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Environment and Behavior
http://eab.sagepub.com/content/early/2010/08/06/0013916510371754
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/0013916510371754
published online 8 September 2010Environment and Behavior
Reeve
Chelsea Schelly, Jennifer E. Cross, William S. Franzen, Pete Hall and Stu
in Organizations: A Case Study of One Public School District
Reducing Energy Consumption and Creating a Conservation Culture
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Environment and Behavior
XX(X) 1 –28
© 2010 SAGE Publications
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DOI: 10.1177/0013916510371754
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Reducing Energy
Consumption and
Creating a Conservation
Culture in Organizations:
A Case Study of One
Public School District
Chelsea Schelly
1
, Jennifer E. Cross
2
,
William S. Franzen
3
, Pete Hall
4
, and Stu Reeve
4
Abstract
How can existing schools significantly reduce their energy use? With energy
costs rising and school budgets shrinking, energy use is a substantial cost
that can be reduced through conservation efforts. Using a case study
methodology, the authors compare two public high schools from the same
school district, one that has achieved moderate energy savings and another
that has reduced its electricity use by 50% over several years. Examining
the individual and organizational components of both schools’ efforts, the
authors find that the greater success at one school is the result of integrated
efforts at all levels within the organization, from district administrators
to individual students. Success is based on structural changes, individual
behavioral change, and, most important, the weaving of both into a cohesive
1
University of Wisconsin–Madison
2
Colorado State University, Fort Collins
3
Sage 2 Associates, Wellington, CO
4
Poudre School District, Fort Collins, CO
Corresponding Author:
Chelsea Schelly, Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, WI, 53706
E-mail: cschelly@ssc.wisc.edu
doi:10.1177/0013916510371754
Environment and Behavior OnlineFirst, published on September 8, 2010 as
at UNIV OF WISCONSIN on March 30, 2011eab.sagepub.comDownloaded from
2 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
organizational culture emphasizing conservation. This study demonstrates the
potential of behavioral change and organizational culture to foster environmental
education, conservation, and fiscal savings for other public schools.
Keywords
environmentally responsible behavior, environmental education, organizational
behavior, energy conservation
Public awareness of climatic change has stimulated organizations to consider
strategies for reducing energy consumption for both economic and environ-
mental reasons. In the United States, the average cost of energy use for the
2005-2006 school year was US$1.15/ft
2
, 63% of which was electricity con-
sumption (Kats, 2006). In most U.S. school districts, the cost of energy use is
second only to salaries (State of Colorado Governor’s Energy Office, 2007).
In American schools, US$6 billion is spent on energy bills annually, which is
more than what is being spent on textbooks and computers combined (Energy
Star, 2010).
With ever-increasing economic costs and heightened concerns about the
environmental effect of energy consumption, public schools are an ideal loca-
tion for targeted conservation efforts. A long-term strategy for reducing energy
consumption is the design and building of “green schools,” which adopt a
variety of design components to reduce energy use by an average of 33%
from traditional buildings (Kats, 2006). The Leadership in Energy and Envi-
ronmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System, developed by the
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), was recently modified in order to
develop specific standards for the design and construction of green schools.
Currently, there are 250 LEED-certified schools, which is 0.2% of school
buildings in the United States (USGBC, 2010a).
Whereas the construction of green schools is an important long-term strat-
egy for containing energy costs and building healthy environments for learn-
ing, school districts must also find ways to reduce energy consumption in
existing buildings. “With more than 133,000 schools in the United States, the
greatest opportunity for school districts and our nation is to transform our
existing schools” (USGBC, 2010b). The potential for reducing energy con-
sumption in existing buildings is great; the “top performing ENERGY STAR
labeled schools cost forty cents per square foot less to operate than the aver-
age performers” (Energy Star, 2010). A total of 40 cents per square foot can
translate into tens of thousands of dollars a year for large schools. For exist-
ing buildings, two programs—the ENERGY STAR challenge and LEED for
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Schelly et al. 3
Existing Buildings certification—provide guidance, support, and certifica-
tion for schools that seek to reduce their energy consumption. Financial sav-
ings from energy conservation is a necessity for many school districts and
can be used in various ways that benefit the educational system and its stu-
dents. Despite this necessity, however, few school districts, much less indi-
vidual schools, have successfully incorporated energy conservation practices
into their organizational culture.
This study compares the energy conservation efforts at two public high
schools built in the 1960s and 1970s in a school district in Colorado. Over the
course of 8 years, Rocky Mountain High School (“Rocky”) was able to reduce
its electrical energy consumption (kilowatt hour/square foot; kWh/ft
2
) by
50%, whereas Poudre High School (“Poudre”) reduced its electrical energy
consumption by only 34%. This research asked two questions: (1) What orga-
nizational and individual factors contributed to the improvements in electric-
ity conservation at these two high schools? (2) What factors explain the greater
conservation of electricity at Rocky? Using quantitative energy data from the
school district, qualitative data from focus groups and interviews, and an
analysis of school newspapers and newsletters, we sought to understand how
behavioral change within an organizational setting takes place.
Environmental Conservation and
Behavioral Change in Organizations
Much research has been conducted on the choice to engage in proenviron-
mental behavior (Axelrod & Lehman, 1993; Bamberg & Schmidt, 2003;
Diekman & Preisendörfer, 2003; Guagnano, Stern, & Dietz, 1995; McCalley
& Midden, 2002). Some studies examined household decisions (Abrahamse,
Steg, Vlek, & Rothengatter, 2005, 2007), whereas others analyzed behaviors
within an occupational, organizational, or institutional setting (e.g., Higgs &
McMillan, 2006, Siero, Bakker, Dekker, & Van Den Burg, 1996). Some research
suggests that there is a strong link between environmental attitudes and envi-
ronmentally responsible behavior (e.g., Barr, Gilg, & Ford, 2001; Tonglet,
Phillips, & Read, 2004; Vining & Ebreo, 1992), whereas others contend that
behavioral change can take place without any change in attitudes or beliefs,
by clearly expressing expectations and providing subsequent feedback (Siero
et al., 1996).
