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167
Environment & Urbanization Copyright © 2012 International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
Vol 24(1): 167–195. DOI: 10.1177/0956247811431412 www.sagepublications.com
Exploring ecosystem-based
adaptation in Durban, South Africa:
“learning-by-doing” at the local
government coal face
DEBRA ROBERTS, RICHARD BOON, NICCI DIEDERICHS,
ERROL DOUWES, NATASHA GOVENDER, ALISTAIR MCINNES,
CAMERON MCLEAN, SEAN O’DONOGHUE
AND MEGGAN SPIRES
ABSTRACT The lack of progress in establishing ambitious and legally binding
global mitigation targets means that the need for locally based climate change
adaptation will increase in vulnerable localities such as Africa. Within this context,
“ecosystem-based adaptation” (EBA) is being promoted as a cost-effective and
sustainable approach to improving adaptive capacity. Experience with the ongoing
development of Durban’s Municipal Climate Protection Programme indicates that
achieving EBA in cities means moving beyond the conceptualization of a uniform,
one-size-fits-all layer of street trees and parks to a more detailed understanding of
the complex ecology of indigenous ecosystems and their resilience under climate
change conditions. It also means engaging with the role that this “bio-infrastructure”
plays in improving the quality of life and socioeconomic opportunities of the most
vulnerable human communities. Despite the long-term sustainability gains of
this approach, implementation in Durban has been shown to be both technically
challenging and resource intensive. The close association between human and
ecological systems in addressing climate change adaptation has also led to the
development of the concept of “community ecosystem-based adaptation”.
KEYWORDS bio-infrastructure / community ecosystem-based adaptation /
Durban / ecosystem-based adaptation / green economy / local government
I. INTRODUCTION
There are growing calls in the literature, both in prominent global
environmental change research pieces
(1)
and in the strategic and practical
guidance given to institutions and practitioners
(2)
for biodiversity and
ecosystems to be considered critical elements in any climate change
response strategy. The growing awareness of the provisioning, regulating,
supporting and cultural roles of ecosystem services
(3)
has also contributed
to the emergence of the concept of “ecosystem-based adaptation” (EBA).
EBA is defined as:
“...the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall
adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects
Debra Roberts
(corresponding author)
is Deputy Head of the
Environmental Planning
and Climate Protection
Department (EPCPD) of
eThekwini Municipality,
Durban. Richard Boon, Errol
Douwes, Natasha Govender,
Alistair McInnes, Cameron
McLean, Sean O’Donoghue
and Meggan Spires are also
with the EPCPD.
Address: Environmental
Planning and Climate
Protection Department
(EPCPD), PO Box 680,
eThekwini Municipality,
Durban, South Africa; e-mail:
robertsd@durban.gov.za
Nicci Diederichs is with
Future Works.
Address: Future Works,
PO Box 2221, Everton, 3625
Durban, South Africa; e-mail:
nicci@futureworks.co.za
This paper represents
the views of the authors
and does not necessarily
represent the views of
eThekwini Municipality.
1. See Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA) (2005),
Ecosystems and Human
Well-being: Synthesis, Island
Press, Washington DC, 137
pages; also The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(TEEB) (2009), TEEB Climate
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
168
of climate change. Ecosystem-based adaptation uses the range of
opportunities for the sustainable management, conservation and
restoration of ecosystems to provide services that enable people to
adapt to the impacts of climate change. It aims to maintain and
increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and
people in the face of the adverse effects of climate change. Ecosystem-
based adaptation is most appropriately integrated into broader
adaptation and development strategies.”
(4)
The systemic and proactive approach of EBA contrasts with the
interventionist and reactive nature of many existing adaptation proposals
and plans
(5)
that portray adaptation as a tool of last resort in dealing with
the threat of an unpredictable climate. This reactive approach supports the
prioritization of “...already existing strategies”
(6)
and results in “end-of-the-
pipe” infrastructural, land use planning and technological interventions
that are responsive to only a narrow range of outcomes and probabilities.
What is required is the development of conceptual frameworks that
question how wealth, value and quality of life are understood and framed
in relation to natural resource consumption over a broader range of
scenarios.
In this regard, EBA builds on the premise that “...in most places in
the world, nature is the single most important input into local economies and
human well-being.”
(7)
This “beginning-of-the-pipe” role for ecosystems
creates new opportunities for more flexible, systemic and responsive
win−win−win outcomes
(8)
that address climate change (both adaptation
and mitigation), biodiversity loss and the need for improved human well-
being. It also increases the political agency of adaptation, making it a
development response to the stimulus of climate change by harnessing
the full potential of natural systems to ensure a sustained quality of
life and by helping “...people, infrastructure and economies”
(9)
to adapt to
variable conditions. Being less interventionist, EBA is also more cost-
effective than other adaptation approaches
(10)
when assessed across
a range of social, ecological and economic criteria. Recent research
confirms that “...anticipatory adaptation measures and investments in
adaptive capacity building”, such as EBA, “...should occur earlier than reactive
adaptation interventions.”
(11)
In this regard, the Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity (TEEB) study concluded that:
“...ecosystem conservation and restoration should be regarded as
a viable investment option in support of a range of policy goals,
including food security, urban development, water purification
and wastewater treatment, regional development, as well as climate
change mitigation and adaptation.”
(12)
Similarly, the Green Economy Report from the United Nations
Environment Programme advocates investment in and building up of
natural capital. For example, by:
“...investing 0.03 per cent of GDP between 2011 and 2050 in paying
forest landholders to conserve forests, and in private investment in
reforestation...”, it will be possible to raise the “...value added in the
forest industry by more than 20 per cent as compared to business
as usual. It could also boost formal employment in this sector and
substantially increase carbon stored in forests.”
(13)
Issues Update, September,
32 pages; The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(TEEB) (2010a), The Economics
of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
For Local and Regional Policy
Makers, Progress Press, Malta,
209 pages; and United Nations
Environment Programme
(UNEP) (2011), Towards a Green
Economy: Pathways to Sustainable
Development and Poverty
Eradication − A Synthesis for Policy
Makers, available at www.unep.org/
greeneconomy, 44 pages.
2. Second Ad Hoc Technical
Expert Group on Biodiversity and
Climate Change (AHTEG) (2009),
Connecting Biodiversity and
Climate Change Mitigation and
Adaptation, Report of the Second
Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group
on Biodiversity and Climate
Change, CBD Technical Series No
41, CBD Secretariat, Montreal,
126 pages; also The Nature
Conservancy, Adaptation Working
Group (2010), Climate Change
and Conservation: A Primer for
Assessing Impacts and Advancing
Ecosystem-based Adaptation
in The Nature Conservancy
(unpublished), available at
http://conserveonline.org/
workspaces/climateadaptation/
documents/a-primer-for-
assessing-impacts/documents/a-
primer-for-assessing-impacts-
and-advancing-eba/@@view.
html, 55 pages; ICLEI−Local
Governments for Sustainability
(2010), ICLEI–Local Governments
for Sustainability Preparing for
Tomorrow Strategy 2010−2015,
available at http://www.iclei-
europe.org/fileadmin/templates/
iclei-europe/files/content/
ICLEI_IS/Policy_and_Advocacy/
ICLEI_Strategy_2010-2015.
pdf; Deutsche Gessellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ) GmbH, Climate Protection
Programme (2011), Adaptation
to Climate Change: New
Findings, Methods and Solutions,
Deutsche Gessellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ) GmbH, Climate Protection
Programme, Eschborn, Germany,
35 pages; and The Economics
of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(TEEB) (2011), TEEB Manual for
Cities: Ecosystem Services in
Urban Management, available at
www.teebweb.org, 41 pages.
3. The direct and indirect
contributions of ecosystems
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
169
Forest conservation will also have a range of adaptation co-benefits such
as improved soil quality, increased water retention,
(14)
enhanced energy
security and educational opportunities.
A critical co-benefit of EBA is the conservation of biodiversity. Current
and projected rates of biodiversity loss rival those of the past five mass
extinctions, but are driven by activities such as land use transformation,
human-induced climate change, overexploitation, pollution and the
introduction of alien species, rather than natural forcings.
(15)
The
rate of species loss has resulted in the safe planetary boundary
(16)
for
biodiversity loss being exceeded, thereby risking a “sixth extinction”.
(17)
The transgression of planetary boundaries “...may be deleterious or even
catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear,
abrupt environmental change within continental- to planetary-scale systems.”
(18)
EBA responds to this challenge by underscoring the need to prevent life-
and development-sustaining ecosystems and biodiversity from tipping
into undesired states.
(19)
II. THE NEED TO “BOUNCE FORWARD”
The acknowledgment that global development opportunities are defined by
the thresholds of natural systems or limits to “environmental integrity” is an
obvious, but still surprisingly provocative, world view, the implementation
of which requires a “...bouncing forward”
(20)
type of mentality characterized
by creativity, risk taking and innovation. The practical manifestation of
this “bouncing forward” mentality would, for example, include addressing
flood risk through the growth of a “green economy”
(21)
based on green
infrastructure provision, “green-collar” jobs, the maintenance of healthy
ecosystems,
(22)
catchment management, benefit sharing, community-
based partnerships, full cost-accounting, the direct valuation of natural
capital and payment for ecosystem services, rather than “bouncing back”
to the canalization of rivers in ever-larger concrete channels. The notion
of “bouncing back” is, however, implicit in many of the resilience-focused
discussions occurring in the climate change debate. The IPCC’s 2007
Assessment for example, defines resilience as “...the ability of a social or
ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the same basic structure
and function, the capacity for self-organization and the capacity to adapt to
stress and change.”
