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Journal of Career Assessment
http://jca.sagepub.com/content/20/2/140
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/1069072711420850
2012 20: 140 originally published online 10 October 2011Journal of Career Assessment
Julia Elad-Strenger and Hadassah Littman-Ovadia
Client Working Alliance to Career Exploration−The Contribution of the Counselor
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The Contribution of the
Counselor–Client Working
Alliance to Career Exploration
Julia Elad-Strenger
1
and Hadassah Littman-Ovadia
1
Abstract
This longitudinal study examines the effects of Israeli counselors’ and clients’ ratings of their working
alliance on clients’ career exploration (CE), using a sample of 94 three-session career counseling
processes. Results reveal that both clients’ and counselors’ working alliance ratings increased over
time; yet, clients’ ratings remained constantly above counselors’ ratings. Results also suggest that
clients’ working alliance ratings are a better predictor of clients’ CE than counselors’ ratings. Impli-
cations for career counseling are discussed.
Keywords
working alliance, career counseling, career exploration, longitudinal study, short-term counseling
Modern approaches to career counseling emphasize the importance of establishing a collaborative
relationship between counselor and client, and creating a supportive atmosphere for the client to
explore oneself as well as the world of work in order to take better career decisions (Crites,
1981). Research has shown that the in-session relationship plays an important role in providing the
conditions for a positive outcome, not only in personal counseling but also in career counseling.
Specifically, studies have shown that positive working alliance contributes to positive changes
through individual, face-to-face, long- and short-term career counseling interventions (Masdonati,
Massoudi, & Rossier, 2009; Perdrix, de Roten, Kolly, & Rossier, 2010; Whiston & Rahardja, 2008).
In a study comparing the ratings of satisfaction or perceptions of quality of the counseling
relationship by clients presenting personal–social concerns and vocational concerns at intake, no dif-
ferences were found by clients presenting either type of concern (Vargo-Moncier & Jessell, 1995).
Nevertheless, even though many studies examined working alliance in psychotherapy, only few
studies have been conducted on this subject in other types of counseling relationships, particularly
in the field of career counseling (Masdonati et al., 2009; Meara & Patton, 1994; Perdrix et al., 2010).
Two of the few studies conducted to examine the effect of process variables on outcome in career
counseling (Heppner, Multon, Gysbers, Ellis, & Zook, 1998; Multon, Heppner, Gysbers, Zook, &
Ellis-Kalton, 2001) demonstrated positive growth on process measures over the course of counseling
1
Ariel University Center of Samaria, Ariel, Israel
Corresponding Author:
Hadassah Littman-Ovadia, Ariel University Center of Samaria, Ariel 40700 Israel
Email: hadassaho@ariel.ac.il
Journal of Career Assessment
20(2) 140-153
ª The Author(s) 2012
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DOI: 10.1177/1069072711420850
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and positive outcomes on a variety of criteria.However,inbothstudies,therelationship
between process and outcome was either not significant or only a small amount of variance
of the outcome variables was accounted for by the process measure. Hence, additional research
is needed to better understand the relationship between process and outcome in career
counseling.
According to Bordin (1979), the quality of the working alliance arises from a combination of
agreement between the client and the therapist about the goals of the therapy, agreement about the
tasks that lead toward achieving these goals, and the development of an emotional bond between
them. Research findings in psychotherapy demonstrate that the quality of the working alliance, as
a process indicator, is one of the best predictors of outcome in all modes of therapy (Horvath &
Greenberg, 2000; Horvath & Luborsky, 1993; Horvath & Symonds, 1991). A meta-analytic study
examining 24 studies in psychotherapy found that the average correlation between working alliance
and outcome was 0.26 (Horvath & Symonds, 1991), defined by Cohen (1988) as a moderate correla-
tion coefficient.
