Article

The Eye of the CameraEffects of Security Cameras on Prosocial Behavior

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

This study addresses the effects of security cameras on prosocial behavior. Results from previous studies indicate that the presence of others can trigger helping behavior, arising from the need for approval of others. Extending these findings, the authors propose that security cameras can likewise trigger such approval-seeking behaviors by implying the presence of a watchful eye. Because people vary in the extent to which they strive for others' approval, it was expected that the effects of security cameras on prosocial behavior vary with participants' need for approval. To test these predictions, an experimental study was conducted with “presence of security camera” and “need for approval” as independent variables. Results showed that participants indeed offered more help in the presence of a security camera but only to the extent that this helping involved public or observable behavior. As expected, this effect was more pronounced for individuals high in need for approval. Practical implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Therefore, as a CEO begins to attract more attention from the media, he/she will become increasingly motivated to manage impressions in order to achieve one's goals (e.g., avoiding public scrutiny). Relatedly, prior research demonstrated that when people noticed they were being watched by a security camera, they were more likely to engage in helping behaviors (Van Rompay, Vonk, & Fransen, 2009). The findings from the Van Rompay et al. (2009) study demonstrates that when a person is in a position of visibility, they are more likely to engage in socially acceptable behaviors for reasons of impression management. ...
... Relatedly, prior research demonstrated that when people noticed they were being watched by a security camera, they were more likely to engage in helping behaviors (Van Rompay, Vonk, & Fransen, 2009). The findings from the Van Rompay et al. (2009) study demonstrates that when a person is in a position of visibility, they are more likely to engage in socially acceptable behaviors for reasons of impression management. ...
... Therefore, a reasonable conclusion is that CEOs will follow the same set of norms that are subscribed to by other leaders. Additionally, celebrity CEOs will be even more visible than the average CEO, and will be subject to perform a higher degree of impression management than non-celebrity CEOs who are in a position of less visibility (Van Rompay et al., 2009). ...
Article
Full-text available
Our purpose is to investigate and discuss the impact of celebrity CEOs. Numerous CEOs have attained celebrity status through infusion into media coverage. Consequently, CEOs routinely enter into American popular culture. We offer general propositions that successful CEOs gain positive media coverage, and thus gain celebrity CEO status. Subsequently, celebrity CEOs are vulnerable to becoming rigid in their business strategy and also fixate on increasing firms’ corporate social responsibility operatives, both of which are enhanced by narcissism. Under negative conditions (i.e., poor performance, bad press), celebrity CEOs tend to escalate their commitment as opposed to admitting a change is necessary.
... In the real world, people are aware of whether or not they are being observed and often modulate or alter their behaviour accordingly. Previous studies have shown that individuals are more likely to donate money (Ekström, 2012), to offer help (van Rompay, Vonk, & Fransen, 2009), or to cooperate (Bateson, Nettle, & Roberts, 2006) when they know they are being watched. Even exposure to eye-like images can increase cooperative or prosocial behaviour (Ernest-Jones, Nettle, & Bateson, 2011;Powell, Roberts, & Nettle, 2012;Sparks & Barclay, 2013), reflecting one's need to attain approval or avoid the disapproval of others. ...
... Interestingly, it does not require the physical presence of others to exert influence on behaviour (Nasiopoulos, Risko, Foulsham, & Kingstone, 2014;Risko & Kingstone, 2011). Previous research has shown that the presence of a camera can have various significant effects on human behaviour, from increasing pro-social behaviours (van Rompay et al., 2009) to altering cognitive performance (Yu, Tseng, Muggleton, & Juan, 2015). When eye-tracking studies are conducted, participants usually know that they are being eye tracked. ...