(23)
This concept of a return to a previous state and/or
capacity level is an inappropriate starting point for increased adaptability,
given that the flawed global economic and development status quo is the
cause of existing unsustainability, vulnerability and risk, and is fuelled by
the ongoing destruction of natural systems. Transformation, or “bouncing
forward”, requires instead a re-conceptualization of biodiversity and
ecosystem services as the “reserve currency” or foundation of a new, more
adaptive “green economy” driven by an understanding of deep (as opposed
to weak) sustainability,
(24)
offering greater flexibility, value for money and a
challenge to the existing global development model.
A major challenge to this vision is that the loss of biodiversity and
the degradation of ecosystem services are already significant barriers
to achieving other global turn-key initiatives such as the Millennium
Development Goals. This situation is likely to grow worse in the next 50
years
(25)
and therefore raises the possibility of a “perfect storm” scenario,
(26)
whereby a number of global events converge to produce globally
to human well-being. The
concept “ecosystem goods
and services” is synonymous
with ecosystem services; see
The Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity (TEEB)
(2010b), The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
Mainstreaming the Economics
of Nature: A Synthesis of the
Approach, Conclusions and
Recommendations of TEEB,
Progress Press, Malta, 36
pages; also see reference 1,
MEA (2005).
4. See reference 2, Second
Ad-hoc Technical Expert
Group on Biodiversity and
Climate Change (AHTEG)
(2009), page 41. This is a
group established by the
Secretariat for the Convention
on Biological Diversity to
provide biodiversity-related
information to the United
Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change.
5. For example, London Climate
Change Partnership (LCCP)
(2006), Adapting to Climate
Change: Lessons for London,
Greater London Authority,
London, 158 pages; also
Awuor, C B, V A Orindi and
A O Adwera (2009), “Climate
change and coastal cities: the
case of Mombasa, Kenya”,
in J Bicknell, D Dodman and
D Satterthwaite (editors),
Adapting Cities to Climate
Change: Understanding and
Addressing the Development
Challenges, Earthscan, London,
pages 77–91; and Mehrotra,
S, C Rosenzweig, W D Solecki,
C E Natenzon, A Omojola, R
Folorunsho and J Gillbride
(2011), “Cities, disasters and
climate risk”, in C Rosenzweig,
W D Solecki, S A Hammer
and S Mehrotra (editors),
Climate Change and Cities:
First Assessment Report or
the Urban Climate Change
Research Network, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge,
UK, pages 15–42.
6. Heinrichs, D, R Aggarwal, J
Barton, E Bharucha, C Butsch,
M Fragkias, P Johnston, F
Krass, K Krellenberg, A Lampis,
O G Ling and J Vogel (2011),
“Adapting cities to climate
change: opportunities and
constraints”, in D Hoornweg,
M Friere, M J Lee, P Bhada-Tata
and B Yuen (editors), Cities and
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
170
destabilizing outcomes. For example, biodiversity loss exacerbating the
world’s need for 50 per cent more food and energy and 30 per cent more
available fresh water by 2030 (both requirements linked to a sustained
supply of ecosystem services) at the same time as the world having to
address the critical path requirements associated with climate change
mitigation and adaptation. It is within this context of an ecologically
turbulent and unpredictable outlook that cities must understand and
plan their futures.
III. THE IMPORTANCE OF EBA TO URBAN AREAS
Urban centres are now home to more than half the world’s population;
they are the seat of global decision-making and drive global consumption,
production and resource allocation patterns. They are also at the forefront
of both the climate change and the biodiversity challenge
(27)
given that “...
the conversion of Earth’s land surface to urban uses is one of the most irreversible
human impacts on the global biosphere…Worldwide, urban expansion is one of
the primary drivers of habitat loss and species extinction.”
(28)
The landfall of
the “perfect storm” is therefore likely to be predominantly urban. This
poses unique challenges for cities of the Global South, where “bouncing
back” from the “perfect storm” is not an option given the existing “...lack
of adaptive capacity to deal with problems of climate variability and climate
change.”
(29)
This adaptation deficit is created by multiple factors, including the
lack of “grey” infrastructure (e.g. drains, sewers, roads), the destruction
of “green” infrastructure (e.g. wetlands, forests, grasslands, productive
soils, etc.) and a lack of capacity as a result of poverty, underdevelopment,
poor governance and lack of skills. The situation is further exacerbated
by unprecedented levels of growth. Ninety per cent of the world’s urban
population growth is currently taking place in low- and middle-income
countries,
(30)
putting increasingly large numbers of people and ecosystems
at risk and effectively urbanizing the poverty, climate change and
biodiversity challenge. This is of particular concern in Africa, a continent
that has one of the highest rates of urban land expansion globally.
(31)
The
scale of the adaptation problem is outlined in two recent studies published
by the World Bank, Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change
(32)
and Cities
and Climate Change: An Urgent Agenda.
(33)
These reports estimate the cost of
climate change adaptation at US$ 70−100 billion per annum, with 80 per
cent of these costs likely to be borne by cities in the Global South.
Given that urban economies, infrastructure and lives (particularly
those of the most vulnerable) in the Global South are likely to experience
higher and earlier risk and damage than those in the Global North,
(34)
Southern cities require a dramatic break from the status quo. Because
of their limited role in creating the climate change crisis, and their
resource-scarce and risk-prone state, for many this will mean prioritizing
adaptation.
(35)
This response is made increasingly probable by the fact that
the “...guard rail” of 2
0
C global warming above pre-industrial temperatures
first proposed in the 1990s is becoming increasingly unrealistic, as “...
even with strong political will, the chances of shifting the global energy system
fast enough to avoid 2
0
C are slim.”
(36)
“Trajectories that result in eventual
temperature increases of 3
0
C or 4
0
C are much more likely.”
(37)
Simply put, we
can no longer mitigate our way out of dangerous climate change.
Climate Change: Responding to
an Urgent Agenda, The World
Bank, Washington DC, page 216.
7. See reference 1, TEEB
(2010a), page 13.
8. The Royal Society (2008),
“Biodiversity–climate
interactions: adaptation,
mitigation and human
livelihoods”, The Royal Society,
London, 50 pages.
9. Webbe, J (2011), “Using
links and synergies: the
expert’s view in Adaptation to
Climate Change: new findings,
methods and solutions”,
Gessellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH,
Climate Protection Programme,
Eschborn, Germany, page 27.
10. See reference 1, TEEB (2009).
11. Bosello, F, C Carraro and E
De Cian (2011), “Adaptation can
help mitigation: an integrated
approach to post-2012 climate
policy”, Working Paper No 69,
Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei
(FEEM), Milan, Italy, page 4.
12. See reference 3, TEEB
(2010b), page 28.
13. See reference 1, UNEP
(2011), page 6.
14. See reference 1, UNEP
(2011).
15. Rockström, J, W Steffen, K
Noone, Å Persson, F S Chapin
III, E Lambin, T M Lenton, M
Scheffer, C Folke, H Schellnhuber,
B Nykvist, C A De Wit, T Hughes,
S van der Leeuw, H Rodhe, S
Sörlin, P K Snyder, R Costanza,
U Svedin, M Falkenmark, L
Karlberg, R W Corell, V J Fabry, J
Hansen, B Walker, D Liverman,
K Richardson, P Crutzen and
J Foley (2009), “Planetary
boundaries: exploring the safe
operating space for humanity”,
Ecology and Society Vol 14,
No 2, available at http://www.
ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/
iss2/art32/, 33 pages.
16. This is the boundary that
should not be transgressed
if unacceptable global
environmental change is to be
avoided and if a safe operating
space for humanity is to be
ensured.
17. See reference 15.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
171
In a world where the average global temperature increase is 4
0
C, the
prospect exists (especially for continents such as Africa) that the role of
early mitigation is primarily as an adaptation tool to avoid the worst
effects of climate change and to reduce long-term adaptation costs. As
noted by Anderson and Bows:
“...the rhetoric of 2
0
C is subverting a meaningful, open and
empirically informed dialogue on climate change. While it may be
argued that 2
0
C provides a reasonable guide to the appropriate scale
of mitigation, it is a dangerously misleading basis for informing
the adaptation agenda. In the absence of an almost immediate step
change in mitigation...adaptation would be much better guided by
stabilization at 650 ppm CO
2
e (i.e. approximately 4
0
C).”
(38)
In a strictly non-cooperative international climate regime (such as the
existing one), the possibility therefore exists that adaptation will become
the main coping strategy.
(39)
Prioritizing adaptation at city level is, however, contrary to the
prevailing global and urban focus on mitigation and is likely to generate
concern that this approach could undermine and reduce the pressure
for mitigation action.
(40)
Currently, adaptation activities are considered
less important, or as trade-offs to mitigation strategies, and are also
disadvantaged by a carbon trading market that creates a financial bias in
favour of mitigation action. The impression is that “...adaptation is costly
with no monetary value to incentivize action...”, while “...mitigation offers
financial compensation.”
(41)
This contrasts with the increasingly strong
political focus placed on adaptation by groups such as the G77 and China
and the African bloc within the international climate change negotiations.
As noted by Tosi Mpanu-Mpanu (Chair of the Africa Group):
“We need to remember that the African continent only contributes 4
per cent of global greenhouse gases, it is the most vulnerable to climate
change’s adverse effects, and for us the overriding priority is definitely
adaptation. In whatever way we can contribute to mitigation efforts
we will do so, but only when it makes sense because we have other
major challenges – we need to reduce poverty. However, in no way
should it be an obligation for us to achieve mitigation at this stage.”
(42)
Adaptation is, however, not possible without appropriate financial and
technological support, and the lack of adequate financing remains one
of the major failings of the negotiations to date.
(43)
This shortfall is a
clear indication that a more equitable balance between the mitigation
and adaptation agendas must be struck if the on-the-ground realities of
the Global South are to be effectively addressed − especially given that
mitigation is likely to reduce the need to adapt by a lower margin in
the Global South than the Global North.