Change in Working Alliance Ratings Over Time
Recent research on working alliance emphasizes its temporally dynamic and developmental nature
(Kivlighan & Shaughnessy, 1995). Previous research indicates that a working alliance develops in
both short- and long-term therapy, typically during the first five sessions, and even after a single
session (Horvath, Gaston, & Luborsky, 1993; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989). Studies measuring the
working alliance at different times during long- and short-term psychotherapy found an increase in
working alliance ratings over time (Bethea, Acosta, & Haller, 2008; Hersoug, Høglend, Havik, von
der Lippe, & Monsen, 2009). In most studies, however, working alliance was measured only after
the third session (Kramer, de Roten, Beretta, Michel, & Despland, 2008). In one study examining
growth in alliance ratings in 3- to 12-session career counseling processes, linear growth was found
in both client and counselor ratings over time (Heppner et al., 1998). No other studies were con-
ducted to examine the pattern of change in working alliance ratings in short-term career counseling
processes. Specifically, measuring the alliance after each session of a counseling process might shed
some more light over the pattern of change in alliance ratings over time, especially in short-term
counseling.
Client and Counselor Evaluation of Working Alliance
Working alliance is considered a variable that is affected by the rater’s perspective. Although many
studies in psychotherapy have found that client ratings have a stronger correlation to outcomes than
do therapist ratings (Fitzpatrick, Iwakabe, & Stalikas, 2005; Muran et al., 2009), others found that
therapists’ ratings, measured at the end of the counseling process, accounted for a large proportion of
the outcome variance (Bethea et al., 2008; Kivlighan & Shaughnessy, 1995). Further research is
needed to determine how rater’s perspective on the quality of the alliance is related to specific out-
comes in career counseling processes. One might suggest that in a short-term career counseling pro-
cess, in which clients are expected to be very active in setting goals and achieving them, clients’
ratings of the alliance will be a more sensitive predictor of outcome.
Numerous studies have found moderate-to-large correlations between therapist and client ratings
in short- and long-term psychotherapy (Bethea et al., 2008; Fitzpatrick et al., 2005; Muran et al.,
2009). Previous studies in psychotherapy have also reported that clients’ working alliance ratings
are usually higher than therapists’ ratings (Fitzpatrick et al., 2005; Kramer et al., 2008). However,
very few studies have examined these questions in career counseling.
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Career Exploration
In the career counseling process, the counselor encourages the client to gather information about
oneself and the world of work, both in and between sessions (Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000). In the
counseling process, both parties play an important role in client’s career exploration (CE), which is
considered a crucial stage in the career development process (Bluestein, 1997), and a central element
in career decision making (Krumbolz, Schreba, Hamel, & Mitchell, 1982). CE seems to have a
positive impact on the decision-making process, in job search and placement, and on occupational
satisfaction and attainment (Taveira & Moreno, 2003). Consequently, encouraging client’s explora-
tion should be considered an important element in most career counseling processes, especially
when focused on career decision making and job seeking (Taveira & Moreno, 2003).
Few studies have examined the relationship between working alliance and outcome in career
counseling. Levy-Hayardeni (2000) found positive correlations between Israeli client working alli-
ance ratings and client satisfaction from the counselor, the counseling process, and the career deci-
sion. Other studies have found that the working alliance has a positive effect on desired counseling
outcomes, including satisfaction from counseling and from life in general (Masdonati et al., 2009),
and acquiring career information (Massoudi, Masdonati, Clot-Siegrist, Franz, & Rossier, 2008).
Previous studies have shown that CE is affected by various personal and cognitive variables
(Blustein & Phillips, 1988; Burge et al., 1997), but no studies have examined whether the working
alliance, a situational and interrelational variable, affects CE. In a study conducted in Israel, which
was one of the few studies examining the effect of counselor–client relationship on client CE,
Littman-Ovadia (2008) found that clients’ perceptions of the relationship as supportive and their per-
ceptions of counselors’ role as a secure base increased client exploration, but the effect of working
alliance on CE was not examined.
Even though these findings suggest that exploration is affected by the client’s relationship with
the counselor, client perceptions of the counselor as a secure base is more strongly related to the
emotional dimension of the working alliance, embodied in the bond dimension, than to the instru-
mental aspects of the working alliance, embodied in the tasks and goals dimensions (Horvath &
Luborksy, 1993). More specifically, the study by Littman-Ovadia (2008) does not examine colla-
boration or congruence on the task and goals dimensions, which are the very essence of the working
alliance measure. Since exploration is one of the main tasks in career counseling processes, and is also
considered an instrumental element in the counseling process, a correlation between the instrumental
dimensions of the alliance and CE should also be expected. Furthermore, CE research inspired by
attachment theory (Bowlby, 1982) indicates that motivation for, and competence in, CE is associated
with securely based and supportive family relationships (Taveira & Moreno, 2003). Hence, it is impor-
tant to consider interrelational and developmental factors of CE. At the same time, it has been noted
that interrelational support offered by counselors in counseling contexts could be seen as a basic con-
dition for self- and environment-oriented exploration (Blustein & Flum, 1999).