... One of the basic assumptions behind an eye tracking approach is that natural looking behaviour is insensitive to the physical act of wearing an eye tracker and the knowledge that one's eyes are being monitored. However, given that eye trackers are essentially video cameras for the eyes, tracking someone's eyes could invoke mechanisms similar to those engaged by a more conventional video camera (van Rompay et al., 2009) or images of watching eyes (Manesi, Van Lange, & Pollet, 2016). Individuals may feel more self-conscious knowing their viewing behaviour is being directly monitored (Herman et al., 2003;Yu et al., 2015). ...
Article
Full-text available
Human behaviour is not only influenced by the physical presence of others, but also implied social presence. This study examines the impact of awareness of being eye-tracked on eye movement behaviour in a laboratory setting. During a classic yes/no face recognition task, participants were made to believe that their eye movements were recorded (or not recorded) by eye trackers. Their looking patterns with and without the awareness of being eye-tracked were compared while perceiving social (faces, faces-and-bodies) and non-social (inanimate objects) video stimuli. Area-of-interest (AOI) analysis revealed that misinformed participants (who were not aware that their eye movements were being recorded) looked more at the body (chest and waist) compared to informed participants (who believed they were being eye-tracked), whereas informed participants fixated longer on the mouth and shorter on the eyes of female models than misinformed participants did. These findings highlight the potential impact of an awareness of being eye tracked on one’s eye movement pattern when perceiving a social stimulus. We conclude that even within laboratory settings an eye tracker may function as an implied social presence that leads individuals to modify their eye movement behaviour according to socially-derived inhibitory norms.
... To this end, the physical form and appearance of the nodes were explored with artists, designers, and behavioral and social scientists. Although some behavioral science research suggested that the appearance of the devices would have an impact on behavior [20] , this was not an objective for the project. The goal of the bright and inviting design was to draw attention and ideally foster a sense of ownership by using the blue and red colors similar to Chicago's city flag [21] . ...
... Journal of Social Computing, September 2020, 1(1):[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] ...
Article
The Chicago Array of Things (AoT) project, funded by the US National Science Foundation, created an experimental, urban-scale measurement capability to support diverse scientific studies. Initially conceived as a traditional sensor network, collaborations with many science communities guided the project to design a system that is remotely programmable to implement Artificial Intelligence (AI) within the devices-at the “edge” of the network-as a means for measuring urban factors that heretofore had only been possible with human observers, such as human behavior including social interaction. The concept of “software-defined sensors” emerged from these design discussions, opening new possibilities, such as stronger privacy protections and autonomous, adaptive measurements triggered by events or conditions. We provide examples of current and planned social and behavioral science investigations uniquely enabled by software-defined sensors as part of the SAGE project, an expanded follow-on effort that includes AoT.
... Vigilant security officers in shops or at events, cameras in the street, at work, or even at someone's home are common security measures. All these measures have one common characteristic: they remind us that someone might be watching, which has been shown to increase prosocial behavior [4]. ...
... Another way in which people are more commonly made self-aware is through surveillance. Studies done with humans, even show that people act in a socially desirable and prosocial way, when being watched [4]. With dishonesty, the power of being watched also decreases cheating behavior either with a close surveillance, like having someone watching participants doing a task [8] or just by guaranteeing participants that all answers will be checked [16]. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
People are not perfect, and if given the chance, some will be dishonest with no regrets. Some people will cheat just a little to gain some advantage, and others will not do it at all. With the prospect of more human-robot interactions in the future, it will become very important to understand which kind of roles a robot can have in the regulation of cheating behavior. We investigated whether people will cheat while in the presence of a robot and to what extent this depends on the role the robot plays. We ran a study to test cheating behavior with a die task, and allocated people to one of the following conditions: 1) participants were alone in the room while doing the task; 2) with a robot with a vigilant role or 3) with a robot that had a supporting role in the task, accompanying and giving instructions. Our results showed that participants cheated significantly more than chance when they were alone or with the robot giving instructions. In contrast, cheating could not be proven when the robot presented a vigilant role. This study has implications for human-robot interaction and for the deployment of autonomous robots in sensitive roles in which people may be prone to dishonest behavior.