Research on proenvironmental behavior within organizations indicates
that change is fostered through integrated efforts at multiple organizational
levels, including institutional and structural changes, organizational culture
and leadership, and individual attitudes and behaviors (Starik & Rands, 1995;
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4 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
Tudor, Barr, & Gilg, 2007; Wolf & Primmer, 2006). Both organizational fac-
tors (e.g. culture, size, and structure) and individual factors (e.g. attitudes,
beliefs, and sociodemographics) influence the behaviors of individuals and
the group (Child, 1988; King & Lennox, 2000; Mullins, 1999; Williams,
Dobson, & Walters, 1989). Research on environmental management has
found that the organizational and individual factors are interrelated and that
both influence behavior in dynamic and holistic rather than segregated and
discrete ways (Tudor et al., 2008). Comparative feedback—where the perfor-
mance of one group is compared to another group—produces both the largest
change and the best results in long-term studies of behavior modification
(Siero et al., 1996). One study of proenvironmental behavior, specifically
within a school setting, identified four sources of modeling that shape student
perceptions and behavior: (1) individual role models, (2) school facilities and
operations, (3) school governance, and (4) school culture. All four help to
model environmental concern in the school and influence the success of an
environmental education program (Higgs & McMillan, 2006).
Research on charismatic (Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Conger, Kanungo, &
Menon, 2000) or transformational (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999; Leithwood,
Tomlinson, & Genge, 1996) leadership indicates that leaders play a key role
in empowering and inspiring action within an organization. Max Weber
(1935/1968) first discussed charismatic leadership as the ability to lead
through perceived ability and extraordinary character rather than through for-
mal authority. Charismatic leaders inspire feelings of empowerment and a
heightened perception of collective identity (Conger et al., 2000). Similarly,
transformational leadership inspires increased commitment to organizational
goals. Relying on Bennis (1959), Dillard (1995) offered a definition: “trans-
formative leadership—the ability of a person to reach the souls of others in a
fashion which raises human consciousness, builds meanings and inspires
human intent that is the source of power” (p. 560). Transformational leaders
need not be formal organizational leaders; in a school setting, transformational
leadership can come from persons outside of administrative positions
(Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999).
Individual Determinants of
Proenvironmental Behavior
One known predictor of proenvironmental behaviors is a sense of efficacy,
which has been found to differentiate those who act because of environmen-
tal concern and those who do not, both in individual cases (Bamberg & Möser,
2006; Ellen, Wiener, & Cobb-Walgren, 1991; Gamba & Oskamp, 1994) and
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Schelly et al. 5
group contexts (Lubell, Vedlitz, Zahran, & Alston, 2006; Lubell, Zahran, &
Vedlitz, 2007). The theory of planned behavior (TPB) suggests that behavior
is directly related to intention, which can be predicted on the basis of atti-
tudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral
control (Ajzen, 1991). Building on TBP, researchers have developed a theory
of collective action (Lubell et al., 2006, 2007; Ostrom, 1998), which high-
lights the importance of both group and personal efficacy.
Tudor et al. (2008) suggested that the best framework for understanding
and changing behavior in an organizational setting incorporates individual
and organizational factors as interrelated, integrated, dynamic processes. The
current research follows a similar path, integrating quantitative and qualitative
research to examine personal, social, and structural factors responsible for
the creation of a conservation culture within a public school organization.
The Case Study District and Schools
Poudre School District (PSD) is located in Fort Collins, Colorado, a town with
a population of approximately 120,000. The school district has long been a
proponent of energy management and environmental stewardship (PSD, 2008).
Currently, less than 1% of the more than 130,000 schools in the United States
have earned ENERGY STAR labels, whereas 64% of schools in PSD (32 out
of 50) have earned ENERGY STAR labels. PSD has about 23,000 students and
4 traditional high schools, each with a capacity for 1,800 students.
Rocky opened in 1973, was renovated in 1994, and another renovation
and expansion project was completed in 2004. Built in 1964, Poudre is
similar to Rocky in age, size, and square footage. Both have approximately
1,700 students and encompass more than 270,000 square feet. The other
two high schools in PSD are Fort Collins High School (FCHS) and LEED-
certified Fossil Ridge High School (hereafter “the LEED School”). FCHS
was the first public high school in the town, although it relocated to a new
building in 1995. FCHS houses approximately 1,200 students, yet has the
highest energy expenses of the four schools. Constructed in 2005, the
LEED School is the newest high school in the district, with a current enroll-
ment of approximately 1,000 students. The LEED School has numerous
built-in energy efficiencies and sustainable design concepts. Despite its
pioneering design, the LEED School consumed electricity at a higher rate
(6.24 kWh/ft
2
) than Rocky (4.79 kWh/ft
2
) in 2007, due to the successful
energy conservation efforts at the older school building. Although the
LEED school consumed electricity at a higher rate than Rocky, it is more
energy efficient overall, using less natural gas and electricity combined
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6 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
than did Rocky and earning a higher rating on the ENERGY STAR rating
scale (87 and 75, respectively).
1
Study Aims and Research Design
Much existing research on environmentally responsible behavior has utilized
intervention or experimental design (e.g., Abrahamse et al., 2005, 2007;
McCalley & Midden, 2002; Siero, et al., 1996). In this study, however, change
had already occurred; therefore, a post hoc intrinsic case study was con-
ducted. PSD posed this question to us as researchers, “How did Rocky reduce
its electricity consumption to levels below the LEED School, and can that
effort be replicated at other schools?” PSD knew that replicating the success
of Rocky at the other two conventionally constructed high schools in the
district could generate US$240,000 in annual savings. PSD had been work-
ing on energy conservation in schools for years but had not been able to
translate their goals into educational goals or organizational culture as Rocky
did. Thus, the district wished to understand what had occurred at Rocky so
that changes could potentially be replicated. As is typical of case studies
(Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003), this study utilized multiple sources of both quanti-
tative and qualitative methodologies and data to understand the differences
between two schools that achieved moderate versus major reductions in
electrical energy consumption.