(44)
Ideally, this balance should
involve early and ambitious mitigation action by those parties responsible
for creating the climate problem, and effective and appropriate adaptation
action (ideally with mitigation co-benefits) by those parties already
experiencing the “...equity adverse impact of climate change.”
(45)
Key to achieving the desired balance between mitigation and
adaptation is the acknowledgment that “...cities depend on nature”
(46)
and
that EBA offers the opportunity for transformative and cost-effective
change that results in a “leap-frogging” to a more “climate-smart” state.
For the Global South, the concept of EBA is particularly appealing because
18. See reference 15, page 1.
19. See reference 15.
20. Shaw, K and K Theobald
(2011), “Resilient local
government and climate
change interventions in the
UK”, Local Environment Vol 16,
No 1, page 2.
21. UNEP defines a “green
economy” as one that “…
results in improved human
well-being and social equity,
while significantly reducing
environmental risks and
ecological scarcities. In its
simplest expression, a green
economy can be thought of
as one which is low carbon,
resource efficient and socially
inclusive. In a green economy,
growth in income and
employment should be driven by
public and private investments
that reduce carbon emissions
and pollution, enhance energy
and resource efficiency, and
prevent the loss of biodiversity
and ecosystem services.
These investments need to be
catalyzed and supported by
targeted public expenditure,
policy reforms and regulation
changes. The development path
should maintain, enhance and,
where necessary, rebuild natural
capital as a critical economic
asset and as a source of public
benefits, especially for poor
people whose livelihoods and
security depend on nature.” See
reference 1, UNEP (2011), page 1.
22. A healthy ecosystem is one
in which the system is able
to maintain “…its structure
(organization) and function
(vigour) over time in the face
of external stress (resilience).
A healthy system must also
be defined in light of both its
context (the larger system
of which it is part) and its
components (the smaller
systems that make it up).” See
Costanza, R and M Mageau
(1999), “What is a healthy
ecosystem?”, Aquatic Ecology
Vol 33, page 106. Climate
change and other large-scale
environmental changes (biotic
and abiotic) are, however,
likely to drive the emergence
of “…novel systems”, which
comprise “…different species,
interactions and functions”
and “…will require significant
revision of conservation and
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
172
many people (particularly the rural and urban poor) are still directly
dependent on ecosystem services for their basic needs and well-being.
(47)
As
such, ecosystem-based approaches are “...not simply about saving ecosystems,
but rather about using ecosystems to help ‘save’ people and the resources on
which they depend.”
(48)
Even in the cities of the Global North, there is a
growing recognition of the critical role that biodiversity and ecosystem
services play in ensuring long-term sustainability. New York’s US$ 462
million investment in protecting the integrity of the Catskill and Delaware
watersheds is a minor investment compared to the costs of constructing
and operating a filtration plant to achieve the same goals (US$ 10 billion to
construct and US$ 100 million a year to operate), and avoids the additional
environmental impacts associated with the extra energy and chemical use.
It is thus “...the most cost-effective choice for New York.”
(49)
The key question therefore is how to advance the EBA agenda in cities,
particularly those of the Global South, in order to address urgent local level
adaptation needs? Usually, a bigger challenge than identifying the problem
is the development of the enabling conditions and processes by which
responsive solutions can be identified and translated into practical planning
and management tools. Existing global literature, while acknowledging and
promoting the role of ecosystem services and EBA
(50)
in addressing climate
change, often does not provide local, fine-scale practical guidance on
implementation mechanisms.
(51)
There is thus an urgent need to understand
how the EBA concept translates into a work programme that is manageable
and appropriate for local governments. Some early insight is provided by
the adaptation experiences of the city of Durban in South Africa.
(52)
IV. ADAPTATION IN DURBAN
Durban is addressing the complex challenges of climate change through
the development of a citywide Municipal Climate Protection Programme
(MCPP) initiated in 2004.
(53)
The strong and early focus on adaptation of
the MCPP sets it apart from many other urban climate change initiatives
globally.
(54)
The adaptation work stream within the MCPP is composed of
three separate components: municipal adaptation (i.e. adaptation activities
linked to the key line functions of local government); community-based
adaptation (i.e. adaptation activities focused on improving the adaptive
capacity of local communities); and a series of urban management
interventions that address specific climate change challenges (e.g. the
urban heat island, increased stormwater runoff, water conservation and
sea-level rise). These adaptation interventions represent a “no-regrets”
approach, as the majority are beneficial under a range of climate change
scenarios. This versatility is important, for while there are high levels of
uncertainty associated with climate change projections at the local level,
“...uncertainty is not equivalent to ‘no change’...” and “...does not mean that
adaptation is not possible.”
(55)
Within each of the three adaptation components, a number of EBA-
focused projects have been initiated. These have followed a “learning-
by-doing” model of development and implementation, which has been
necessitated by the different types, scales (spatial and temporal) and
combinations of climate change impact that need to be considered. Because
there are many possible adaptation options and points of entry, each
with varying degrees of appropriateness depending on local conditions,
restoration norms.” See Hobbs,
R J, E Higgs and J A Harris
(2009), “Novel ecosystems:
implications for conservation
and restoration”, Trends in
Ecology and Evolution Vol 24,
No 11, page 599.
23. Parry, M L, O F Canziani, J
P Palutikof, P J van der Linden
and C E Hanson (editors)
(2007), Climate Change 2007:
Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution
of Working Group II to the
Fourth Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change,
Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, page 880;
also Lowe, A, J Foster and S
Winkelman (2009), Ask the
Climate Question: Adapting
to Climate Change Impacts in
Urban Regions, Report by the
Centre for Clean Air Policy:
Urban Leaders Adaptation
Initiative, Washington DC, 41
pages; United Nations Human
Settlements Programme
(UN−Habitat) (2011), Cities
and Climate Change: Global
Report on Human Settlements
2011, Earthscan, London, 279
pages; and Kithiia, J and A Lyth
(2011), “Urban wildscapes and
green spaces in Mombasa and
their potential contribution to
climate change adaptation and
mitigation”, Environment and
Urbanization Vol 23, No 1, April,
pages 251–265.
24. Strong sustainability derives
from an understanding that “…
substitutability of manufactured
for natural capital is seriously
limited by such environmental
characteristics as irreversibility,
uncertainty and the existence
of ‘critical’ components of
natural capital, which make
a unique contribution to
welfare.” See Ekins, P, S Simon,
L Deutsch, C Folke and R De
Groot (2003), “A framework
for the practical application
of the concepts of critical
natural capital and strong
sustainability”, Ecological
Economics Vol 44, No 2−3,
page 168. Whereas weak
sustainability holds that all
or most forms of natural
capital can be substituted by
manufactured human-derived
capital.
25. See reference 1, MEA
(2005).
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
173
there must be a “...willingness to experiment”
(56)
and an acceptance that the
outcome is likely to be locally specific and often non-transferable. Because
of this “wicked” complexity,
(57)
it has not been possible to define a clear
and overarching vision for the adaptation work stream of the MCPP
(58)
−
particularly as the assumptions, conditions and expectations at the start of
each adaptation intervention are unlikely to remain true for its duration
or beyond.
(59)
So while it is possible to identify the general direction
of action, the detailed route to be followed (and often the destination
itself) has not always been clear.
(60)
As a result, local level adaptation is
proving to be an incremental, iterative and non-linear process that relies
on experimentation, flexibility and innovation as the means of achieving
progress. Using the lessons learned from both past failures and successes,
future action is refined, planned and undertaken, and the cycle repeated as
the understanding of the problems and solutions increases and deepens.
A recent critical review of the work being undertaken by the
Environmental Planning and Climate Protection Department (EPCPD)
has resulted in a refinement of the adaptation work stream of the MCPP
around three priorities:
• TheneedtoprioritizeandconsolidateEBAwork,particularlytheneed
to better understand climate change impacts on Durban’s globally
significant biodiversity, and to highlight how “climate-smart”
biodiversity interventions can assist in socioeconomic improvement
and the development of a green economy.
• Theneedtoprioritizecommunity-basedadaptation,particularlythe
need for social cohesion, and to better understand the socioeconomic
benefits of existing adaptation projects. Aligned to this is the need to
communicate climate change issues to a range of diverse communities.
• The ongoing monitoring and development of the three pilot
municipal adaptation plans in the water, health and disaster
management sectors.
(61)
The emergence of EBA as a critical priority for the MCPP has been driven
by a number of considerations. First, the EPCPD is a biodiversity planning
department so there is an inherent interest in EBA. Second, the EPCPD
has already initiated a number of ecosystem-related interventions,
driven either by climate change concerns or as part of the long-running
biodiversity planning work of the department (with coincidental climate
change adaptation co-benefits), which now require consolidation and
alignment into a programmatic and structured EBA work stream. Third,
given that Durban is located within the Maputaland−Pondoland−
Albany global biodiversity hotspot (one of only 34 global biodiversity
hotspots recognized by Conservation International
(62)
), there is a need
to understand how local biodiversity will be impacted on, or will help
increase, adaptive capacity in the city.
V. THE EMERGING EBA ROAD MAP IN DURBAN
The founding premise of the EBA work in Durban has been that the
protection of indigenous biodiversity and the associated ecosystem
services (here referred to collectively as bio-infrastructure
(63)
) will increase
the adaptive range of the city. From this, important lessons emerge
26. Beddington, J (2009), “Food,
energy, water and the climate: a
perfect storm of global events”,
available at http://www.govnet.
co.uk/news/govnet/professor-
sir-john-beddingtons-speech-
at-sduk-09.
27. Rosenzweig, C, W D Solecki,
S A Hammer and S Mehrotra
(2011), “Urban climate change
in context”, in C Rosenzweig,
W D Solecki, S A Hammer
and S Mehrotra (editors),
Climate Change and Cities:
First Assessment Report of
the Urban Climate Change
Research Network, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge,
UK, pages 3–11.