... However, all data collection introduces distortion [28] as the very act of collecting data impacts the phenomena being studied. For example, placing a camera in a public location can change the behavior of individuals in that location [57], interviews can provoke changes in the participant's thinking [15,41], and self-report in questionnaires can influence an individuals' emotions (cf. in [9]) and physiological reactions [35]. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The measurement of affect presents a challenge for researchers in quantitative ethnography and related communities, as each of the several possible methods for obtaining ground truth have downsides and often disagree with each other. One common method is field observations; some accounts have raised concerns about observer effects, but further research is needed to understand how much observer effect is present and exactly how observer effects manifest. In this study, we attempt to quantify and detail observer effects in classroom data collected using the Baker Rodrigo Ocumpaugh Monitoring Protocol (BROMP). We leveraged prediction models developed in prior work to assess students' affect and disengaged behavior, during periods where observers were present or not present. Statistical analyses revealed differences in both affective states and behaviors on days when field observations were conducted. When observers were present, students showed increases in concentration and decreases in frustration, off-task behavior, and gaming the system. Findings suggest that the collection of observation data changes the proportion of behavior and affect observed, which should be taken into account when designing, implementing, and analyzing observation based research. We discuss implications of this finding for quantitative ethnography, when observation data is systematized, visualized, and compared. Our findings do not suggest that the individual observations of specific affective states or behaviors are invalid but offer insights for QE scholars to consider when collecting and analyzing observation data.
... Individuals with higher levels of agreeableness are associated with increased levels of conformity (Alkış and Temizel, 2015). Those who are high in need for social approval also exhibit more prosocial behaviors under social pressure (Van Rompay et al., 2009). A higher level of conformity is also linked to a lower level of confidence (Wijenayake et al., 2020). ...
Article
Understanding the determinants of philanthropic behaviors, which bring benefits to society but come with private costs, is crucial. In this study, we investigate the causal impact of exposure to peers with prosocial behaviors on an individual's donations. In contrast to previous research, we address the issue of self-selection by exploiting the random assignment of college roommates and tackle the challenges of reflection bias by examining peers' volunteering history in high school in relation to an individual's donations in college. Our results indicate a statistically significant and positive impact of peers' prosocial behaviors on an individual's own donations. Moreover, we find that the magnitude of peer effects varies based on individuals' donation levels , interaction preferences, and self-confidence levels, suggesting social pressure as a potential mechanism of peer influence. This study contributes to the existing literature by shedding light on the role of social influence in shaping philanthropic behaviors.
... Painting eyes on the wall results in more money in an honesty box next to a coffee machine (Bateson et al., 2006). Installing a security camera promotes helping behaviour (Van Rompay et al., 2009). In one of our own studies, 8-year-olds lying in the fMRI scanner could earn money by guessing correctly which of two dogs, presented on a screen, would get a bone on the next screen. ...
... Some of the related systems and tools that have been proposed to the public are security cameras, which allow the users to get live updates on their houses [6]. Another tool that has been proposed to the public is fitness tracker watches, which provide the user with a daily report of their activities, step count, heart rate, etc. ...
Conference Paper
Coronavirus started in 2019 and it’s still a major problem today [1]. This disease led to the start of pandemics around the world, in which some students are still using online learning platforms today, and their guardians leaving them unattended to provide for their families [2]. However, with the lack of supervision children are taking advantage of these times to perform unproductive activities such as gaming. During school days, there are also many breaks provided for students to relax and reset their mentality, which allows a student to be focused during class, but this doesn’t seem to be the case students are spending this time indoors after many hours of staring at a device, instead spending it outdoor can relax their eyes also preventing eye damage. This paper proposes software that tracks a student's productivity based on their tennis racket movement and speed using a particle board, accelerometer, and tracker [3]. With a tracker, guardians would be able to get constant updates on their children's activities. We applied our application to a real-life scenario and conducted a qualitative evaluation of the approach. The results show that students spend less time indoors performing nonproductive activities, students spend more time outside playing their sport of desire, and parents are less stressed about their children's educational and physical health.