Career Counseling in Israel
In Israel, vocational psychology is a fully recognized specialty regulated by a committee in the Min-
istry of Health. Nevertheless, it is still considered a relatively small specialty which is an amalgam of
several subspecialties, including career counseling and assessment, selection and assessment, and
organizational psychology (Benjamin, 2007).
The use of psychological tests is prevalent in career counseling in Israel. Moreover, psychometric
tests determine acceptance to many jobs and higher education institutions, where the student must
choose a profession from the first year of undergraduate studies (Nevo & Wiseman, 2002). Further-
more, there is a growing tendency within the Israeli education and social systems to focus more on
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the present, that is, the general and current well-being and/or achievements of the person, rather than
to devote their efforts to a comprehensive life planning and vocational counseling (Israelashvili &
Benjamin, 2009). Hence, in most institutions in Israel, career counseling is planned to be a short
process that includes an interview, tests, and feedback. Clients are led to expect career counseling
to be brief (Nevo & Wiseman, 2002).
In applying some specific characteristics to client–counselor relationships in individual counsel-
ing in Israel, Israelashvili and Benjamin (2009) argue that Israeli clients tend to be initially very
suspicious but become more open and cooperative as the session progresses, and exhibit a high ten-
dency to share and disclose their personal lives, plans for the future, and problems. In addition, it
seems that many Israelis share a tendency to explore in a curious fashion, along with possessing
an exceptional eagerness to progress and achieve (Friedman, Friedlander, & Blustein, 2005). Hence,
once the Israeli client moves from a defensive mode to cooperation with the counselor, they may be
ready to proceed with new experiences and exploration, sometimes even beyond the counselor’s
initial expectations (Israelashvili & Benjamin, 2009).
To our knowledge, no studies were conducted to examine the effect of working alliance on CE.
Examining the development of working alliance between Israeli clients and counselors in short-term
career counseling, as well as its effect on CE, might take another important step in the cross-cultural
research on the working alliance within the field of career counseling.
The Present Study
The purpose of this study was to explore an issue that has not been previously examined in the field
of career counseling: the contribution of the working alliance to client CE from the perspectives of
the counselor and the client. This purpose was achieved by using field data from 94 three-session
counseling processes conducted in Israel. This unique sample of naturalistic data was acquired in
2000–2001, as part of a broader study on career counseling (Littman-Ovadia, 2008).
Based on the findings and predictions discussed earlier, the following three hypotheses were
tested in this study: (a) Clients’ and counselors’ ratings of the working alliance will increase over
time; (b) Client’s ratings will be higher than counselors’ ratings; and (c) CE after counseling will
be more strongly correlated to clients’ ratings of the working alliance than to counselors’ ratings.
Method
Participants
Participants were clients of private and public career counseling centers in Israel during the years
2000–2001. Prior to the first counseling session, 110 clients were asked to take part in the research,
and in return would receive a report on study findings. Of the 94 clients who agreed to participate in
the study, and completed all counseling sessions and questionnaires, were 43 women (45.7%) and 51
men (54.3%), whose ages ranged from 18 to 56 (M ¼ 28.4, SD ¼ 8.51) and whose education years
ranged from 9 to 20 (M ¼ 13.6, SD ¼ 2.28). The majority (67.0%) were adults facing their first
career decisions or seeking counseling services for a second career. The remainder (33.0%) sought
support in coping with career crises, dejection in the job-seeking process, or initial job adjustment.
The majority (89.4%) had no previous experience with career counseling.
Of the eight counselors, six women counseled 73% of the clients in the study and two men
counseled the remainder. The number of clients for each counselor ranged from 1 to 36
(M ¼ 11.75, SD ¼ 11.52). Counselors differed in age and professional experience: Ages ranged
from 31 to 57 (M ¼ 41.25, SD ¼ 9.56) and professional experience ranged from 2 to 20 years
(M ¼ 9.88, SD ¼ 7.41). All counselors had at least master’s degrees in psychology and were
certified counseling and vocational psychologists by Israeli or U.S. institutions.