Using a purposeful sampling strategy (Patton, 2002), Poudre was selected
as a comparison school due to its similarity to Rocky in age, size, and stu-
dent population. At the time of the study (2007-2008), Poudre had not yet
initiated building-level efforts to influence energy consumption behaviors.
The comparability of the sites and the contrast in the schools’ cultural con-
cern for energy conservation made for an ideal comparison (Creswell, 1998;
Stinchcombe, 2005).
Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis
Relevant stakeholders (including teachers, administrators, other staff mem-
bers, and students) from both schools were included in focus groups about
individual behavior, school culture, and behavioral expectations regarding
energy conservation. Focus groups allow participants to discuss topics on
which they may not necessarily agree, such as the importance of energy con-
servation and environmentally responsible behavior, while allowing them to
respond to one another’s ideas. In keeping with the standards of focus group
format, this research study attempted to organize homogeneous groups for
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Schelly et al. 7
each conversation. The goal was to explore knowledge of and regard for energy
issues inside and outside of the school.
Nine focus groups were conducted that comprised in all 53 participants.
Each focus group session lasted for an hour. The total number of focus group
participants included 15 teachers, 15 staff members, and 23 students. Given
that the research was taking place within a public school setting, flexibility
was required, and not all focus groups adhered to the standard 6 to 12 partici-
pants in each group (Krueger & Casey, 2000). In addition, unstructured indi-
vidual interviews were conducted with the environmental science teachers at
both schools and with the principal of Rocky. School and district documents,
including e-mails, school papers, newsletters, energy bulletins, and websites
were analyzed as part of the assessment.
Energy Use Data & Analysis
Energy data set. Energy use and cost data for the district are collected
from utility billing on a weekly basis. In 1994, the district implemented an
automated energy management software program, Utility Manager
TM
Pro
4.5 (LPB Energy Management, 2008). Data are entered into Utility Man-
ager, and this system is used to pay utility bills on a weekly basis and to
collect energy data. Utilities managed through this system include electric-
ity, natural gas, water, sewer, trash, and recycling. All PSD schools have web
access to this information.
Electrical energy consumption data were analyzed over time and compared
across all four high schools in the district to establish the relative significance of
the change at Rocky. This study examines data from fiscal years 2000 through
2007 (July 1999 through June 2007). The district augmented their own energy
conservation efforts during the 1999-2000 school year (fiscal year 2000), and
this year was chosen by the school district as the baseline year for comparisons
used for allocating energy savings rebates and other data comparisons. We have
also used this as a baseline year for comparisons of yearly kWh/ft
2
.
Taking kWh/ft
2
for each month of the year, we constructed a data-set that
contains one case for each month from July 1999 to June 2007 at each school
(except the LEED school, Fossil Ridge High School, which was built in
2005); this assessment included a total of 288 cases. We then calculated the
percentage decrease in kWh/ft
2
for each month at each school, using the per-
centage decrease from the same month during the previous year (Year
i
-Year
i-1
/ Year
i-1
) × 100, leaving us with a data set of 252 cases to be used in the
regression equations and excluding the LEED School (FRHS) that did not
have complete data.
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8 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
Data analysis. Given the small sample used and the time-series character of
the data, conventional t tests would not necessarily give valid p values. There-
fore, we ran permutation tests to obtain a p value for the coefficients. Using
the built-in permutation function in Stata, the response variable was randomly
permuted across cases of this data set 10,000 times, with the regression model
estimated each time. The p value for a regression coefficient, as is conven-
tional, is the proportion of times, across the 10,000 permutations, for which
the regression coefficient for a particular term was obtained from a random
permutation, exceeded that coefficient’s value for the observed data set.
We ran two regression models testing changes during the two time periods
that appear to be significantly larger than other time periods. First, we tested
the hypothesis that the mean percentage decrease for 2001 versus 2000 was
larger than for any other consecutive pair of years across all schools. Second,
we tested the hypothesis that the percentage decrease at Rocky after 2004
was greater than at the other schools during that time period. A regression
model was estimated for each of these hypotheses with the percentage decrease
in kWh/ft
2
consumption as the response variable.
Results
Our research confirms the work of others on the importance of interrelated,
cohesive efforts when seeking to change organizational culture and practices.
The themes in the focus groups and interviews at both high schools high-
lighted distinct differences in leadership, communications, efficacy, and
school cultures between Rocky and Poudre and demonstrated the importance
of integrating changes in both infrastructure and organizational culture.
Energy Use and Building Infrastructure
The energy-use data are presented in Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 1. Between
2000 and 2007, all of the high schools in PSD significantly reduced their rate
of electricity consumption (28% at FCHS, 34% at Poudre, and 50% at
Rocky). Given that all the high schools reduced their electricity consump-
tion, it is important to know how much of these reductions in electricity use
were due to the activities of facilities maintenance and operations and how
much can be attributed to behavioral changes. The largest year-to-year reduc-
tion occurred in 2001 and is attributable to changes in building operations. In
2000, PSD implemented a system of centralized control over building heat-
ing, venting, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. In this system, school staff
members enter the operating hours of their buildings on the basis of class and
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9
Table 1. Annual Electricity Use (kWh/ft
2
) and Percentage Decreases by High School and Fiscal Year
a
Rocky Mountain High School
Poudre High School
FCHS
Fossil Ridge High School LEED
School
b
Fiscal
Year
kWh/ft
2
Percentage
Decrease
Year-to-Year
Percentage
Decrease
from 2000
kWh/ft
2
Percentage
Decrease
Year-to-Year
Percentage
Decrease
from 2000
kWh/ft
2
Percentage
Decrease
Year to Year
Percentage
Decrease
from 2000
kWh/ft
2
Percentage
Decrease
Year to Year
Percentage
Decrease
from 2000
2000 9.62 — — 11.15 — - 10.85 — — — — —
2001 7.80 18.9
d
18.9 8.76 21.4
d
21.4 9.25 14.7
d
14.7 — — —
2002 7.94 (1.7) 17.5 8.52 2.7 23.6 8.86 4.3 18.34 — — —
2003 7.86 1.0 18.3 7.99 6.3 28.4 8.45 4.5 22.1 — — —
2004 7.65 2.6 20.4 7.94 0.6 28.8 8.53 (0.8) 21.4 — — —
2005 7.11 7.1
e
26.1 7.62 4.0 31.7 8.08 5.2 25.5 6.95 — —
2006 6.58 7.6
e
31.7 7.44 2.3 33.2 8.41 (4.1) 22.5 7.01 (0.9) (0.9)
b
2007 4.79 27.2
e
50.2 7.36 1.1 34.0 7.82 7.0 27.9 6.24 12.4 10.2
b
Note: FCHS = Fort Collins High School.