... Additionally, awareness of being filmed during HCI may have motivated participants to behave in a more prosocial or conscientious way [i.e. 74,75 ] than they might typically do when interacting with cats in the home. Thus, it is recommended that humans' HCI styles and their associations with human-individual differences www.nature.com/scientificreports/ ...
Article
Full-text available
Humans’ individual differences including their demographics, personality, attitudes and experiences are often associated with important outcomes for the animals they interact with. This is pertinent to companion animals such as cats and dogs, given their social and emotional importance to humans and degree of integration into human society. However, the mechanistic underpinnings and causal relationships that characterise links between human individual differences and companion animal behaviour and wellbeing are not well understood. In this exploratory investigation, we firstly quantified the underlying structure of, and variation in, human’s styles of behaviour during typical human-cat interactions (HCI), focusing on aspects of handling and interaction known to be preferred by cats (i.e. ‘best practice’), and their variation. We then explored the potential significance of various human individual differences as predictors of these HCI styles. Seven separate HCI styles were identified via Principal Component Analysis (PCA) from averaged observations for 119 participants, interacting with sociable domestic cats within a rehoming context. Using General Linear Models (GLMs) and an Information Theoretic (IT) approach, we found these HCI PC components were weakly to strongly predicted by factors including cat-ownership history, participant personality (measured via the Big Five Inventory, or BFI), age, work experience with animals and participants’ subjective ratings of their cat behaviour knowledge. Paradoxically, greater cat ownership experiences and self-assessed cat knowledge were not positively associated with ‘best practice’ styles of HCI, but were instead generally predictive of HCI styles known to be less preferred by cats, as was greater participant age and Neuroticism. These findings have important implications regarding the quality of human-companion animal relationships and dyadic compatibility, in addition to the role of educational interventions and their targeting for optimal efficacy. In the context of animal adoption, these results strengthen the (limited) evidence base for decision making associated with cat-adopter screening and matching. In particular, our results suggest that greater cat ownership experiences and self-reports of cat knowledge might not necessarily convey advantages for cats in the context of HCI.
... Secondly, the Hawthorne effect might occur as participants were aware of the fact that their behaviors were observed and recorded. As a result, participants were more likely to exhibit pro-social and altruistic behaviors [88][89][90][91]. This limitation is inherent to the experimental approach as verbal protocols were collected concurrently [67]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Behavioral sequence analysis (BSA) gives insights to understand and model individual behaviors. The present study uses BSA for a virtual earthquake. The virtual earthquake drill was facilitated by a head-mounted display (HMD)-based immersive virtual reality (IVR) system. Eighty-three participants experienced a full earthquake and post-earthquake evacuation in a virtual hospital building. Concurrent verbal protocol analysis (VPA) and retrospective video analysis of the footage of participants’ in-IVR behaviors have been conducted to identify the behavioral sequence of participants. As a result, behavioral transition diagrams are generated, showing the progression of behaviors exhibited in the virtual earthquake drill. A variety of behavioral paths for each individual participant is presented using a visual analytics approach. The behavioral transition diagrams and behavioral paths expose the full picture of human behaviors in an earthquake emergency, which are vital to developing behavior-oriented strategies for earthquake emergencies.
... Cameras, in particular, have the potential to reach billions of viewers at one time on a live feed and can be reviewed again later. Hence, it is unsurprising that cameras can invoke objective self-awareness (Davis & Brock, 1975) and may promote prosocial behavior (Van Rompay et al., 2009;Van Bommel et al., 2014). Within the context of policing, public scrutiny of BWC footage is common. ...