28. Seto, K C, M Fragkias, B
Guneralp and M K Reilly (2011),
“A meta-analysis of global
urban land expansion”, PLoS
ONE Vol 6, No 8, page 1.
29. Satterthwaite, D, S Huq, H
Reid, M Pelling and P Romero
Lankao (2009), “Adapting to
climate change in urban areas:
the possibilities and constraints
in low- and middle-income
nations”, in J Bicknell, D
Dodman and D Satterthwaite
(editors), Adapting Cities to
Climate Change: Understanding
and Addressing the
Development Challenges,
Earthscan, London, page 9.
30. See reference 23, UN−
Habitat (2011).
31. See reference 28.
32. The World Bank (2010a),
Economics of Adaptation to
Climate Change: Synthesis
Report, The World Bank,
Washington DC, 101 pages.
33. The World Bank (2010b),
Cities and Climate Change:
An Urgent Agenda, The World
Bank, Washington DC, 81 pages.
34. See reference 11.
35. Roberts, D (2008), “Thinking
globally, acting locally –
institutionalizing climate
change at the local government
level in Durban, South Africa”,
Environment and Urbanization
Vol 20, No 2, October, pages
521–537.
36. New, M, D Liverman, H
Schroder and K Anderson
(2011), “Four degrees and
beyond: the potential for a
global temperature increase
of four degrees and its
implications”, The Philosophical
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
174
that provide some initial guidance on a possible EBA roadmap for local
government. It must be stressed that this is not an attempt to provide a
“recipe book”, but rather is an effort to better understand the building
blocks that might make up the varied architecture of local level climate
change adaptation programmes, particularly in cities of the Global South.
a. Step 1: Asking the climate question
A fundamental requirement of any EBA programme is the need to “ask the
climate question”. In Durban, this translates into the need to understand
the consequences of climate change for the design and management of
the Durban Metropolitan Open Space System (D’MOSS). D’MOSS is the
80,000 hectare system designed to protect the city’s globally significant
biodiversity and to ensure a sustainable supply of the related ecosystem
services. These services were conservatively valued at R3.1 billion per
annum
(64)
(US$ 387.5 million) in 2003 when the system was substantially
smaller (63,115 hectares) than it is today. The continued provision of
these ecosystem services is seen as a critical adaptation tool, replacing
the need for expensive infrastructure (e.g. wetlands reducing the need
for stormwater infrastructure) and providing a safety net for poor and
vulnerable populations against natural disasters and the economic shocks
likely to accompany climate change (e.g. providing food, shelter and
energy). It is also acknowledged that the relative value of bio-infrastructure
is likely to increase as the reliance upon ecosystem services grows under
conditions of escalating global environmental change.
In order to understand the consequences of climate change on
biodiversity, the impacts of changing temperature and precipitation
regimes (and associated changes in landscape processes) on the
distribution and status of key ecosystems and species were assessed using
bioclimatic modelling.
(65)
Bioclimatic envelope models define the climate
“envelope” that best describes the limits to a species’ spatial range by
correlating current distribution with selected physiographic variables
such as altitude, aspect, slope, soils and climatic variables (e.g. rainfall
and temperature), and use this information to simulate future occurrence
under climate change conditions.
(66)
Bioclimatic envelopes associated with
five General Circulation Models (GCMs) both on an individual model
basis and on an “average” of multiple GCMs basis were assessed.
(67)
This
method is limited in that the variation attributed to climate change may
not necessarily equate to vulnerability, as the integrity of an ecosystem
may remain intact despite turnover in species composition. Individual
species may also exhibit distinct and individualistic responses,
(68)
with
the result that the models might only provide limited guidance to actual
impact. Accuracy of the modelled output is also highly reliant on the
number of variables considered, the availability of robust and diverse
data sets and the intrinsic uncertainty of the models. As a result, the
uncertainty of modelled projections can often overshadow their useful
application.
Findings from the modelling process suggested that the majority of
vegetation types are unlikely to continue to exist in their current form,
with the areas of bioclimatic suitability decreasing or retreating for all
but one vegetation type. For individual species, it was found that the
projected warmer and wetter conditions generally appear to favour forest
Transactions of the Royal
Society A Vol 369, page 6.
37. See reference 36, page 9.
38. Anderson, K and A Bows
(2008), “Re-framing the climate
change challenge in light of
post-2000 emission trends”,
The Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society A Vol 366,
page 18 (online version).
39. See reference 11.
40. Bulkeley, H, H Schroeder,
K Janda, Z Zhao, A Armstrong,
S Y Chi and S Ghosh (2011),
“The role of institutions,
governance and urban planning
for mitigation and adaptation”,
in D Hoornweg, M Friere, M J
Lee, P Bhada-Tata and B Yuen
(editors), Cities and Climate
Change: Responding to an
Urgent Agenda, The World
Bank, Washington DC, pages
125–159; also see reference 6.
41. Somorin, O A, H C P Brown,
I J Visseren-Hamakers, D J
Sonwa, B Arts and J Nkem
(2011 in press), “The Congo
Basin forests in a changing
climate: policy discourses
on adaptation and mitigation
(REDD+)”, Global Environmental
Change, page 5.
42. http://www.boell.org.za/
web/cop17-694.html, interview
20 May 2011.
43. FIELD with S Zakieldeen
(2010), “Adaptation under the
UNFCCC”, Working Paper,
European Capacity-building
Initiative, Oxford, UK, 15 pages.
44. See reference 11.
45. See reference 11.
46. See reference 1, TEEB
(2010a), page 65.
47. See reference 1, MEA
(2005); also see reference
1, UNEP (2011); and United
Nations Human Settlements
Programme (UN−Habitat)
(undated), “Climate change
assessment for Kampala,
Uganda: a summary”, UN−
Habitat, Nairobi, 20 pages.
48. Burgiel, S W and A
A Muir (2010), “Invasive
species, climate change and
ecosystem-based adaptation:
addressing multiple drivers of
global change”, Global Invasive
Species Programme (GISP),
Washington DC and Nairobi,
Kenya, page 4.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
175
and tree species. Some bioclimatic envelopes currently suitable for certain
vegetation types and species also seem to retreat inland, away from the
coast, perhaps indicating that increasingly warm and moist conditions
may not always be suitable
(69)
and that more moderate temperatures
may continue to be favoured. In terms of invasive plant species, with
the exception of two species
(70)
the warmer, wetter conditions appear
to be beneficial (Figures 1A and 1B). This has potentially far-reaching
implications, as the increased distribution of invasive plant species
implies increased competition with indigenous vegetation and possible
changes in distribution and ecosystem function
(71)
and thus the provision
of ecosystem services. It also became clear that, in some instances, the
modelled outcomes were not ecologically realistic due to limitations in the
availability of distribution and occurrence data, and the data manipulation
undertaken during the modelling to compensate for these shortfalls.
Because of these uncertainties there was low overall confidence in the
results and a research partnership has been established to improve the
quality and coverage of datasets available for future modelling exercises.
Additional work has also been undertaken to better understand
one of the key ecosystem services provided by D’MOSS, namely carbon
storage. A carbon stock study indicated that in 2005, D’MOSS
(72)
“...had
a store of 6.6 ± 0.2 million tonnes of carbon (Mt C), equivalent to 24.3 ± 0.9
million tonnes of carbon dioxide (Mt CO
2
)” and “…conservatively sequestered
8,400−9,800 tonnes of carbon per annum (tC/yr), or 31,000-36,000 tonnes
CO
2
/yr”.
(73)
Although the carbon stock and rate of sequestration are small
in comparison to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions estimated for the
municipality, protection and restoration of the system is seen as important
in ensuring that land cover change does not become a significant source
of GHG emissions in the future.
(74)
Key EBA roadmap lessons: Given the specialized nature of the
tools involved, and that long-term biodiversity research is not the core
business of local government, targeted partnerships will need to be
established with research institutions to assess the impact of climate
change on biodiversity. This implies that local government will have
to increase its skills set in order to effectively utilize the information
emerging from such partnerships.
b. Step 2: Filling the gaps
The uncertainty associated with regional level climate change projections
means that local government can no longer use only past experience to
guide future planning. It has become necessary to invest in research
partnerships capable of providing a steady flow of locally relevant and
up-to-date impact data that can be used to assess likely future change.
These partnerships may be difficult to establish in smaller centres where
appropriate tertiary institutions do not exist or may not be well capacitated
or where local governments are poorly resourced. In addition, some tertiary
level institutions may be reluctant to undertake the applied research required
by local government. In Durban, a research partnership has been developed
between eThekwini Municipality
(75)
and the University of KwaZulu-Natal
through a memorandum of agreement signed in May 2011. This focuses on
advancing knowledge in biodiversity conservation and management within
the context of global environmental change and includes an internship
49. New York City (2011),
“PlaNYC. Update April 2011”,
City of New York, New York,
page 81.
50. See reference 23, UN−
Habitat (2011); also see
reference 1, TEEB (2010a).
51. Künkel, N (2011), “Being
prepared: the expert’s view
in Adaptation to Climate
Change: new findings, methods
and solutions”, Deutsche
Gessellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH,
Climate Protection Programme,
Eschborn, Germany, pages
14–15.
52. See reference 35; also
Roberts, D (2010), “Prioritizing
climate change adaptation and
local level resiliency in Durban,
South Africa”, Environment
and Urbanization Vol 22, No 2,
October, pages 397−413.
53. See reference 35.
54. See reference 52, Roberts
(2010); also Carmin, J, D Roberts
and I Anguelovski (2009),
“Planning climate resilient
cities: early lessons from early
adapters”, Paper prepared
for the World Bank 5th
Urban Research Symposium:
Cities and Climate Change:
Responding to an Urgent
Agenda, Marseille, France,
28–30 June, 27 pages.