a. Fiscal years begin in July of the previous year and end in June of the stated year. (e.g., FY 2000 = July 1, 1999 through June 30, 2000)
b. FRHS not included in any regression tests because of missing data.
c. These data points are compared to first year of operation, fiscal year 2005.
d. Regression-based permutation for all schools tested that the average percentage decrease in 2001 is larger than the average decrease in all other
years, p <.001 from a regression-based permutation coefficient (StataCorp. [2005]). Stata Statistical Software: Release 9. College Station, Texas: Stata-
Corp. LP).
e. Regression-based permutation testing that the average percent decrease after 2004 at Rocky was larger than the average percent decrease at FCHS
and Poudre, p <.001 from a regression-based permutation coefficient (ibid.).
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10 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
Table 2. Average Percent Decrease
a
in Electricity Use (kWh/ft
2
) in Fiscal Years
2000-2007 by Month and School
Month
Rocky Mountain
High School
Poudre
High School
Fort Collins
High School
Fossil Ridge High
School LEED
School
b
Total
July 12.23 10.25 10.04 12.41
c
11.23
August 6.20 7.15 4.65 14.06 8.02
September 4.94 5.23 3.87 5.38 4.85
October 4.61 4.35 2.19 (2.75) 2.10
November 8.48 3.93 2.97 0.51 3.97
December 9.22 3.42 2.31 0.85 3.95
January 8.75 2.37 1.57 0.52 3.30
February 8.66 3.72 2.03 1.47 3.97
March 8.49 4.69 2.33 7.62 5.78
April 9.82 4.50 4.07 5.87 6.07
May 10.73 6.92 4.45 2.84 6.24
June 13.52 8.13 8.67 7.84 9.54
Total 8.80 5.39 4.10 4.72 5.75
Note: FCHS = Fort Collins High School.
a. Monthly decreases were calculated for each month compared to that month in the previous
year’s use = (Year
i
-Year
i-1
/ Year
i-1
) × 100, these values were then averaged across years.
b. Fossil Ridge High School includes only fiscal years 2005-2007.
c. Entries in bold indicate the highest value in each row.
Figure 1. Three-month rolling average electricity use reported in kWh/ft
2
in four
high schools, July 2000 to October 2007
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Schelly et al. 11
activity schedules, and the HVAC systems are turned on and shut off automati-
cally. Electrical energy use was reduced in 2001, as compared to 2000, by 19%
at Rocky, 15% at FCHS, and 21% at Poudre (see Table 1). Results of regression-
based permutation analysis (StataCorp., 2005) reveal that the decreases in
energy consumption in all three schools was substantially greater (about 14%)
between 2000 and 2001 when compared to all other years (p < .0001).
In the years following 2001, each high school experienced incremental
changes in electricity use, with typical annual changes ranging from 4%
increases to 6% decreases (see Table 1). Overall, the average, year-to-year,
monthly decrease in electricity use (kWh/ft
2
) across all schools was 5.75%
between fiscal year 2000 and fiscal year 2007 (see Table 2). The average
monthly decrease in electricity use was largest at Rocky (8.8%), and lowest at
FCHS (4.1%). Rocky’s greater annual reductions in electricity use can be seen
across an entire year (Table 2). Although all the schools were able to reduce
their electricity use by 8% to 12% during the summer months, only Rocky
was able to reduce their electricity use by 8% or more from November through
May (Table 2). This substantial reduction in electricity use during the school
year is indicative of the behavioral and cultural changes unique to Rocky.
Are Rocky’s reductions in electricity use substantially different from the
other schools? Rocky began with the lowest rate of electricity use (9.68 kWh/
ft
2
) of the three traditionally built high schools and experienced the greatest
decrease (50%) in energy use between 2000 and 2007 (see Table 1). In fiscal
year 2000, Rocky used 12% to 14% less electricity than did the other two
high schools. By 2007, Rocky was using 35% and 23% less electricity, com-
pared to traditionally built schools and the LEED school, respectively.
Rocky also experienced the single largest year-to-year reduction in elec-
tricity use. During fiscal year 2007, when the other schools only experienced
minor changes, Rocky decreased its electricity consumption by 27% from the
previous year. In comparison, Poudre’s largest year-to-year reduction (21%)
occurred in 2001, the year of the implementation of centralized HVAC con-
trol (see Table 1). After 2001, Poudre’s yearly decreases ranged from less
than 1% to 6% (Table 1). Whereas Rocky had the most dramatic reduction in
2007, it had shown substantial reduction in electricity consumption (at 7%)
in the previous two years as well, whereas the other schools had more modest
decreases or increases (Table 1). Results from regression-based permutation
analysis (StataCorp., 2005) show that electricity use reductions that occurred
at Rocky after 2004 were significantly different from changes at other schools
during that time period (p = .003). In addition to electricity conservation,
Rocky has reduced water consumption (using 9,770,117 fewer gallons in 2007
than 2000) and natural gas use (using 81,023 CCF less in 2007 than 2000).