Article
Full-text available
Past studies on the “civilizing” effect of body-worn cameras (BWC) on police and civilian behavior have yielded mixed results. Some studies have shown a reduction in the use of force reports (e.g., Ariel et al., 2015 ) and civilian complaints ( Hedberg et al., 2017 ) as a result of officers utilizing BWCs. However, other studies have found null effects (e.g., Yokum et al., 2017 ) or even the opposite findings (i.e., increases in use of force reports; Ariel et al., 2016a ). In the current review, we aim to reconcile these inconsistencies by discussing psychological factors (i.e., police attitudes toward BWCs, civilian attitudes toward the police, geographic psychology, officer perceptions of self-legitimacy, and civilian stress) that may moderate the civilizing effect of BWCs. We also highlight the methodological issues (i.e., contamination, unit of analysis, and low base rates) that have burdened past studies involving field experiments and advocate for the use of multiple methods to strengthen any existing weaknesses in the literature. Overall, we argue for a closer examination of individual-level psychological factors and the use of multiple methods to help elucidate the ambiguities concerning the “civilizing” effect found in the BWC literature.
... Moreover, several studies have documented significant reductions in citizen complaints against police and officer use of force following deployment of BWCs, suggesting there may be a "civilizing effect" whereby the camera causes better behavior among both citizens and police officers (Ariel et al., 2015;Jennings et al., 2015). Though there is a body of psychological research to support the civilizing effect hypothesis (van Rompay et al., 2009;Wicklund, 1975), current research on BWCs has not sufficiently explored the issue. ...
Article
This study investigated citizen attitudes about the public release of police body-worn camera (BWC) video. We examined quantitative and qualitative survey data from a convenience sample of 535 citizens living in and around Birmingham, Alabama, USA. We found citizens’ attitudes ranged widely and were often contextualized based on the circumstances of the video and case. Race, gender, and police accountability concerns were significantly related to greater support for video release, with race being the strongest factor. Surveillance concerns were not significantly related to attitudes about video release. While numerous studies show that officers and citizens support the use of BWCs in policing, questions about the public release of video are still under debate. Very few studies have examined the issue of video release for the purposes of developing evidence-based policy that satisfies the interests of diverse groups and minimizes civil unrest following critical incidents. Further research is needed before clear recommendations can be made regarding optimum policies guiding BWC video release.
... Interestingly, research has indicated that people are more likely to exhibit helping behaviors when they believe they are being watched (Van Rompay et al., 2009). For example, Van Rompay and colleagues found that people were more likely to help if they knew there were cameras watching them. ...
Article
Social media use has been linked to a wide variety of both positive effects, such as improved ability to share and understand the feelings of others and involvement in philanthropic activities, but it has also been associated with negative effects, including cyberbullying and low self-esteem. Today's adolescents have grown up as digital natives and have deemed social media as an essential way to connect with peers and develop relationships. These relationships can play a critical role in adolescents’ development of important prosocial skills, such as empathy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between social media use and empathy in late adolescents.Seventy-six late adolescents, ages 18 to 19, completed an online survey assessing their social media use, cyberbullying and cyber victimization history, and empathy levels. Results indicated that the frequency of social media use is positively correlated with increased personal distress during interpersonal conflict, a factor of empathy. Findings also revealed that active use of social media was positively correlated with personal distress, though this was true only for males. Results showed that that being an active user of social media and the fantasy subscale (the ability to transpose oneself into the feelings of fictitious characters) of empathy were negatively correlated for females only. Overall, results suggested that the use of social media is particularly associated with feelings of personal distress. These feelings, in turn, may promote empathic behavior in late adolescents.