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Instruments
Career exploration. CE was assessed using a self-report questionnaire developed by Littman-Ovadia
(2002). The questionnaire is based on Blustein and Flum’s (1999) conceptualization of CE. The
15 items derived from this conceptualization were rated on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (very
rare)to5(very often). The scale assesses both external (e.g., ‘‘I collect data about organizations
and jobs’’) and internal CE (e.g., ‘‘I think about my vocational goals’’), as reflected in clients’
current behaviors outside the sessions, using items generated from theoretical descriptions of
these two areas of searching. The total CE score is calculated as the mean score of all items,
whereas higher scores indicate higher CE. High reliabilities were found by Littman-Ovadia
(2002) for the first administration of the scale, before the first counseling session (Cronbach’s
a ¼ .87), and for the second administration of the scale, at the final counseling session
(Cronbach’s a ¼ .86). The high correlations (r ¼ .72) found between counselors’ and clients’
ratings by Littman-Ovadia (2002), indicate a high convergent validity of the instrument.
High internal consistencies were found in this study for the first administration of the scale
(Cronbach’s a ¼ .86) and for the second administration after the final counseling session
(Cronbach’s a ¼ .83), consistent with the high internal consistencies found by Littman-Ovadia
(2002).
Working Alliance Inventory (WAI). The WAI (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989), developed as a measure
of the working alliance (defined by Bordin, 1979), is a self-report questionnaire of 36 items, rated on
a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (never)to7(always). The WAI yields three 12-item, summed sub-
scale scores (Tasks, Bond, and Goals) as well as one overall score.
In this study, two versions of the WAI were used with corresponding items for clients (e.g.,
‘‘What I am doing in therapy gives me new ways of looking at my problem’’) and counselors
(e.g., ‘‘My client and I both feel confident about the usefulness of our current activity in therapy’’).
According to Horvath and Greenberg (1989), this inventory is appropriate for administration even
after a single session and meets the criteria for convergent and discriminate validity.
High reliabilities were found in the current study for the counselors’ ratings at all three times of
measurement (Cronbach’s a ranged from .70 to .87 for goals, from .80 to .88 for bond, from .80 to
.84 for tasks, and from .90 to .95 for the total score). Moderate-to-high reliabilities were found for
the clients’ ratings at all three times of measurement (Cronbach’s a ranged from .65 to .83 for goals,
from .79 to .83 for bond, from .76 to .88 for tasks, and from .89 to .94 for the total score). Internal
consistencies for the total scores are similar to the ones found by Horvath and Greenberg (1989),
ranging from .87 to .93, as well as to the one found by Perdrix et al. (2010) in a career counseling
setting (r ¼ .87).
Procedure
After turning to the counseling centers, each client was randomly assigned to one of the centers’
counselors. Both clients and counselors were approached by the counseling centers’ secretaries and
asked to participate in the study independently. Counselors were not involved in recruiting the
clients, nor had any access to clients’ reports. Both clients and counselors were clarified that declin-
ing participation will not have any future consequences whatsoever. Clients who turned to the coun-
seling centers for career counseling were informed that each counseling process consisted of three
counseling sessions, which is compatible with the number of sessions for effective career counseling
interventions pointed out by Brown and Ryan Krane (2000). They were also informed that counsel-
ing process includes an 8- to 10-hr evaluation session consisting of various vocational questionnaires
administered by other members of the centers’ personnel. The number of counseling sessions and
length and content of evaluation sessions constitute the standard counseling process administered
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to clients in counseling centers in Israel (Littman-Ovadia, 2002). The first counseling session was
dedicated to building working alliance: agreement on the goals to be achieved in counseling, agree-
ment on the tasks involved, and creating initial bond. The first session was followed by an evaluation
session, in which client’s abilities, interests, values, and other relevant vocational variables were
assessed using various vocational questionnaires administered in groups. The counselors were not
involved in the evaluation sessions nor were they present during the administration of the tests.