55. Todd, M (2011), “Knowing
what will happen: the expert’s
view in Adaptation to Climate
Change: new findings, methods
and solutions”, Deutsche
Gessellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH,
Climate Protection Programme,
Eschborn, Germany, page 6.
56. See reference 23, Kithiia
and Lyth (2011), page 260.
57. Fünfgeld, H and D McEvoy
(2011), “Framing climate
change adaptation in policy
and practice. VCCCAR project:
framing adaptation in the
Victorian context”, Working
Paper 1, RMIT University,
Melbourne, 65 pages.
58. This contrasts with
mitigation, where it is possible
to identify a clear, singular
goal (i.e. reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and increasing
carbon sinks) and where the
methods for achieving this
goal are well developed, widely
known and generally applicable.
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
176
programme aimed at building human capital for the municipality in these
areas. Seed funding has been provided for the research and internship
programme by the municipality and is being used by the university to seek
additional funding to expand the project scope and range of partners.
59. Porsché, I and H McCray
(2011), “Tracking effectiveness:
the expert’s view in Adaptation
to Climate Change: new findings,
methods and solutions”,
Deutsche Gessellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ) GmbH, Climate Protection
Programme, Eschborn, Germany,
pages 30–31.
60. See reference 57.
61. See reference 52, Roberts
(2010).
62. Hotspots are areas with
a high number of endemic
species (i.e. more than 1,500
species of endemic vascular
plants) and where at least 70
per cent of the original habitat
has been lost; see http://
www.conservation.org/where/
priority_areas/hotspots/Pages/
hotspots_defined.aspx.
63. TEEB defines “ecological
infrastructure” as including
both “natural ecosystems”
and “nature within man-
made ecosystems”. In cities,
it is necessary to further
distinguish between the types
of nature found in human-
made ecosystems. In urban
areas “green” or “ecological
infrastructure” includes street
trees, formal parks, green roofs
and agricultural lands, whereas
“bio-infrastructure” refers
exclusively to the services
provided by the remaining
indigenous and endemic
ecosystems; see reference 1,
TEEB (2009).
64. Exchange rate US$ 1 =
Rand 8.
65. Using the MaxEnt software
package.
66. Golder Associates (2010),
Final Report: eThekwini
Municipality Integrated
Assessment Tool for Climate
Change, Final Report for the
Environmental Planning and
Climate Protection Department,
eThekwini Municipality, Durban,
South Africa, 63 pages.
67. See reference 66.
68. Ackerly, D D, S R Loarie,
W K Cornwell, S B Weiss,
H Hamilton, R Branciforte
and N J B Kraft (2010), “The
geography of climate change:
implications for conservation
biogeography”, Diversity and
Distributions Vol 16, pages
476−487.
FIGURE 1A
Current distribution of Triffid weed
(Chromolaena odorata) (1971−1990)
SOURCE: Golder Associates (2010), Final Report: eThekwini Municipality Integrated
Assessment Tool for Climate Change, Final Report for the Environmental Planning
and Climate Protection Department, eThekwini Municipality, Durban, South Africa,
63 pages.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
177
Key EBA roadmap lessons: New institutional partnerships and
resources are necessary to generate the knowledge capital needed for
effective EBA and will require that institutions work outside of their
traditional comfort zones.
69. See reference 66.
70. Black Wattle and Seringa
(Melia azedarach).
71. See reference 66.
72. At the time of the study,
the size of D’MOSS was 64,037
hectares.
73. Glenday, J (2007), Carbon
Storage and Sequestration
Analysis for the eThekwini
Environmental Services
Management Plan Open
Space System, Report for the
Environmental Planning and
Climate Protection Department,
eThekwini Municipality, Durban,
South Africa, pages 3 and 4.
74. See reference 73.
75. EThekwini Municipality
is the local government
responsible for planning and
managing Durban.
FIGURE 1B
Projected distribution of Triffid weed (Chromolaena odorata) in
the intermediate future (2046−2065)
SOURCE: Golder Associates (2010), Final Report: eThekwini Municipality Integrated
Assessment Tool for Climate Change, Final Report for the Environmental Planning
and Climate Protection Department, eThekwini Municipality, Durban, South Africa,
63 pages.
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
178
c. Step 3: Reducing the impact of non-climate stressors
Given the likely delay in climate change/biodiversity research outputs,
there is a need to reduce the vulnerability of indigenous ecosystems in
the short term as a precautionary measure.
(76)
The “act now” approach is
premised on the fact that intact ecosystems will be required to maximize
adaptation benefits, and that many existing methods, tools and strategies
aimed at conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity can be
used to mitigate the most deleterious effects of climate change by reducing
and removing existing pressures, such as invasive alien species and altered
fire and river flow regimes.
(77)
In South Africa, climate change has been identified as the “...greatest
looming threat to biodiversity”,
(78)
but “...the outright loss of natural habitat
and ecosystems”
(79)
is seen as a more immediate threat. Determining
which elements and how much of an ecosystem should be protected and
managed to reduce this loss is a first key step in ensuring that biodiversity
is able to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change. In Durban,
the principles of systematic conservation planning
(80)
have been utilized
to identify priority biodiversity and ecosystem service areas (Figure 2).
(81)
This information is being used to update D’MOSS to produce one
comprehensive plan that optimizes the representation and persistence
of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The early indications emerging
from this work are that the city’s ecosystems are under significant threat.
Of the nine key vegetation types represented, it is already impossible to
meet the conservation targets for three; a further three are close to target
threshold; and the final three are located in areas experiencing high
development pressures.
The preparation of the systematic conservation plan has involved
a broad spectrum of stakeholders, and includes a memorandum of
understanding with the provincial conservation authority that makes
provision for the municipal section of the less detailed provincial plan
to be replaced by the locally developed fine-scale plan. The use of
biodiversity processes (i.e. abiotic and biotic processes that provide the
link between species, ecosystems and their environment) in systematic
conservation planning also enables the incorporation of projected
climate changes into the planning framework. This has resulted in a
strong emphasis being placed on hydrological processes, namely runoff,
flood attenuation, sediment supply and nitrogen and phosphorous
processing.
(82)
Better understanding and quantification of these processes
will enable the selection of areas that are important for the protection of
the related ecosystem services. Work is also being done to improve the
robustness of models that can predict the replacement costs of various
ecosystem services through the calibration of generic models with local,
fine-scale data. This information can then be used to build incentives,
such as payment for ecosystem services, into “green economy” models
with more certainty.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: Complex tools requiring detailed
databases drawn from many sources foster cooperative governance and
suggest that new patterns of institutional interaction and knowledge
sharing are required to facilitate effective EBA. Cooperation is important
given that ecosystems rarely respect political and jurisdictional boundaries.
The use of tools such as systematic conservation planning also requires
the development of new, specialized skills and reconfirms the biodiversity
76. See reference 9.
77. See reference 2, The Nature
Conservancy (2010).
78. Department of
Environmental Affairs and
Tourism (DEAT) (2006), South
Africa Environment Outlook.
A Report on the State of the
Environment, Department
of Environmental Affairs and
Tourism, Pretoria, page 115.
79. Cadman, M, C Petersen, A
Driver, N Sekhran, K Maze and S
Munzhedzi (2010), “Biodiversity
for development: South
Africa’s landscape approach
to conserving biodiversity
and promoting ecosystem
resilience”, South African
National Biodiversity Institute,
Pretoria, page 37.
80. Also known as systematic
biodiversity planning; see
reference 79.
81. Margules, C R and R L
Pressey (2000), “Systematic
conservation planning”, Nature
Vol 405, pages 243−253.
82. Glenday, J (2011),
Preliminary Hydrologic
Ecosystem Services
Assessment for the eThekwini
Municipal Area with Invest 2.0,
Report for the Environmental
Planning and Climate
Protection Department,
eThekwini Municipality, Durban,
South Africa, 14 pages.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
179
skills gap that exists at the local government level. Addressing this need
will require the development of focused training and capacity-building
opportunities for local government staff.
FIGURE 2
MARXAN output of the systematic conservation plan for Durban
(high values indicate priority areas for conservation action)
SOURCE: Prepared by Alistair McInnes, EPCPD (2011).
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
180
d. Step 4: Securing the conservation estate
Once critical areas have been identified, it is necessary to protect and
manage them. This is the greatest challenge for any EBA process as, in most
cases, the natural resources will not be owned by local government. In
Durban, a variety of approaches have been used to address this challenge.
Land acquisition: Land acquisition is regarded as a key method
for securing environmentally significant areas.
(83)
Since 2002, the EPCPD
has received approximately R2 million (US$250,000) annually for land
acquisition. To date, a total of 270 hectares have been acquired, representing
12.1 per cent of the formally conserved areas within the municipality.
Many of the acquired properties are adjacent to nature reserves, thereby
maximizing ecological integrity, enhancing landscape connectivity and
making management more time- and cost-effective. Properties not adjacent
to nature reserves have also been acquired in order to create an ecologically
supportive matrix for D’MOSS. This approach is in line with global findings
that improved landscape connectivity is the most common recommendation
for adapting conservation to climate change.
(84)
The systematic conservation
plan (together with other prioritization factors such as distance to nature
reserves, market valuations and legal obligations for acquisition) has also
provided an increasingly rigorous mechanism for site selection to ensure
that the most “biodiversity bang-for-buck” is achieved. Following a 2010
motivation to the municipal treasury, the land acquisition budget was
initially increased to R11 million for the 2013−2014 financial year in
response to the increased development pressures in the city, but this has
recently been decreased to R3.99 million due to the increasingly serious
impact of the global economic recession.
Special rating area: Despite the success of the acquisition
programme, it is not possible or desirable to purchase all at-risk ecosystems.
For example, 38 per cent of the municipal area is communally owned
and held in trust. A suite of targeted and varied land use management
interventions is therefore being used to protect areas of significance.