... Beispielsweise zeigten Jansen et al. (2018), dass die Anwesenheit einer CCTV (nicht strafbare) Betrugsversuche in einem Puzzle-Spiel reduzierte und zwar vor allem, wenn diese auf eine Art und Weise präsentiert wurde, die den Probanden suggerierte, dass eine potentiell strafende Autorität zusieht. Ebenso wird der Einfluss von CCTV auf prosoziale Verhaltensweisen untersucht, mit bislang gemischten Ergebnissen (Jansen et al. 2018;van Bommel et al. 2013;van Rompay, Vonk & Fransen 2008). ...
Article
Zusammenfassung Aufgrund der kontinuierlichen Ausweitung von Datenerhebungsbefugnissen für Sicherheitsbehörden wird ein häufig als »Chilling« bezeichneter Effekt befürchtet. Demnach führt die Sorge über ein mögliches Überwachtwerden dazu, dass freiheitliche Grundrechte nicht mehr ausgeübt werden. In der Rechtswissenschaft ist die Existenz eines Chilling-Effekts bzw. das Ausmaß seiner Auswirkungen auf Verhaltensänderungen jedoch umstritten. Der vorliegende Artikel gibt einen Überblick über die empirische Evidenz zum Chilling-Effekt. Hinzugezogen werden im ersten Teil Befunde aus verschiedenen Paradigmen und Traditionen, die den Chilling-Effekt nicht explizit untersuchen, jedoch Hinweise auf die dahinterstehenden Mechanismen geben (Asch-Paradigma, Watching Eyes-Paradigma, Befunde aus der Forschung zur Wirkung von Sicherheitskameras im öffentlichen Raum). Einschränkungen in der Übertragbarkeit der Ergebnisse werden jeweils diskutiert. Im zweiten Teil werden Untersuchungen skizziert, die den Chilling-Effekt direkt in Online-Kontexten untersuchen, wobei die methodischen Probleme der verschiedenen Ansätze diskutiert werden. Wir beleuchten abschließend die empirische Evidenz zu Argumenten, die häufig als Gegenbeweise zur Existenz von Chilling-Effekten angeführt werden. Wir kommen zu dem Ergebnis, dass es sich verdichtende Hinweise auf die Existenz eines Chilling-Effekts aufgrund von Datenerhebungsbefugnissen gibt, jedoch weitere empirische Forschung notwendig ist.
... These devices and images are seen and taken everywhere, e.g., in streets, in supermarkets, and in many other public locations. We use cameras for various purposes such as security [1], health [2] . In addition, athletics use cameras such as GoPro's [3] for recording extreme sports and share the excitement with others either as live stream or offline. ...
Article
Full-text available
Abstract—Computer visions and their applications have become important in contemporary life. Hence, researches on facial and object recognition have become increasingly important both from academicians and practitioners. Smart gadgets such as smartphones are nowadays capable of high processing power, memory capacity, along with high resolutions camera. Furthermore, the connectivity bandwidth and the speed of the interaction have significantly impacted the popularity of mobile object recognition applications. These developments in addition to computer vision’s algorithms advancement have transferred object’s recognitions from desktop environments to the mobile world. The aim of this paper to reveal the efficiency and accuracy of the existing open-source facial recognition algorithms in real-life settings. We use the following popular open-source algorithms for efficiency evaluations: Eigenfaces, Fisherfaces, Local Binary Pattern Histogram, the deep convolutional neural network algorithm, and OpenFace. The evaluations of the test cases indicate that among the compared facial recognition algorithms the OpenFace algorithm has the highest accuracy to identify faces. The findings of this study help the practitioner on their decision of the algorithm selections and the academician on how to improve the accuracy of the current algorithms even further.
