132 parcels to convert to drought‐tolerant landscaping. This methodology was compared with a previous study in the Irvine Ranch Water District providing similar results. This study provides the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California a better understanding of the water savings per rebate dollar of the Turf Removal Rebate Program as well as providing a robust approach for cities or water agencies to estimate the multiplier effect of their turf rebate programs.
Water scarcity is becoming a major problem for people around the world, with just 0.8 percent of the Earth's surface being covered by freshwater systems. In such circumstances, Lawn Gardens became a difficult issue to maintain. We can contribute a very micro role in conserving water by recommending Xeriscapes instead of regular lawn gardens. Xeriscape gardens are the perfect way to Live Green. Urban areas face different water supply and demand problems and a number of factors will affect how water is used in urban landscapes. Xeriscaping requires less water to survive and can be advantageous to drought prone areas or water-susceptible metropolitan cities. Xeriscapes not only confined to deserted areas but performs well in normal tropical regions with low and high water use zones. It creates healthy and attractive landscape while reducing water usage. In this review paper, establishment and benefits of Xeriscape gardens has been discussed and trees that are suitable for Xeriscape gardens in Indian context has been enlisted along with their landscape use.
Where surface and groundwater are managed conjunctively, the stress on water supplies from climate change can significantly influence water use patterns as well as the economic value and sustainability of those uses. However, aquifer protection can be an expensive proposition because water uses that currently rely on aquifer pumping may produce considerable economic value that would be lost if protection measures are carried out. Evidence from climate-stressed regions has attracted research addressing the costs and benefits of aquifer protection plans. Despite these efforts, few peer-reviewed papers have examined water use patterns that minimize the economic costs of aquifer protection. This work presents an original approach to address that gap by developing and applying a basin scale hydroeconomic optimization model of North America’s Middle Rio Grande Basin to explore impacts of new policies not yet implemented supporting aquifer protection. It also gives model access to readers or stakeholders to experiment with their own scenarios to assess impacts of alternative aquifer protection plans. The model accounts for surface and groundwater storage, irrigation, urban, environmental, and recreational demands, surface water inflows under various climate scenarios, groundwater pumping and recharge, substitute water prices, crop water use, evaporation, as well as institutional constraints governing water use. The objective is implemented by finding the optimized discounted net present value of economic benefits summed over uses, sectors, and regions from use of surface water and connected aquifers. Results are shown for each of six water supply scenarios, two substitute water prices, and two system operation rules. To address impacts of aquifer protection targets, groundwater sustainability targets are specified and enforced as constraints for each of the region’s two major aquifers. We assess total and marginal cost of achieving two targeted aquifer protection levels by identifying optimized surface use and groundwater pumping for each of 24 scenarios. Results show that climate change, in the form of reduced and highly variable inflows, considerably drives up the cost of protecting aquifer sustainability, amplified by the conjunctive nature of the system. Future work points to a need to assess economic performance of various water conservation measures as well as reducing costs of substitute water through measures such as technical advance in desalination, recycling and reuse, substitution of other resources for water, better characterization of existing aquifers, and development of new groundwater supplies.
This article discusses two large-scale regional efforts, funded by the California Department of Water Resources (CDWR), to effect urban irrigation efficiency and reduce runoff through the installation of smart controllers. California's smart controller programs represent the largest effort to date to distribute and evaluate the effects of weather-based irrigation-control technology. The current study reviewed evaluation results from weather-based irrigation-controller programs in Northern and Southern California and offers empirical data on the performance of smart-controller products distributed and installed through different methodologies in an array of residential and nonresidential settings.
This chapter sharpens the relevant notions of gardens and urban gardening. It conceptualizes urban gardens as elements of a city’s green infrastructure, and highlights their importance as site of food production and tools of climate adaptation. The chapter also collects and presents empirical research on real-life experiments in urban gardening in different cities, and considers several ecological and social benefits that have been proven or can be reasonably expected to be delivered by the practice.