One of these is the special rating area (SRA) being piloted through the
Giba Gorge Environmental Precinct. The Municipal Property Rates Act
(85)
makes provision for the formation of SRAs to supply “top-up” services
through an additional levy on property tax. A variety of requirements
need to be met before an SRA can be established. These include a majority
endorsement by landowners in the precinct, management agreements,
a business plan, audited financial statements, an implementation
programme, establishment of a Section 21 (not-for-profit) company and a
proven commitment by landowners to manage the SRA.
The Giba Gorge Environmental Precinct is focused on an area that
contains numerous rare and range-restricted species and is one of the
few remaining large open spaces in the highly populated and developed
uMhlatuzana River catchment. Responding to the environmental
degradation of the area, and following the declaration of the site as an
SRA by the municipality, the surrounding residential community and the
EPCPD established the 354-hectare environmental precinct in July 2009
(Photo 1). A working committee comprising of Giba Gorge landowners
and an EPCPD staff member was formed to oversee the implementation of
the conservation management plan for the area. This addresses issues such
as invasive alien plant control, fire management, pollution monitoring,
enforcement and communication. The Giba Gorge Environmental Precinct
83. Press, D, D F Doak and P
Steinberg (1996), “The role
of local government in the
conservation of rare species”,
Conservation Biology Vol 10,
pages 1538−1548.
84. Heller, N E and E S
Zavaleta (2009), “Biodiversity
management in the face of
climate change: a review of 22
years of recommendations”,
Biological Conservation Vol 142,
pages 14−32.
85. Department of Local
Government (2004), “Municipal
Property Rates Act No 6 of
2004”, Republic of South Africa
Government Gazette 467 No
26357, 17 May.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
181
is significant in that it is the first SRA in South Africa created specifically
for biodiversity management purposes. As the municipality owns land in
the precinct, it contributes 50 per cent of the project’s management costs.
Town planning tools: Given that the use of SRAs will be limited
because of the associated conditionalities, a range of other instruments is
needed to protect and manage the remainder of the open space system.
The municipality has a hierarchy of spatial plans ranging from a strategic
development framework to town planning schemes. While D’MOSS is
represented in the higher level plans, the 54 town planning schemes
(some prepared as early as the 1950s) were developed with little or no
environmental input and are often at odds with current environmental
policy and law. If the development currently allowed by the schemes was
fully realized, it would be impossible to adequately conserve Durban’s
unique biodiversity or achieve any meaningful level of EBA. This has led to
conflict during the development assessment process, when the application
of biodiversity knowledge and environmental law has resulted in the
refusal or the curtailing of development proposals. A further problem is
that municipal valuations and the related property taxes are calculated
without taking into account environmental limitations, resulting in rates
being paid on land that cannot be developed.
In order to address these issues and ensure that biodiversity concerns
inform the development planning and assessment process, D’MOSS has
now been included within the schemes through a number of interventions.
These mark the first attempt by any South African city to formally
PHOTO 1
Giba Gorge Environmental Precinct signpost displaying
regulations for certain activities
© EPCPD stock photo (Alistair McInnes) (2011)
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
182
incorporate an open space system into its town planning scheme. The
first of these has resulted in D’MOSS being introduced into all schemes as
a controlled development layer. This means that no D’MOSS area may be
degraded and that all development applications in or adjacent to D’MOSS
must be assessed.
(86)
This amendment to the schemes was approved by the
city council in December 2010 after extensive public consultation involving
approximately 18,000 properties. The second intervention, completed in
October 2010, was a pilot scheme amendment (affecting approximately
1,800 properties) in an area containing endangered vegetation types and
undergoing rapid development. The aim of the exercise was to reduce the
potential impact of development through a number of new requirements:
split-zoning private properties affected by D’MOSS into residential
and conservation portions; increasing the minimum lot size possible
adjacent to D’MOSS
(87)
in order to reduce the density of development;
establishing a 25-metre buffer between the conservation area and any
new development;
(88)
and identifying properties where the development
potential is eliminated by the split-zoning, and embarking on a three-
year programme to acquire these. A conservation zone for privately
owned land and an environmental conservation reserve for state-owned
land have also been created to ensure the protection of biodiversity and
ecosystem services and to replace the use of the generic public open
space reservation (which includes land uses such as swimming pools,
stadia, formal parks and nature areas) on conservation-worthy land. Both
town planning processes have been appealed and are likely to end up in
court. The municipality, however, remains committed to ensuring that
development occurs within the carrying-capacity of local ecosystems and
plans to roll out the “split-zoning” amendment to all schemes.
Other approaches used to address the environmental shortfalls
of the schemes include the nil property tax rating of environmentally
sensitive properties that are protected and managed. The introduction of
environmental considerations into the general valuation methodology is
also being investigated, so that perverse incentives to develop sensitive
land (e.g. vacant land is taxed more than four times higher than developed
residential land) are removed and that land that can’t be developed
because of its environmental characteristics is taxed nominally. The
major challenge going forward, however, lies in providing more support
to landowners affected by these amendments. For example through the
provision of guidelines for biodiversity protection, assistance with fire and
invasive alien plant management and the development of a “payment for
ecosystem services” approach.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: While EBA may provide a cost-effective
approach to climate change adaptation, some level of capital and operational
funding is still required. This is likely to pose a barrier to poorly resourced local
authorities unless a direct, sustained and easy-to-use source of adaptation
funding is secured. Another valuable lesson relates to the possibility of using
existing town planning and urban management tools to protect important
biodiversity assets. Finally, it is clear that the protection of the required
ecosystems will necessitate tough decision-making and significant political
and administrative will. It is apparent that some (individuals) will have to
“lose” in order for others (the Durban community) to “win”. How this loss
is negotiated will determine the level of long-term success achieved. In the
end, the desired state is a citywide partnership between citizens and local
government in managing common natural resources.
86. This has been a policy for
some years, but has now been
given legal standing.
87. From 1,800 square metres
to 3,600 square metres.
88. This setback was determined
through an investigation into
the impacts of wastewater
from on-site sanitation systems
and stormwater on grasslands
ecosystems on nutrient poor
soils. A maximum disturbance
zone of 25 metres was
identified – although the cause
of the disturbance could not be
limited to wastewater.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
183
e. Step 5: Expanding the conservation estate
In parts of the city where biodiversity and ecosystem assets have been lost,
it is necessary to expand and enhance the conservation estate. The first
opportunity for large-scale restoration emerged during the “greening” of
the FIFA Football World Cup
TM
in 2010. Internationally, event-greening
initiatives usually focus on mitigation,
(89)
but given local level priorities,
efforts were made in Durban to establish projects that had both mitigation
and adaptation benefits. One of these involved the establishment of a
large-scale community reforestation initiative in the buffer zone around
the Buffelsdraai regional landfill site. The project was initiated in November
2008 and offers a win−win−win opportunity to address biodiversity loss,
carbon sequestration and the provision of an increased supply of ecosystem
services. It will eventually result in the reforestation of 521 hectares of
land previously cleared for dry land sugar cane cultivation. The trees for
the project are provided by adjacent rural communities who are trained by
a municipally appointed NGO (Wildlands Conservation Trust) to become
“treepreneurs”, sourcing seeds from local forest patches, which are then
propagated at local homesteads (Photo 2). Project facilitators (also drawn
from the community) collect the tree seedlings and issue credit notes that
can be used at quarterly “tree stores” for food, building materials, school
fees and other pre-ordered goods.
89. Diederichs, N and D Roberts
(2010), Greening Durban
2010: Summary Review of
the eThekwini Municipality’s
2010 FIFA World Cup
TM
Event Greening Programme,
Environmental Planning and
Climate Protection Department,
eThekwini Municipality, Durban,
South Africa, 24 pages.
PHOTO 2
Community “treepreneurs” produce seedlings for the
reforestation project at home
© Wildlands Conservation Trust (2009)
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
184
The communities involved are some of the most impoverished and
vulnerable in Durban, and since its inception the project has created a
total of 23 full-time, 10 part-time and 639 temporary jobs for members
of the Buffelsdraai and Osindisweni communities. Over and above this,
583 community “treepreneurs” are engaged in producing and trading
trees. Early indications are that the direct socioeconomic impact on the
communities is significant, with increased and improved educational
opportunities and food security reported as the most important benefits.
(90)
Given the success of the Buffelsdraai project, a second reforestation
project was established in June 2009 on communal land at Inanda
Mountain. The 250-hectare project site is located in an area of severe
forest degradation resulting from high levels of harvesting (mainly for
firewood and building materials) and uncontrolled fires. Activities have
centred on clearing and controlling invasive alien plants and managing
the subsequent natural recruitment of indigenous species. Tree seedlings,
produced by 76 “treepreneurs”, are planted in areas where natural
recruitment is unlikely or does not occur timeously. Contracting options
are currently being investigated to legally bind both the municipality
and the community to the long-term protection and maintenance of the
reforested area.
Both reforestation projects were initiated using Danish International
Development Agency (DANIDA) funding, but are now fully funded by the
eThekwini Municipality. In both, work is being undertaken to develop
an effective model of enterprise development to ensure that community
members can be employed in the ongoing management of the two forests
once planting is complete. A research programme has also been initiated
to measure the change in key ecosystem services (e.g. the enhancement of
biodiversity refuges, water quality, river flow regulation, flood mitigation,
sediment control, improved visual amenity and fire risk reduction) as a
result of the reforestation activities. This will assist in understanding and
better articulating the full range of benefits achieved against the costs
incurred in this community-based implementation model. It will also
help to identify the potential for “payment for ecosystem services” to
fund ongoing maintenance, through the trading of improved ecosystem
services (e.g. water quality and river flow regulation) with other users
within the catchment.