... En tant qu'émotion réflexive, l'embarras agit sur le niveau de conscience de soi et d'attention portée à soi. Or l'apparition des comportements prosociaux est favorisée par un niveau élevé de conscience de soi, par exemple chez des participants qui se savent filmés par des caméras de surveillance (Van Rompay, Vonk & Fransen, 2009), photographiés (Hoover, Wood, & Knowles, 1983) ou qui peuvent visionner leur propre image sur un écran de télévision (Duval, Duval, & Neely, 1979). Abbate et Ruggieri (2008) ont également montré que la probabilité pour un mendiant de recevoir de l'argent de la part de passants augmente massivement s'il porte à son cou un miroir plutôt qu'un simple carton. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper provides a review of the literature on embarrassment, a both complex and social emotion which has been little documented as compared with other self-conscious emotions such as shame or guilt. The first aim of the current note is to define the main characteristics of embarrassment, then to propose a classification of the different models which examines its causes. The second objective is to map and to question the social effects of both experienced and expressed embarrassment, as well as some more straightforward effects (motivational and physiological) on the embarrassed individual. Several ambivalent points are highlighted in order to suggest some perspectives arising from cognitive and social psychology for future research.
... The available datasets for studying group behavior depend heavily on the use of special wearable sensors [22,34,35], one or more cameras [4,18], or front-facing Kinects [33]. The presence of visible cameras can alter participants' natural behavior [39], and having unusual sensors directly in front of ones' face or in the line of sight may inhibit natural group interactions. Also, datasets with frontal cameras that reveal the identity of the participants are often more difficult to make publicly available to the research community. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Studying group dynamics requires fine-grained spatial and temporal understanding of human behavior. Social psychologists studying human interaction patterns in face-to-face group meetings often find themselves struggling with huge volumes of data that require many hours of tedious manual coding. There are only a few publicly available multi-modal datasets of face-to-face group meetings that enable the development of automated methods to study verbal and non-verbal human behavior. In this paper, we present a new, publicly available multi-modal dataset for group dynamics study that differs from previous datasets in its use of ceiling-mounted, unobtrusive depth sensors. These can be used for fine-grained analysis of head and body pose and gestures, without any concerns about participants' privacy or inhibited behavior. The dataset is complemented by synchronized and time-stamped meeting transcripts that allow analysis of spoken content. The dataset comprises 22 group meetings in which participants perform a standard collaborative group task designed to measure leadership and productivity. Participants' post-task questionnaires, including demographic information, are also provided as part of the dataset. We show the utility of the dataset in analyzing perceived leadership, contribution, and performance, by presenting results of multi-modal analysis using our sensor-fusion algorithms designed to automatically understand audio-visual interactions.
... tant qu'émotion réflexive, l'embarras agit sur le niveau de conscience de soi et d'attention portée à soi. Or l'apparition des comportements prosociaux est favorisée par un niveau élevé de conscience de soi, par exemple chez des participants qui se savent filmés par des caméras de surveillance(Van Rompay, Vonk & Fransen, 2009), photographiés(Hoover, Wood, & Knowles, 1983) ou qui peuvent visionner leur propre image sur un écran de télévision(Duval, Duval, & Neely, 1979). Abbate et Ruggieri (2008) ont également montré que la probabilité pour un mendiant de recevoir de l'argent de la part de passants augmente massivement s'il porte à son cou un miroir plutôt qu'un simple carton. ...
Preprint
Cet article propose une synthèse de la littérature sur l'embarras, émotion complexe et sociale relativement sous-documentée par rapport à d'autres émotions réflexives comme la honte ou la culpabilité. Le premier objectif de cette note théorique consiste, après avoir défini les principales caractéristiques de l'embarras, à proposer une classification des modèles explicatifs de ses causes. Le second objectif vise à recenser et à questionner les effets sociaux de l'embarras éprouvé et exprimé, ainsi que les effets plus directs (motivationnels et physiologiques) sur l'individu embarrassé lui-même. Différents points d'ambivalence sont ainsi mis en lumière, et ce de façon à proposer des perspectives de recherche issues de la psychologie cognitive et sociale. Abstract : This paper provides a review of the literature on embarrassment, a both complex and social emotion which has been little documented as compared with other self-conscious emotions such as shame or guilt. The first aim of the current note is to define the main characteristics of embarrassment, then to propose a classification of the different models which examines its causes. The second objective is to map and to question the social effects of both experienced and expressed embarrassment, as well as some more straightforward effects (motivational and physiological) on the embarrassed individual. Several ambivalent points are highlighted in order to suggest some perspectives arising from cognitive and social psychology for future research.