The second counseling session focused on providing feedback to the client on the assessment of
various career variables and their integration with the goals of counseling, as well as discussing
future career options and information-seeking and exploration tasks. The third counseling session
focused on evaluating clients’ exploration and implementation of recommendations, and summar-
izing the counseling process. The questionnaires were administered independently: WAI was
administered after each counseling sessions and CE was administered before the first counseling
session and after the final session.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Clients and counselors rated all WAI subscales positively, with mean values ranging between 5.16
and 5.98 for clients and between 4.83 and 5.94 for counselors. Table 1 shows the intercorrelations for
clients’ and counselors’ WAI total scores at all times of measurement, CE before counseling and
CE after counseling. Intercorrelations for WAI subscales for each time of measurement ranged
from .40 (p < .01) to .77 (p < .01) in clients and from .68 (p < .01) to .85 (p < .01) in counselors.
Intercorrelations for measurements for each subscale ranged from .42 (p < .01) to .85 (p < .01) in
clients and from .31 (p < .01) to .65 (p < .01) in counselors.
To examine changes in clients’ CE over time, a paired-samples t test was conducted to compare
the first CE measurement (before) and the second CE measurement (after). Results indicate that cli-
ents’ CE was significantly higher following the counseling (M ¼ 3.86, SD ¼ 0.58) than prior to it (M
¼ 3.57, SD ¼ 0.68), t(93) ¼ 4.79, p < .001, Cohen’s d ¼ .49.
Pearson’s r correlations of client and counselor ratings on the WAI were calculated to determine
the degree of convergence between client and counselor views of the working alliance at all three
times of measurement. There were significant weak-to-moderate positive correlations between
clients’ and counselors’ ratings on all three subscales and on the total score, at all three times of
measurement, r ranging from .19 to .30 (p < 0.01).
Hypotheses Testing
Changes in client and counselor working alliance ratings over time. To examine changes in working
alliance ratings over time, a series of latent growth models (LGM; see Bollen & Curran, 2006) with
maximum likelihood (ML) multilevel methods were used to account for the nested nature of the data
(i.e., multiple clients for each counselor; for more information see Bentler & Wu, 1995). Two latent
factors were estimated: one to define the initial levels of the working alliance ratings (i.e., intercept)
and one to explore whether the trajectory of change in working alliance ratings was constant over
time (i.e., linear) or took any other shape (by assessing which type of trajectory fits most to the
observed data). To examine whether clients and counselors differ in their initial levels of working
alliance ratings and/or trajectory of change in these measures, a dummy variable tapping partici-
pants’ role (1 ¼ clients;0¼ counselors) was regressed on the models’ latent intercept and shape
factors using the ML multilevel method. The EQS 6.1 Structural Equation Models software (Bentler
& Wu, 1995) was used to assess the appropriateness of the LGMs. A model is judged as reasonably
fitting the data when the comparative fit index (CFI), and the Bentler–Bonett nonnormed fit index
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(NNFI) are larger than .95, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is lower
than .05.
The nested LGMs assessing the trajectories of participants’ goals, tasks, bond, and total WAI
scores showed excellent fit to the observed data, w
2
s(3) < 7.3, ps > .05, CFIs > .99, NNFIs > .97,
RMSEAs < .06. The analyses revealed that participants’ goals ratings linearly increased by .25
points following each session, t(187) ¼ 7.48, p < .001, r ¼ .48, from 4.99 in the first session to
5.58 in the last session. Participants’ tasks ratings linearly increased by .20 points following each
session, t(187) ¼ 5.28, p < .001, r ¼ .36, from 5.29 in the first session to 5.68 in the last session.
Participants’ bond ratings linearly increased by .24 points following each session, t(187) ¼ 7.10,
p < .001, r ¼ .46, from 5.53 in the first session to 5.96 in the last session. Finally, participants’ total
WAI score linearly increased by .25 points following each session, t(187) ¼ 7.48, p < .001, r ¼ .48,
from 5.27 in the first session to 5.74 in the last session.
Divergence in client and counselor working alliance ratings. To examine the differences between cli-
ents’ and counselors’ WAI scores, and to account for the multiple comparisons, nested paired t tests
were conducted using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM; Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992). Means,
lower-level standard deviations (s; i.e., client’s level), upper-level standard deviations (t
q
), statis-
tics, and their level of significance are presented in Table 2. Since the differences between clients
and counselors ratings of all four WAI scores in all three times of measurement were assessed, the
level of significance of these tests was adjusted using familywise Bonferroni correction to avoid
inflation of Type I error. The analyses revealed that following Bonferroni adjustment, clients’ rat-
ings of the goals subscale and total score were significantly higher than their counselors’ ratings in
the first and second sessions, but not in the third session. Clients and counselors did not differ in their
ratings of the tasks and bond dimensions.