This research provides important understanding of the total and consumptive water uses of residences and green spaces of urban settings in Nebraska. The census block level estimation and analysis were carried out in three case cities in Nebraska including Lincoln, Grand Island, and Sidney. Ordinary least square regression models were established between the explanatory factors and total water use and consumptive water use. In residential category, there were strong correlations between population/landscape area and total water use. Landscape area was found in high correlation with consumptive water use in City of Sidney. Total and consumptive water use were highly correlated with landscape area in green space category. In consideration of sizable yards and lower population density, small cities may consume more water on a per capita basis and our spatial pattern analysis showed that high water use blocks clustered in suburban areas with large landscape areas while low water use blocks clustered in downtown areas. This study introduces a feasible yet effective method for water resources managers to estimate consumptive water uses in residential areas. The developed linear models are beneficial for predicting future water demand and long-term water supply planning.
During 2012–2014, drought in California resulted in policies to reduce water consumption. One measure pursued was replacing lawns with landscapes that minimize water consumption, such as drought-tolerant vegetation. If implemented at broad scale, this strategy would result in reductions in irrigation and changes in land surface characteristics. In this study, we employ a modified regional climate model to assess the climatic consequences of adopting drought-tolerant vegetation over the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Transforming lawns to drought-tolerant vegetation resulted in daytime warming of up to 1.9°C, largely due to decreases in irrigation that shifted surface energy partitioning toward higher sensible and lower latent heat flux. During nighttime, however, adopting drought-tolerant vegetation caused mean cooling of 3.2°C, due to changes in soil thermodynamic properties and heat exchange dynamics between the surface and subsurface. Our results show that nocturnal cooling effects, which are larger in magnitude and of great importance for public health during heat events, could counterbalance the daytime warming attributed to the studied water conservation strategy. A more aggressive implementation, assuming all urban vegetation was replaced with drought-tolerant vegetation, resulted in an average daytime cooling of 0.2°C, largely due to strengthened sea breeze patterns, highlighting the important role of land surface roughness in this coastal megacity.
Understanding current residential irrigation behaviors is essential for selecting the most effective conservation measures and determining which customers should be targeted for conservation outreach programs. This study stratified single-family residential customers without access to reuse water into irrigating groups. Irrigation demands were calculated using monthly total (indoor and outdoor combined) water billing and parcel records for more than 165,000 customers in southwest Florida over approximately 10 years. Gross irrigation required (GIR) was calculated using parcel and high-resolution site data. Seven-and-a-half percent of customers used no irrigation over the study period, 67% of customers used 1 in./month or less, and 84% used less than the average monthly GIR of 2.2 in./month. Eighty-five percent of customers were classified as occasional irrigators, whereas only 2% were classified as high irrigators. With such low estimated irrigation demands, this study reinforces the importance of selecting conservation methods so as to not inadvertently increase irrigation.
The authors present a selection of preliminary findings from a multiyear study quantifying the residential water and economic savings realizable by converting from traditional turfgrass to xeric landscaping in a southwestern United States desert community. Findings are presented for three scaling levels: the total residence (with mainmeter data), the comparative landscape level (turf versus xeric landscape, with submeter data), and within xeric landscape (also with submeter data). Findings cover: (1) post- landscape conversion water savings for the whole property versus pre-conversion consumption, (2) landscape maintenance savings (both hours and direct costs) for the whole property when xeriscape principles are applied, (3) annual per unit area (sqft) water consumption and bill savings for xeric areas versus traditional turfgrass, (4) the influence of system design and canopy coverage on xeric area water consumption, (5) the long- term savings potential of xeric landscape (with its potentially increasingly canopy) versus turfgrass. The results show xeriscape is promising and effective as a water conservation tool. Introduction and Background In the Mojave Desert of the southwestern United States, typically 60 to 90% of potable water drawn by single family residences in municipalities is used for outdoor irrigation. Thus, in this region, and indeed most of the entire Southwest, the most effective conservation measures are oriented towards reducing outdoor water consumption. A commonly considered method for accomplishing water conservation is to use xeriscape (low water-use landscaping) in place of traditional turf. Xeriscape is based on seven principles:
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