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12 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
Between 2006 and 2007 (the years of their most substantial savings thus far),
Rocky generated US$40,379 in total operations savings.
Figure 1 illustrates the rate of electricity use at all four schools reported
in Table 1. Prior to the centralization of HVAC systems control, Poudre and
Rocky had similar patterns of use, although Rocky used less total electricity,
reflecting the older system at Poudre. After implementation of centralized
control, Poudre and Rocky were nearly indistinguishable from 2001 until
2004. In 2004, Rocky started a downward trend that increased each year.
Fiscal year 2005 (during which the LEED school could fill only one third of
its total occupancy) was the only year in which the LEED school used less
electricity than all other schools. Since July 2005, Rocky has consistently
used electricity at a lower rate (kWh/ft
2
), compared to the LEED School (see
Figure 1 and Table 2).
From Infrastructure to Organizational Culture
Building infrastructure and organizational culture may not seem related, but
the two elements actually work in an integrated fashion. During the 2004
Rocky remodel, a recycling center was constructed that not only improved
the recycling process but also provided a physical space demonstrating the
value of recycling in the school. Another example of Rocky’s success in inte-
grating building infrastructure and organizational culture is a motto coined
by the principal, “Care and Repair.” Care and Repair is itself a way to reduce
consumption; the expectation within the school is to care for existing equip-
ment and repair things when possible rather than buying new products.
According to the principal, this code promotes conservation culture more
generally and saves the school money. Care and Repair, for the principal, is a
way to incorporate expectations regarding use of the building with both edu-
cational and conservation goals.
These are just two examples of the integrated efforts at Rocky involving
both infrastructural and organizational factors. Throughout the following pages,
we demonstrate that in addition to integrating building infrastructure and
organizational culture, Rocky has synthesized electricity conservation and
other environmentally responsible behaviors into a holistic organizational cul-
ture of conservation through the work of charismatic leaders, by communicat-
ing expectations and successes, through an enhanced sense of personal and
group efficacy, all integrated into a holistic conservation culture.
Leadership. This study identified charismatic leaders at various levels in the
organizational structure: one at the district level, one in school administration
(the principal), and one in direct contact with students (the environmental
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Schelly et al. 13
science teacher). Charismatic leaders were identified by participants and were
said to have inspired the cultural changes and energy conservation efforts at
Rocky in various ways. Furthermore, student leadership associated with the
environmental science club marked a substantial difference between Rocky
and Poudre.
Leaders in the school district provide an institutional support framework
for the conservation efforts within individual schools. In the late 1980s, the
school designed prototype green schools (Dulaney Architecture, 1984). In 1999,
the school district worked with an integrated design team to design high-
performance sustainable schools (RB+B Architects Inc, 2010). In 2005,
Fossil Ridge High School received LEED Silver Certification, and in 2008
Bethke Elementary (in PSD) was the first school in the nation to receive the
new LEED for Schools Gold certification.
By the mid-1990s, the school district began offering rebates to schools
that reduced their energy consumption on the basis of their energy savings,
which are spent at the school’s discretion. More recently, the district began
offering free energy audits to schools. Currently, the district works in col-
laboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, ENERGY STAR, and the
Colorado Governor’s Energy Office in studies of building performance,
design, and energy conservation. The district’s efforts were key to the initial
changes in energy consumption across all four high schools, and one particu-
lar administrator at the district level was identified as offering essential sup-
port and resources to the subsequent efforts made at Rocky.
One key difference between Rocky and Poudre is the presence of charis-
matic leadership within the school. The principal of Rocky communicated to
others both a personal commitment to environmental values and a new set of
behavioral expectations. He effectively tied expectations about proenviron-
mental behaviors to the existing code of conduct called the Lobo Way (the
Lobo is the school’s mascot) as well as through “Care and Repair.” As a char-
ismatic leader, the principal empowered the head custodian by asking him to
attend meetings and planning sessions, giving him responsibility for decision
making and allowing him to set behavioral expectations among his custodial
team. Furthermore, the principal communicated the school’s success with the
district, the teachers and staff, the students, and the larger community.
Both students and other teachers also viewed the environmental science
teacher at Rocky as a charismatic leader. He organized and maintained the recy-
cling program, encouraged student involvement, and enhanced a sense of effi-
cacy in students (Figures 2 & 3). As one student said, “The envi ronmental
science teacher is kind of an amazing guy because he’s really enthusiastic
about it. He talks to the district or talks to [the principal] about changing
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14 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
things to help conserve energy.” Teachers said that e-mail reminders about
turning off lights and computers sent by the teacher motivated them and that
the environmental science teacher at Rocky was a leader by example. Stu-
dents described the teacher’s commitment and modeling to be exceptionally
inspiring.
In contrast, none of the administrators or teachers at Poudre displayed the
traits of charismatic leadership with regard to proenvironmental behavior.
The principal at Poudre delegated primary responsibility for energy conser-
vation to a temporary administrator. At Poudre, the environmental studies
Figure 2. Students at Rocky Mountain High School bring recycling from
homerooms to recycling bins
Note: Dave Swartz, Rocky Mountain Science Department.
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Schelly et al. 15
teacher expressed a preference for the administration to create a top-down
initiative for conservation: “I’d rather be the second cub scout.”
There was also a difference in student leadership at the two high schools.
The environmental science class at Rocky is an Advanced Placement (AP)
class, intended for motivated students looking to get college credit. Many of
Figure 3. Students from the Earth Systems Science Class empty the recycling bins
into large 4 yard containers
Note: Dave Swartz, Rocky Mountain Science Department.
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16 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
the students in the class were involved in the environmental club and are in
charge of the successful recycling program. Each class room has a recycling
bin, and once a week they are brought down to the lunchroom for collection
(Figure 2). The students in the Earth Systems Science class coordinate these
efforts and empty the recycling bins into large 4-yard collection bins outside
(Figure 3), which are picked up weekly and taken to Denver for sorting and
recycling. In a typical week, four of these large bins are filled and collected.