A similar research programme will be established to monitor the
socioeconomic impacts of the projects. Other areas requiring further
work include achieving effective communication with local communities
regarding the link between their actions (i.e. growing trees), the related co-
benefits (jobs and access to goods) and the key issues of climate change and
biodiversity, and determining how large-scale ecosystem-based projects
can be accommodated while still creating a compact and densified city.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: Community reforestation projects are
by their nature long-term investments, as carbon sequestration benefits
are realized over a minimum of 20 years. This poses a challenge for local
government, as project and budget commitments for a city such as Durban
ordinarily extend over three to five years. This suggests that financing
systems related to project funding need to be rethought. The cost-benefit of
these projects as carbon offsets also needs to be examined, as reforestation
has a higher immediate cost per unit carbon than the current price of
carbon credits. In this regard, there is a need for monitoring, verifying
and reporting systems that can demonstrate and quantify the additional
90. Greater Capital (2011),
Social Assessment of the
Buffelsdraai Landfill Site
Community Reforestation
Project, Report prepared for the
Wildlands Conservation Trust,
Hilton, South Africa, 48 pages.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
185
non-carbon value of these projects in terms of the sustained supply and
improvement of ecosystem services and social upliftment outcomes.
These projects also demonstrate that both adaptation and mitigation can
be achieved through investing in bio-infrastructure and enhancing the
supply of ecosystem services (only one of which is carbon sequestration).
f. Step 6: Expanding green infrastructure
One of the most commonly cited forms of “green infrastructure” is
the use of green roofs.
(91)
The Green Roof Pilot Project was initiated in
2008 on an existing municipal building to explore the benefits of green
roof habitats in reducing temperatures and stormwater run-off and in
enhancing the city’s adaptive capacity under climate change conditions
(Photo 3). The project has also provided an opportunity to investigate
the feasibility of bringing indigenous biodiversity (floral and faunal) back
into the central area of the city. Measurements indicate that the green roof
reduces stormwater run-off by approximately 60 ml/m
2
/minute during a
rainfall event, releases water slowly over time and reduces temperature
on the surface of the roof by up to 30
0
C. The rate of runoff is affected by
the depth (in this case 50mm) and composition of the growing medium.
Furthermore, crop trials undertaken suggest that green roof habitats
can contribute to improved urban food sovereignty. Tomatoes, spinach,
green peppers, chillies and cow peas were all found to be high-yield,
low-maintenance crops. The Green Roof Pilot Project has highlighted
the value of green roof habitats as an effective EBA tool for Durban and
91. See reference 5, London
Climate Change Partnership
(2006); also Foster, J, A Lowe
and S Winkelman (2011), The
Value of Green Infrastructure
for Urban Climate Adaptation,
Report by the Centre for
Clean Air Policy, available
at http://www.ccap.org/
docs/resources/989/Green_
Infrastructure_FINAL.pdf.
PHOTO 3
Extensive green roof, City Engineer’s complex, Durban
© EPCPD stock photo (Clive Greenstone, Green Roof Designs) (2009)
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
186
provided the opportunity for innovative interventions such as using air
conditioner condensate for irrigation purposes.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: The Green Roof Pilot Project has
shown the value of pilot projects in changing perceptions of the urban
environment. Despite some initial institutional resistance, once the
project was established its existence has encouraged the uptake of the idea
by other bodies, both inside and outside the municipality. Scaling up of
pilot projects, however, remains an ongoing challenge for EBA initiatives.
g. Step 7: Reducing the threat of invasive alien species and
woody encroachment
Climate change and invasive alien species (IAS) represent “...two of
the greatest threats to biodiversity and the provision of valuable ecosystem
services.”
(92)
Increased temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations
are also likely to increase opportunities for invasive species “...because
of their adaptability to disturbance and to a broader range of bio-geographic
conditions and environmental controls.”
(93)
IAS are already widespread in
South Africa
(94)
and have caused severe ecosystem transformation.
(95)
The negative impacts of invasive alien plants (IAPs) on water resources
have been widely studied,
(96)
as have the benefits of strategic and well-
run IAP control programmes (e.g. the South Africa’s Working for Water
Programme).
(97)
For this reason, the control and management of IAS is
essential in maximizing the adaptive capacity of local level biodiversity
and is a key element of the city’s EBA strategy. Dealing with the IAS threat
at the local level, however, is complex and in Durban a phased and multi-
pronged approach has been adopted that includes: the development of an
IAS Framework Strategy and Action Plan; a process for prioritizing areas for
control; an IAP Control Training Programme; coordination of IAS control
activities across municipal departments; control of emerging weeds;
auditing of municipal propagation and storage nurseries and of some formal
parks; and the development of a web-based data capture system to ensure
improved monitoring, reporting and verification. The control of woody plant
invasions that threaten the city’s biodiverse grasslands, linked in part to the
increased growth rates of (often indigenous) plants with C3 photosynthetic
pathways, is also a critical part of the overall strategy.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: The IAS work in Durban has
highlighted the complexity and costs of removing non-climate stressors
at the scale required to improve the adaptive capacity of ecosystems. It
has also underscored the need for the development of new skills and tools
at the local government level and the importance of multi-stakeholder
partnerships and cooperation. Critical remaining challenges include the
misalignment of priorities among different spheres of government and
local line functions, and the lack of organizational and technical capacity
among certain key actors.
h. Step 8: Building the green economy
In the Global South, there can be no climate change adaptation without
development. Ideally, this development should foster the transition to
a “green” economy through two key interventions. Firstly, by making
the existing economy “greener” through changes to production and
92. See reference 48, page 4.
93. See reference 48, page 4.
94. See reference 78.
95. Richardson, D M and B W
van Wilgen (2004), “Invasive
alien plants in South Africa:
how well do we understand
the ecological impacts?”, South
African Journal of Science Vol
100, pages 45–52.
96. Le Maitre, D C, B W van
Wilgen, C M Gelderblom, C
Bailey, R A Chapman and J
A Nel (2002), “Invasive alien
trees and water resources
in South Africa: case studies
of the costs and benefits of
management”, Forest Ecology
and Management Vol 160,
pages 143–159.
97. See reference 78.
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
187
consumption processes, transport systems, energy sources and urban
planning, thereby reducing the demand for ecosystem services; and
secondly, by building a new economy based on bio-infrastructure, which
increases the supply of ecosystem services. The use of bio-infrastructure
represents a strategic opportunity for local government in that it is locally
controlled and can be expanded without creating additional strain on
limited natural resources. In fact, it increases the supply of these resources.
EThekwini Municipality does not yet have a formal strategy to green
the existing economy, but emerging national policy such as the final draft
of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development and Action Plan
2011−2014
(98)
suggests that this will change in the future. Other positive
signs at the local level include the new Energy Office’s stated goal of
establishing Durban as the sustainable energy manufacturing hub of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC). More progress has,
however, been made in exploring the opportunities for the development
of a bio-infrastructure-based economy that increases the supply of
ecosystem services and provides the basis for sustainable socioeconomic
development. In this regard, two existing expanded public works projects
offer not only EBA advantages (through IAP control and ecosystem
management) but also employment and skills development opportunities
for previously unemployed members of local communities.
Working for Ecosystems (WfE): This is an ecosystem management
and restoration programme initiated in 2006 and based on an expanded
public works programme model. Initial funding was provided by the
National Environmental Department with the aim of delivering a range of
community benefits, including job creation, home-food garden nurseries,
tour guide training, environmental education and IAP control skills. The
termination of national level funding opportunities and the Auditor
General’s requirement that the municipality address the legal obligation
for IAP control led to the responsibility for funding being transferred to
the municipal treasury and the programme being refocused specifically to
address IAP control (Photo 4). To date, the WfE programme has provided
training and employment for approximately 155 people in rural and peri-
urban areas of the city. All employees have received training in IAP control,
business development, HIV/AIDS awareness, basic fire-fighting and first aid.
Assistance in developing small businesses has also been provided so that
emergent contractors can be registered as service providers on the municipal
procurement database. To date, three contractors have been registered.
Working on Fire (WoF): This is another national level expanded
public works programme that aims to alleviate poverty and develop skills
by employing people to manage fires and undertake IAP control. In April
2009, a team of 25 staff and one manager was appointed by eThekwini
Municipality to clear IAPs within the municipal area. The team works
primarily in previously unmanaged areas, removing IAPs manually and
with the use of fire. Due to the success of the programme, an additional
WoF team was appointed in 2010. All staff have received training in first
aid, HIV/AIDS awareness and basic ecology. In addition, 10 of these have
received internationally accredited rope access training, which allows
them to access IAPs present in steep, usually inaccessible areas. The teams
are also involved in the controlled burning of grasslands, as fire is a
critical management tool in the grassland and forest ecosystems of South
Africa (Photo 5). Several innovations have been introduced through the
programme, including the introduction of a “herbicide assist” programme,
98. Department of
Environmental Affairs (DEA)
(2011a), Final Draft: National
Strategy for Sustainable
Development and Action Plan
2011–2014 (not publically
available).
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
188
which provides basic training and herbicides to active and interested
conservancies (voluntary associations of landowners who cooperatively
manage their natural resources in an environmentally friendly manner).