Working alliance and career exploration. A three-step HLM analysis was conducted to examine the
role of clients’ and counselors’ ratings of the working alliance in all three times of measurement in
predicting clients’ CE after counseling. In the first step, clients’ and counselors’ WAI total scores at
the first session were entered. Total WAI scores, and not the WAI subscales, were used to avoid
multicollinearity between predictors (tolerance around .2). In the second step, clients’ and counse-
lors’ WAI total scores measured at the second session were added to the model and finally, in the
Table 1. Intercorrelations for Counselors’ and Clients’ WAI Total Scores at All Times of Measurement,
Career Exploration Before Counseling, and Career Exploration After Counseling
Variable 12345678
1. Clients’ WAI Time 1 —
2. Clients’ WAI Time 2 .55** —
3. Clients’ WAI Time 3 .51** .85** —
4. Counselors’ WAI Time 1 .29** .15 .22* —
5. Counselors’ WAI Time 2 .37** .30** .28** .58** —
6. Counselors’ WAI Time 3 .17 .16 .29** .48** .62** —
7. Career Exploration Time 1 .11 .11 .12 .05 .00 .05 —
8. Career Exploration Time 2 .28** .26** .28** .07 .03 .00 .64** —
Note. WAI ¼ Working Alliance Inventory.
N ¼ 94.
Career Exploration Time 1 ¼ career exploration before the first counseling session.
Career Exploration Time 2 ¼ career exploration after the final counseling session.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
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third step, clients’ and counselors’ WAI total scores measured at the third session. The outcome
measure was clients’ CE after counseling. The final model was defined by the following equations:
Level 1 model:
Career exploration ¼ b
0j
þ b
1j
ðclients
0
WAI score at T1Þ
þ b
2j
ðcouselors
0
WAI score at T1Þ
þ b
3j
ðcouselors
0
WAI score at T2Þ
þ b
4j
ðcouselors
0
WAI score at T2Þ
þ b
5j
ðcouselors
0
WAI score at T3Þ
þ b
6j
ðcouselors
0
WAI score at T3Þþr
ij
:
Level 2 model:
b
0j
¼ g
00
þu
0j
:
b
1j
¼ g
10
þu
1j
:
b
2j
¼ g
20
þu
2j:
b
3j
¼ g
30
þu
3j
:
b
4j
¼ g
40
þu
4j:
b
5j
¼ g
50
þu
5j
:
b
6j
¼ g
60
þu
6j:
Table 2. Means, Lower-Level Standard Deviation (s; i.e., Clients Level), Upper-Level Standard Deviation (t
q
),
Statistics, and Their Level of Significance of Clients’ and Counselors’ WAI Scores
Counselors’ Mean Clients’ Mean st
q
t
WAI Goals 1 4.83 5.16 .76 .17 3.26*
2 5.17 5.48 .85 .07 3.44*
3 5.48 5.69 1.05 .03 2.05
WAI Tasks 1 5.16 5.43 .76 .24 1.97
2 5.26 5.61 .81 .44 2.20
3 5.55 5.82 .95 .23 2.20
WAI Bond 1 5.46 5.60 .75 .14 1.42
2 5.70 5.91 .81 .24 1.87
3 5.94 5.98 .78 .31 .91
WAI Total 1 5.15 5.39 .65 .16 2.64*
2 5.38 5.66 .73 .26 2.67*
3 5.65 5.83 .84 .23 1.85
Note. WAI ¼ Working Alliance Inventory.
*p < .016 (adjusted according to familywise Bonferroni correction).
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To ease interpretation of the results, all measures were centered on their grand mean. Also, deviance
tests were added to examine whether each step significantly added to the explained variance of
clients’ CE after counseling. Unstandardized HLM coefficients are presented in Table 3.