The students at Rocky are actively engaged with a variety of other conserva-
tion efforts. Each year they help with the hosting an environmental conference
for high school students across the state, and they completed an energy audit
of the school (in addition to the district’s energy audit). With the support of
Fort Collins Utilities, they implemented the “Thanks a Watt” campaign,
Figure 4. Example of communicating the environmental impact and dollars saved
from reducing electricity consumption
Note: Estimated cost savings calculated by 2,000 kWh—Year
i
kWh × Cost in US$ of kWh in
Year
i
, for the years 2004-2007.
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Schelly et al. 17
where signs were placed over light switches throughout the school, remind-
ing people to turn off the lights when leaving the room.
At Poudre, the environmental science class is a remedial course that satis-
fied the requirements of a third science credit. The different type of students
taking environmental science, and the lack of opportunity for motivated stu-
dents to become leaders in environmental education at Poudre, was a struc-
tural difference in opportunities for student leadership that contributed to the
divergence in school cultures. Where teachers, staff, and administrators
described students at Rocky as leaders, students at Poudre described past
failures to make positive changes at their school, and no one mentioned stu-
dents as leaders in conservation.
Communication. Communication and feedback related to behavioral expec-
tations occurred through multiple levels and channels at Rocky. Operations
Services at the district level regularly provided reports to schools on their
energy consumption, often including information from all high schools. School
administrators could use these reports not just to see their own performance
but also to see how their school compared to others and noted that they are
motivated to outperform the other high schools. Similarly, administrators,
teachers, and students at both schools discussed the motivating role of com-
petition in the school setting. Students at Rocky talked with pride about
“beating” the other school in energy conservation, whereas students at Pou-
dre were determined to find a way to “beat Rocky.”
Rocky communicated their success through e-mails, student-written school
announcements, newspapers, posters, and parent’s newsletter (see Nelson,
2007). An administrator at Rocky said, “I think that what happened four or
five years ago was when we started getting rebates and publicized to our
staff, here’s an outcome that’s positive.” Participants expressed the impor-
tance of not only receiving feedback about the outcome of their actions but
also getting an opportunity to talk about energy in a language that is mean-
ingful to them. One student said, “I think another thing that really helped the
school—they started doing a lot of graphs and charts, putting dollar amounts.
It made it easier, it made a lot of sense to people when you put a dollar
amount to it.”
Some of the data communicated in posters, reports, and other materials
include reduction in carbon gases, tons of coal not burned, and dollars saved.
An example of this tangible information is displayed in Figure 4. The opera-
tions department creates charts like these by translating kWh saved into
carbon emissions and other equivalencies on the basis of data from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which regularly updates emissions
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18 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
equivalencies on their website “Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator”
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010).
Participants said that effective communication was lacking at Poudre. As
one teacher at Poudre said, “It’s almost ironic that we’re in the field of edu-
cation and what we need is to educate the people about it.” Teachers said
that effective communication would include reeducating teachers and stu-
dents about energy savings and recycling. Teachers also felt that, unlike at
Rocky, there was no effort at Poudre to communicate current energy savings
or to communicate in meaningful terms. As one teacher said,
I wouldn’t know numbers associated with turning my lights off in my
room, and how much it costs to heat. . . . Like, I had a computer pro-
jector on for 2 hours this morning. So how much of some easily
understandable equivalent amount of energy could I understand? . . .
Tell them a certain number of wattage or whatever—they don’t get
that, but if you give it to them in some equal format then they’re like,
“Oh! that’s equal to 72 peanut butter and jelly sandwiches. I know
what those are.”
Communication is not an isolated activity; it works in relation to other
aspects of organizational change. Leaders at Rocky used communication to
express behavioral expectations and share successes, and communication
about successful efforts was reported to enhance efficacy and inspire additional
changes. Furthermore, communication occurred at multiple levels, as the
school district communicated with schools and teachers, teachers communicated
with school administrators and students, and school leaders communicated
back to the district, their teachers and staff, and the students.
Efficacy and beliefs. Students and staff at both schools discussed the
importance of feeling like their efforts make a difference or perceived
efficacy. At Rocky, sense of efficacy was related to having the opportunity
for res ponsibility and decision making. In 2004, the environmental club
students at Rocky were allowed to choose how energy rebates would be
spent. They chose to purchase wind power during the month of April to promote
Earth Day and environmental awareness. Now, wind energy is purchased every
April, and for longer blocks of time each year. One student said,
It [thinking about environmental problems] kind of makes you feel
helpless, but then [the environmental science teacher] makes you feel
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Schelly et al. 19
like you can make a difference because of your activity . . . so it makes
you feel like this is actively how I can make a difference.
Students themselves described participation as enhancing a sense of group
efficacy, and group efficacy was in turn said to inspire action. One student said,
I felt like that at first when I heard all this global warming and stuff;
you think about it and it’s such a big problem, there’s nothing I can do.
Once you start doing things and seeing the difference it makes, I think
that’s just so important.
Another said,
You know, people can have a stereotype of teenagers as being all self-
centered, but there’s lots of people in the school who care about it as
something that could affect their environment and where they live. And
I think people are pulling things together to improve it.
The head custodian at Rocky was empowered to participate in decision-
making processes, which he said created new feelings of responsibility and
efficacy. Because he attended meetings and was treated like an integral part
of the school’s operations, he felt empowered to participate in changing
custodial routine. Now, custodians clean using just security lighting before
and after school hours, instead of turning the lights on when they first arrive
and leaving them on until the end of the evening when cleaning is carried
out. When asked what was different about Rocky from other schools he had
worked at the in past, the head custodian said,
The environmental science teacher and his recycling program was really
well organized, and it was taken more seriously. All the teachers would
do their part about getting their recycling paper or whatever down on
the first place to the recycling bin. That part just seemed more organized.