Key EBA roadmap lessons: The need for legal compliance, together
with the emerging concept of the “green economy”, has made it possible
to secure funding for ecosystem management, restoration and social
upliftment on a scale that would not otherwise have been possible. The
resulting well-managed, resourced and flexible poverty relief projects play
a significant role in supporting under-resourced and constrained municipal
conservation departments. Research is, however, needed to confirm and
quantify the extent to which such interventions reduce the need for grey
infrastructure and provide safety nets for the poor. As a result, a new branch
has been created within the EPCPD to undertake programme management,
fundraising, monitoring, evaluation and reporting, and research related to
these projects. Coordination is another critical role, as the expanded public
works model has been used by other sectors within the municipality to
create jobs through environmental management. These initiatives are not
centrally coordinated or monitored to ensure that their social and ecological
objectives are met, sometimes resulting in wasted expenditure and mal-
adaptation (e.g. the re-growth of previously cleared IAPs). One of the
challenges thus facing the new branch will be to create codes of best practice
and standard operating procedures for use across all municipal structures. A
further key challenge lies in the concept of the “green” economy itself. In
PHOTO 4
The municipal Working for Ecosystems (WfE) team undertaking
invasive alien plant control in an important catchment area
© EPCPD stock photo (Errol Douwes) (2007)
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
189
the same way that the “sustainable” in sustainable development was never
truly understood and did not translate into the major global transition
envisaged in Rio in 1992, so the “green” in green economy is currently
not well understood and could (in a worst case scenario) become merely
a repackaging of business-as-usual, thereby undermining the EBA agenda.
This could occur, for example, through densifying cities to the point where
complex ecosystems are no longer ecologically viable and are replaced by
superficial greening made up of mown lawns and “lollipop” trees.
i. Step 9: Institutional change
Implementation of the programmes discussed above has necessitated a
restructuring of the EPCPD on two levels. First, through the creation of a
dedicated Climate Protection Branch in 2007, in acknowledgement of the
fact that local government has a clear role in ensuring climate protection;
and second, through the establishment of a dedicated Biodiversity,
Climate and Green Project Implementation Branch in 2011, to manage
large-scale, long-term projects. This will ensure that the research and
implementation aspects of the adaptation workstream of the MCPP are
comprehensively addressed.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: Large-scale EBA implementation will
require changes in the roles, responsibilities and functions of existing
local government institutions to accommodate new activities.
PHOTO 5
The municipal Working on Fire (WoF) team performing a controlled
burn on a recently acquired grassland site
© EPCPD stock photo (Rael Hughes) (2011)
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
190
j. Step 10: Exploring new directions
There is a pressing need to identify innovative opportunities to
communicate and promote the links between biodiversity, ecosystem
services and successful climate change adaptation. In Durban, an
ecological event has been identified that could potentially deliver a
powerful and comprehensible message across all elements of Durban’s
diverse society. Every austral winter, large sardine shoals move up the
east coast of South Africa, supporting a locally important beach-seine
fishery and indigent coastal populations.
(99)
This biological phenomenon
(locally known as the sardine run) has translated into the development
of an economically significant eco-tourism industry.
(100)
The arrival of the
fish is dependent upon coastal waters cooling to below 22
0
C,
(101)
and the
strengthening of the Agulhas Current, as a result of ocean warming linked
to climate change,
(102)
threatens to negatively impact upon the sardine
run. The potential to improve the general public’s understanding of the
role of ecosystem services in supporting local people and economies
(e.g. through food, income from tourism, nutrient replenishment for
coastal waters and prey for migrating predators) is significant given that
this event attracts extensive public interest and is a well-known global
phenomenon. It also offers a unique opportunity to communicate a clear
link between the phenomenon, its value and the possible impacts of
climate change on local communities.
Key EBA roadmap lessons: In Durban, the use of a locally well-
known ecological phenomenon such as the sardine run seems to offer
opportunities to convey strategic messages in an accessible way that
people will understand and value. This assumption, however, still remains
to be tested.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
So do the early EBA experiences in Durban respond to the challenge of
“bouncing forward” rather than “bouncing back”? By framing biodiversity
as bio-infrastructure which underpins the development of a new, more
sustainable “green economy”, EBA is put at the heart of the development
debate in Durban. Within this context, the concept of “community
ecosystem-based adaptation” (CEBA) is being developed to highlight the
mutually beneficial and positively reinforcing relationship that exists
between ecosystems and human communities.
Many questions nevertheless remain unanswered. The assumption
that EBA offers an easier alternative to “hard engineering” solutions is too
simplistic an analysis.
(103)
Experience in Durban has shown that designing
and implementing an ecologically functional and well-managed bio-
infrastructure network can be as data hungry, technologically taxing and
skills intensive as the provision of “grey” infrastructure. The benefit of
pursuing the bio-infrastructure route, however, is that the outcomes are
likely to be more cost-effective, more adaptable and have multiple co-
benefits across a range of scenarios and time lines. But it is not cost-free
(104)
and that means that resource scarcities will often pose challenges to EBA
implementation at the local government level.
Lobbying for the use of EBA is also difficult as climate change
adaptation is a much newer science than engineering, so it is harder to
99. Myeza, J, R B Mason
and V M Peddemors (2010),
“Socioeconomic implications
of the KwaZulu-Natal sardine
run for local indigenous
communities”, African Journal
of Marine Science Vol 32, No 2,
pages 399–404.
100. Dicken, M L (2010),
“Socioeconomic aspects of
boat-based eco-tourism during
the sardine run within the
Pondoland marine protected
area, South Africa”, African
Journal of Marine Science Vol
32, No 2, pages 405–411.
101. O’Donoghue, S H, L
Drapeau, S F J Dudley and V
M Peddemors (2010), “The
KwaZulu-Natal sardine run:
shoal distribution in relation
to near-shore environmental
conditions, 1997–2007”, African
Journal of Marine Science Vol
32, No 2, pages 293–307; also
O’Donoghue, S H, L Drapeau
and V M Peddemors (2010),
“Broad-scale distribution
patterns of sardine and
their predators in relation to
remotely sensed environmental
conditions during the KwaZulu-
Natal sardine run”, African
Journal of Marine Science Vol
32, No 2, pages 279–291.
102. Rouault, M, B Pohl and
P Penven (2010), “Coastal
oceanic climate change and
variability from 1982 to 2009
around South Africa”, African
Journal of Marine Science, Vol
32, No 2, pages 237–246.
103. See reference 23, Kithiia
and Lyth (2011).
104. See reference 23, Kithiia
and Lyth (2011).
ECOSYSTEM-BASED ADAPTATION IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA
191
build viable arguments around ecosystem services than it is for time-
tested engineering “solutions”. The emergence of an official remit to
address climate change impacts and the need to sustain ecosystem
services at the city level in the recently released National Climate
Change Response White Paper,
(105)
however, creates new opportunities
for action, as does the acknowledgement that EBA provides “...one of the
key responses available to the country to adapt to climate change.”
(106)
A clear
local government mandate around EBA is vital as cities are affected by
the decisions and management regimes of upstream and surrounding
municipalities. All local governments must therefore invest in protecting,
restoring and managing ecosystems to enhance adaptive capacity in order
to achieve the most sustainable and cost-effective outcome. Durban as a
coastal city, for example, cannot produce its own water resources except
through desalination. So if the upstream authorities do not manage
their ecosystems appropriately, Durban could experience water shortages
regardless of the local level of EBA achieved.
It is also clear from Durban’s early experiences that while EBA may
have multiple, long-term benefits, these can only be realized if a number
of pre-conditions are met. These include the development of structured
and resourced programmes that have direct and immediate development
co-benefits for local communities and that ensure integration across
institutional and political boundaries. Substantial knowledge gaps must
also be addressed, such as determining where the limits or thresholds to
EBA lie. Ecosystems do not provide a silver bullet for the climate change
challenge, a fact compounded by the “...growing evidence that many
ecosystems have already been degraded to such an extent that they are nearing
critical thresholds or tipping points, beyond which their capacity to provide
useful services may be drastically reduced.”
(107)
It is therefore not possible to
reduce the climate change vulnerability of cities to zero through the use
of EBA – even pristine ecosystems cannot supply endless demands. In
this regard, recent research suggests that by 2100, residual damage could
account for up to 73 per cent of climate change costs, with the remaining
27 per cent being the cost of adaptation.
(108)
Cities must therefore think
beyond adaptation needs and begin focusing on surviving residual
damage. This will require that they actively seek out new, more sustainable
and cooperative development paths that will ensure their viability in an
increasingly unstable global economy. EBA will be a critical part of this
package – but not the whole package.
A large gap remaining in Durban’s existing EBA programme is the
need to monitor and evaluate the overall effectiveness of adaptation
interventions to determine whether they are successful in achieving
their objectives; in other words, “...tracking the adaptation difference”.
(109)
Processes are only just being put in place to monitor the biodiversity,
ecosystem services and socioeconomic impacts of flagship EBA projects.
A significant difficulty in this regard is that adaptation is part of the
overall city development process, therefore the “...attribution gap”
(110)
will
be large and it may be difficult to ascribe adaptation outcomes to any
one intervention. This highlights the inappropriateness of international
discussions that look to link adaptation funding to the concept of “...
additionality”,
(111)
when adaptation has to be treated as part and parcel of
the local development reality.
(112)
The critical final message emerging from Durban’s EBA work is that
the new big climate idea is actually a series of small actions at the local
105. Department of
Environmental Affairs (DEA)
(2011b), “National Climate
Change Response White
Paper”, October.
106. See reference 105, page 19.
107. See reference 3, TEEB
(2010b), page 7.
108. See reference 11.
109. See reference 59, page 30.
110. See reference 59, page 31.
111. Persson, Å, R J T Klein, C K
Siebert, A Atteridge, B Müller, J
Hoffmaister, M Lazarus and T
Takama (2009), Adaptation Finance
under a Copenhagen Agreed
Outcome, Stockholm Environment
Institute, Sweden, page 66.
112. See reference 59.
ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 24 No 1 April 2012
192
level. For Africa’s cities, this means Africanizing the concept of adaptation
in a way that ensures the conservation and management of the continent’s
rich biodiversity, and supports and protects the populations of one of the
world’s most rapidly urbanizing continents. Durban has taken a first step
in this regard and will continue working towards a better understanding
of the realities and opportunities associated with EBA through the further
development of the MCPP.
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Anderson, K and A Bows (2008), “Re-framing the
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