The analysis revealed that clients’ working alliance ratings in the first session (b ¼ .27, p < .01; b
is a standardized coefficient and thus refers to the size of the effect. Its values equal the values of r),
but not counselors’ working alliance ratings (b ¼ .02, p ¼ .85), significantly predicted clients’ CE
after counseling: The higher clients’ working alliance ratings in the first session, the higher their CE
after counseling. Entering the clients’ and counselors’ total scores of the second session or the third
session did not add significantly to the prediction of clients’ CE after counseling, Dw
2
(2) ¼ .55, p ¼
.76, and Dw
2
(2) ¼ 1.81, p ¼ .40, respectively; thus, both clients’ and counselors’ working alliance
ratings reported after the second and third sessions were not related to clients’ CE after counseling.
Discussion
The main purpose of the study was to make a novel contribution to the career counseling and career
development literature by linking working alliance and CE. We were specifically interested in CE
behaviors exhibited by the client immediately after completing a three-session series of personal
career counseling. The core assumptions of this field-based research were that a sense of emotional
bond and a sense of agreement on the instrumental dimensions (goals and tasks) of the working alli-
ance are related to greater exploration and that these desired relations were best understood from the
clients’ perspective.
In the present study, clients’ and counselors’ working alliance ratings were positively correlated
at all times of measurement as was found in psychotherapy studies (Bethea et al., 2008; Muran et al.,
2009).
Table 3. Hierarchical Multilevel Modeling Equation Predicting Clients’ Career Exploration After Counseling
Using Clients’ and Counselors’ WAI Scores
Variable Coefficient SE t Ratio Variance df w
2
p
Fixed Effect
Intercept, b
0
3.84 .04 92.84***
Clients’ WAI score at T1, b
1
.27 .08 3.38**
Counselors’ WAI score at T1, b
1
.02 .09 .41
Clients’ WAI score at T2, b
3
.18 .10 1.87
Counselors’ WAI score at T2, b
4
.15 .10 1.51
Clients’ WAI score at T3, b
5
.16 .18 .85
Counselors’ WAI score at T3, b
6
.28 .21 1.36
Random effect
Intercept, u
0
.001 6 3.78 > .50
Clients’ WAI score at T1, u
1
.004 6 5.42 > .50
Counselors’ WAI score at T1, u
2
.005 6 6.68 .35
Clients’ WAI score at T2, u
3
.02 5 2.37 > .50
Counselors’ WAI score at T2, u
4
.001 5 1.55 > .50
Clients’ WAI score at T3, u
5
.05 3 6.17 .10
Counselors’ WAI score at T3, u
6
.14 3 14.82 .002
Level 1 error, r
ij
.29
Note.WAI¼ Working Alliance Inventory. N ¼ 94. Coefficients are reported according to the step in which they were
included.
**p < .01.
***p < .001.
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As hypothesized, both counselors’ and clients’ working alliance ratings linearly increased as the
counseling process proceeded. This finding is consistent with previous findings in psychotherapy
(Fitzpatrick et al., 2005). Our findings also indicate that clients’ CE ratings increase over the coun-
seling process. The effect size found in this study for the change in CE ratings over time (Cohen’s
d ¼ .49) is consistent with effect sizes found in previous studies examining career intervention
(Whiston & Rahardja, 2008) and is considered a low-medium effect if Cohen’s (1988) classification
system was used. The linear growth in ratings of all alliance dimensions found in this study, even
though small, supports the notion that working alliance may develop as quickly as after the first ses-
sion (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) and develop over time even in three-session career counseling
processes. Nevertheless, future work is needed to examine the practical significance of the change
in CE ratings throughout the counseling process, for instance, by examining whether this change is
evident in clients’ actual exploration behaviors.
As hypothesized, clients’ total scores of the working alliance were significantly higher than coun-
selors’ total scores as measured after the first and second sessions. This finding is consistent with
previous research in psychotherapy (Hersoug et al., 2009; Wei & Heppner, 2005). One possible
explanation for this finding is that counselors tend to be more judgmental and critical of themselves
than do clients, hence give lower ratings to the alliance (Bachelor, 1991). Another possible explana-
tion is that there is a fundamental difference in the way that counselors and clients view the counsel-
ing relationship: Counselors tend to view the relationship through a theoretical lens of the features of
an ideal relationship, in which the quality of the alliance is high. As a result, their assessment of the
working alliance is influenced by the degree of similarity between such ideal elements and what they
observe in the sessions. Client assessments, on the other hand, may be based on subjective past expe-
rience in similar situations, not necessarily ideal ones (Horvath, 2000). However, the difference
between counselor and client ratings after the third session did not reach significance, indicating that
client and counselor ratings may become more similar as the counseling process progresses. It may
be that clients’ optimistic expectations regarding the counseling outcome at the initiation phase of
the counseling process are projected onto their relationship with their counselors. It is also possible
that the client’s expectations become more realistic over time, resulting in a nonsignificant differ-
ence between client and counselor ratings.