Probably the big thing was, I wasn’t ever involved in meetings—then
I went with [the principal]—and that sort of made me start thinking
more about it. So then I went to those meetings and came here and just
started evaluating the way the custodial department did things.
The role of personal efficacy, enhanced through empowered participation,
was an important component of Rocky’s success. In addition to participation,
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20 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
communication was also said to influence perceived efficacy. Students des-
cribed how charts and graphs helped them understand the difference their
actions made:
When you actually look at the numbers, it just shows you how big an
impact you can have on little things like changing the light can have . . .
by showing students, illustrating the difference it can make, it just puts
in the back of their head, “Oh! I can do something.” (see Figure 4 for
an example)
It is interesting that a sense of personal efficacy influenced behavior at
school, even when this behavior was not in line with personal beliefs or
behavior at home. This was expressed most frankly among teachers and staff.
Some participants engaged in environmentally responsible behavior (such as
turning off the lights when leaving the room, shutting down their computer
at night, and recycling) at school, even though they did not do that at home
and such behavior did not align with their personal beliefs, which were
ambivalent regarding environmental concern or responsibility. Among the
staff at Rocky, a sense of efficacy was described as more important than
personal beliefs for motivating behavioral change in an organization where
conservation is a clearly communicated behavioral expectation.
School culture, routines, and expectations. Rocky’s success is attributable to
the creation of a holistic school conservation culture that integrated consis-
tent expectations into a new behavioral standard. The first conservation
activity at Rocky was the recycling program, launched by the school’s envi-
ronmental science teacher in 1990. Initially focused on aluminum can recy-
cling using bins in the hallway, each classroom now has its own recycling
bin. In the renovation and expansion project completed in 2004, the school
constructed a space used exclusively for recycling, and recycled paper, alu-
minum, glass, cardboard, and all plastics. Students are responsible for the
recycling program, and participants described the recycling program as set-
ting a consistent behavioral standard and creating a holistic approach to pro-
environmental behavior.
The current principal was hired in the fall of 2001. During the summer of
2002, the new principal commissioned a school energy audit and explicitly
communicated the importance of energy conservation. The principal utilized
the existing code of behavior—called the Lobo Way—to help communicate
cultural expectations. As changes were made throughout the school to reduce
energy consumption, this brand began to embody the school’s commitment to
environmentally responsible behavior. This motto (along with Care and Repair)
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Schelly et al. 21
helped maintain a synthetic approach to a conservation culture. According to
the principal, the brands were educational tools that “embellish responsible
behavior in students,” and the ultimate goal was to “integrate the concepts
behind the brand into human existence.”
Part of creating a conservation culture is establishing behavioral routines
consistent with the value of energy conservation. One of the most significant
changes to occur at Rocky was a change in custodial practices, described
previously, which began during the 2002-2003 school year. Participants said
that it was only recently that all of the custodial staff had been trained when
hired to abide by the new routine, which helped to institutionalize and solid-
ify these norms. In 2003, the school’s technology staff also created an auto-
matic shut off system of the school’s computer labs.
Many participants recognized that the change in school culture occurred
gradually over time. One teacher said,
I’m starting my fourth year here, and basically it [being conscious of
energy consumption] started when I came over here because at the other
school it wasn’t something I concerned myself with, but then I came
here and it was something that [Rocky] really stood for, so I started
buying in.
Discussion and Conclusion
As stated earlier, US$6 billion is spent on the energy bills of U.S. public
schools annually, which is more what is spent on purchasing textbooks and
computers combined (Energy Star, 2010). There is great potential for reduc-
ing energy costs in existing buildings as demonstrated by the ENERGY
STAR labeled schools (Energy Star, 2010), yet less than 1% of schools in the
United States are ENERGY STAR certified.
Furthermore, Rocky Mountain High School, a traditionally inefficient,
decades-old public high school, was able to reduce its electricity consump-
tion by 50% between 2000 and 2007. This case demonstrates that older school
buildings can potentially reduce their costs by tens of thousands of dollars
through a comprehensive effort to promote conservation. Between 2006 and
2007 (the years of their most substantial savings thus far), Rocky generated
US$40,379 in total operations savings, above and beyond the substantial sav-
ings that had been generated before 2006. Compared to the baseline year of
2000, in which HVAC controls and other district-wide regulatory practices
were implemented, Rocky has saved more than US$76,000. These savings are
the direct result of behavioral modifications of staff and students across the
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22 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
school. This suggests that though building new schools to the LEED stan-
dards might be one important way to reduce energy consumption, it is not the
only way. One possible downside of LEED-certified buildings is the poten-
tial for mindlessness—not paying active attention to energy consumption—if
the building is expected to “perform” on the basis of its design and construc-
tion materials, perhaps users would be less likely to act in environmentally
responsible ways. The results of this study illustrate that substantial conser-
vation at Rocky required conscientious effort by administrators, teachers,
and students alike in addition to improvements made to facilities and opera-
tions. Thousands of existing schools have the potential to improve their per-
formance and reduce costs, but this will likely require behavioral change, not
just physical improvements to the buildings systems.
The question originally posed to us was, “What did Rocky do that was dif-
ferent than the other schools, and can we replicate this across the district?”
The answer to this question is not just about what happened at Rocky; it’s
about what Rocky accomplished in a school district committed to sustainabil-
ity. Rocky was able to reduce its energy consumption by 50% because it is in
a district that made a commitment to energy conservation and sustainability,
supported leaders in all organizational levels, and provided policies and incen-
tives in support of schools making a commitment to sustainability. In this
context, Rocky made unprecedented change; it reduced its electricity con-
sumption to levels below a newly built and certified LEED school. A set of
interconnected efforts at Rocky inspired staff and students to change. Leader-
ship, communication, and a sense of efficacy helped create a culture that
values conservation and sustainability through clear behavioral expectations.