Results also reveal that the difference between clients’ and counselors’ ratings of the bond and
tasks dimensions of the alliance, as opposed to the goals dimension, did not reach significance. It
may be that the goals dimension is less tangible for the client, as it is located in the unseen future.
As a result, the client’s optimism is generally expressed in the rating of goals rather than in the rating
of the bond and tasks dimensions. This might explain why the discrepancy between the ratings of
client and counselor is higher in this dimension than it is in the others.
As hypothesized, clients’ working alliance ratings in the first session, but not counselors’ ratings,
predicted clients’ CE after counseling. These findings are consistent with previous research in psy-
chotherapy, in which the quality of the working alliance was most predictive of treatment outcomes
based on clients’ assessments, less so on therapists’ assessments (Fitzpatrick et al., 2005; Horvath &
Symonds, 1991). One possible explanation is that counselors’ ratings are less affected by their
expectations of counseling outcomes compared with their clients. One may suggest that clients’
expectations of positive outcomes from the counseling process play an important and integral part
in their evaluations of the working alliance. However, neither counselors’ nor clients’ ratings at the
second and third sessions contributed significantly to the prediction of CE after counseling. This
finding is consistent with previous findings in psychotherapy, suggesting that early sessions are par-
ticularly important for facilitating positive change (Lambert & Ogles, 2004). One possible explana-
tion is that expectations for positive outcomes of the counseling process are more salient to both
counselors and clients in the initial phase of the counseling process, as opposed to the next phases
of counseling. In addition, results regarding the third session of the counseling process may be seen
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as further indication that clients’ initial optimism regarding the outcome of the counseling process is
reduced over time, and that their expectations become more realistic and more similar to the coun-
selors’ ratings as the counseling process progresses.
Limitations and Future Research
Limitations of this study include those inherent to self-report measures (Boulet & Boss, 1991). Also,
clients’ ratings may be suffering from mono-source bias, since clients rated both predictor and out-
come variables. The study was also limited by the relatively small number of working alliance mea-
surements administered over the counseling process. Future research is recommended to further
examine the effect of working alliance ratings on outcomes in more extended career counseling pro-
cesses. In addition, findings might have been affected by the differences between counselors’ expe-
rience and number of clients. These limitations cannot be fully avoided in a field-based sample;
nevertheless, we hope future research will examine their potential effects on outcomes. Finally, it
is possible that some of the findings in the present study could be attributed to specific cultural and
social characteristics of the Israeli population in general, and Israeli career counseling clients in par-
ticular. One might suggest that Israeli clients’ tendency to readily and openly share their personal
lives with the counselor during short-term counseling, and their tendency to explore in a curious
fashion (Israelashvili & Benjamin, 2009), account for the growth in exploration and working alli-
ance over a short-term counseling process. Since very little research has been done examining the
effect of working alliance on CE, future research could further examine the influence of the specific
cultural characteristics on these process variables.
Conclusions
This study suggests that career counseling should not only be considered as a cognitively oriented
intervention but also as a process that involves interrelational aspects that may have an effect on the
outcome, specifically CE.
The findings of the present study also have important practical implications for the field of career
counseling. Clients’ ratings being the better predictor of outcome might suggest that even when
counselors evaluate their working alliance as limited, client outcomes might still be positive, indi-
cating that counselors cannot assume that their evaluation of the quality of the therapy climate cor-
responds to their clients’ perceptions. Furthermore, clients’ ratings of the working alliance in the
first session being the strongest predictor of outcome might suggest that establishing a positive alli-
ance in the early stages of the counseling process is of particular importance to facilitate positive
change, especially in short-term counseling processes. These findings indicate that professional
training of career counselors should consider emphasizing working alliance formation and strength-
ening, especially in view of the lack of sufficient formal attention to interrelational factors in career
counseling training (Bedi, 2004; Schedin, 2007).
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article: Financial support for the authorship of this article was received from Ariel
University Center of Samaria, Israel.
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