This culture helped motivate and sustain their energy conservation efforts in
the context of support and commitment from all levels of the organization.
This research confirms several findings in other studies, including the
importance of charismatic (Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Conger et al., 2000) or
transformational (Leithwood et al., 1996) leadership, particularly in organi-
zational settings. This case study is consistent with past research suggesting
that charismatic leadership can be effective without corresponding to a tradi-
tional leadership role (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999), as the teacher at Rocky
was a clearly identified charismatic leader in the school. This research is also
consistent with other work on behavioral change that indicates the importance
of efficacy in motivating behavioral change at the individual level (Ajzen,
1991) as well as in a group setting (Lubell et al., 2006, 2007).
In addition, our study supports the work of others (Higgs & McMillan,
2006) on the importance of modeling for environmental education within a
school setting. Individual role models (such as the teacher and environmental
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Schelly et al. 23
student club), as charismatic leaders, inspired behavior change and sustained
motivation. School facilities and operations contributed to and supported the
school’s efforts, providing structural support for conservation (through audits,
the automated energy system, the designated space for recycling, etc.) as well
as feedback and a means of participation (through rebates and the choice of
how to use them). Individuals in the school, such as the head custodian and the
students in the environmental club, were empowered to participate meaning-
fully in the school decision making, thus modeling participatory school gov-
ernance and helping to foster a conservation culture (Higgs & McMillan, 2006).
Specifically in the realm of education, this research indicates the potential
role of comparative feedback (Siero et al., 1996) in motivating student partici-
pation through school rivalry and competition. Emile Durkheim (1961/2002)
was perhaps the first social scientist to note the motivating role of competi-
tion in education. The district produced a case of comparative feedback acci-
dentally, by including all four high schools in their energy reports, which fed
the competitive spirit of administrators, teachers, and students. Competition
as a form of comparative feedback seems effective in motivating behavioral
change in a school setting.
In this school, perceived efficacy, behavioral expectations, and organiza-
tional culture all motivated behavioral change, but no participants described
changing their attitudes. Respondents indicated that even without a sense of
environmental concern and without engaging in environmentally responsible
behaviors at home, they participated in energy conservation and other efforts
(such as recycling) within the organizational setting. This suggests that set-
ting new standards is more important than changing environmental values.
Furthermore, different motivational factors were important for different
participants. Charismatic leaders were motivated by their personal environ-
mental values, whereas students and staff members were motivated by feelings
of efficacy. Participants at all organizational levels responded to communica-
tion, particularly comparative feedback, and the district and the school made
concerted efforts to communicate both expectations and successes.
Findings from this research suggest that creating comprehensive and last-
ing behavioral change within an organization requires efforts at multiple
organizational levels. Changing organizational culture requires concerted
effort from players within the various facets of the institution (Burke, 1994;
Tudor et al., 2008). Like others (Tudor et al., 2008), this research demon-
strates the complexity of behavioral change in an organizational setting and
the interplay of both individual and institutional factors.
Other organizations seeking to create a conservation culture may find these
recommendations worthwhile. Organizational change may be most effective
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24 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
through a complex interplay of infrastructural and organizational factors and
the participation of leaders at multiple levels of the organizational structure.
Charismatic leadership was important for Rocky, as was communication of
both expectations and outcomes. Perceived efficacy, enhanced through par-
ticipation, inspired students and the custodial staff. Furthermore, proenvi-
ronmental behaviors were integrated into a consistent conservation culture.
Creating cultural change within an organization may not only be multifac-
eted and complex but may also be the most effective way of translating new
norms into everyday practice.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship
and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this
article.
Note
1. For the purposes of ENERGY STAR rating, energy performance is compared
across similar buildings throughout the nature and scored on a scale of 1 to 100.
For example, a rating of 50 indicates that the building performs better, in terms of
energy consumption, than 50% of all similar buildings nationwide.
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28 Environment and Behavior XX(X)
Bios
Chelsea Schelly is a PhD student in the combined graduate program of sociology and
community and environmental sociology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Her research interests are in the fields of environmental sociology and science and
technology studies, specifically in alternative technology politics. She worked on the
project published here as a master’s student at Colorado State University, where she
studied environmental education and the politics of renewable energy adoption.
Jennifer E. Cross, PhD, is currently assistant professor in the Department of Sociol-
ogy. She received her PhD in sociology from the University of California at Davis.
Her research interests include community attachment/sense of place, land use and
conservation, sustainability, interagency collaboration, social networks, and social
norms. She has received grants from the U.S. Department of Education and Office of
Juvenile Justice Delinquency Prevention. Her research in the areas of program out-
comes, interagency collaboration, and social norms marketing have been published in
a variety of scientific journals. She is a community sociologist who regularly works
with public schools and community agencies on a variety of community-based par-
ticipatory research projects centered on health promotion and community development.
Her current projects include research on land conservation decision making, energy
conservation, and sustainability in public schools, and behavior change campaigns
among college students.
William S. Franzen is the president of SAGE2 Associates, LLC, a consulting firm
providing services to Colorado school districts through the Governors Energy Office
and to school districts nationwide. He was formerly the executive director of opera-
tions with Poudre School District in Fort Collins, Colorado.
Pete Hall is currently the Director of Facilities for the Poudre School District. He has
been working for Poudre School District for almost 20 years, 10 of which as the direc-
tor of facilities, and is one of the original members of the energy efficiency team. Pete
is thankful for a community that values quality education and supports our task of
providing exceptional learning environments, allowing us to balance our fiscal chal-
lenges with environmental and educational responsibilities.
Stu Reeve currently serves as energy manager for the Poudre School District (PSD)
in Fort Collins, Colorado. For the past 35 years, he has held several positions in facil-
ity services and business services, managing the installation and maintenance of
electrical/electronic systems throughout the district. Under Stu Reeve’s leadership,
PSD created an energy management plan and an energy efficiency team, which has
evolved into an award-winning program, recognized both by the U. S. Department of
Energy and the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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