... Officers tend to be more skeptical about the impact of BWCs on citizen behavior (Gaub, Choate, Todak, Katz, & White, 2016;. The "civilizing effect" claim is grounded in two theoretical frameworks, deterrence and self-awareness, which indicate that people are more likely to behave in socially desirable ways if they know they are being observed (Farrar & Ariel, 2013;Munger & Harris, 2015;Van Rompay, Vonk, & Fransen, 2009;Wahl et al., 2010). But does the camera change officer behavior, or does it simply change the likelihood of a frivolous or otherwise unfounded complaint from the public? ...
... This latter argument is weakened by the apparent reality that citizens are poor at ascertaining whether police have cameras on, even when told they do, with as few as 28 percent of citizens realizing that cameras recorded encounters ( Finally, in a related but broader psychological literature, researchers have argued that cues that one is being watched induce positive effects on subjects under surveillance as a result of a general audience effect. For example, von Rompay, Vonk, and Fransen (2008) showed that individuals increased helping in the presence of security cameras. Pfattheicher and Keller (2015) likened the cue of being watched by stylized eyes on a sheet of paper or Web page to being seen and noted that individuals' public self-awareness was positively related to prosocial action. ...
Article
Full-text available
In this article, we explore variations in procedural justice delivered in face‐to‐face encounters with citizens before and after the implementation of body‐worn cameras (BWCs). We draw on recent advances in the measurement of procedural justice using systematic social observation of police in field settings in the Los Angeles Police Department. Data collected on 555 police–citizen encounters are examined in bivariate and multivariate models exploring the primary hypothesis that BWCs affect procedural justice delivered by police directly and indirectly. Our results indicate that significant increases in procedural justice during police–citizen encounters were directly attributable to the effect of BWCs on police behavior as well as to the indirect effects on citizen disrespect and other variables. The implications for policy include explicit measurement and monitoring of procedural justice or elements such as officer discourtesy in departments adopting BWCs. Further research questions such as more detailed examination of citizens’ behavior changes under BWCs are also considered in the context of the findings.
... For example, watchful eyes have been found to heighten social awareness and self-evaluation 15,16 , which is in line with the well-established finding that people tend to be on their best behavior when they know that they are being observed by others (see e.g. [17][18][19]. At the same time, it was found that straight (rather than averted) gaze is often perceived as aggressive and threatening, readily eliciting negative emotions such as anxiety, nervousness, distress, worry, and fear 10,14,20,21 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Eye gaze conveys crucial information for social interactions, with straight versus averted gaze triggering distinct emotional and cognitive processes. The "stare-in-the-crowd" effect exemplifies such differential visual processing of gaze direction, in more recent reports also in interaction with head orientation. Besides aiming at replicating the "stare-in-the-crowd" effect by means of an eye gaze by head orientation interaction, the present study intended to for the first time testing its susceptibility to inter-individual differences in trait, social, and attachment anxiety. Our findings reveal a significant relation between the "stare-in-the-crowd" effect and social and attachment, but not trait anxiety, and therefore provide preliminary cues for personality influences on visual processing of eye gaze and head orientation.
Article
This study examines the influence of celebrity Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) on corporate social responsibility (CSR) in Chinese listed firms in the A-share market from 2009 to 2020. We employ a multi-theoretical approach, drawing on upper echelons, impression management, and identity theories to explore several aspects of this topic. We find that celebrity CEOs are associated with better CSR engagement, suggesting that celebrity CEOs are likely to utilize CSR to strategically manage their impressions. We then explore four boundary conditions in the relationship between celebrity CEOs and CSR, and how celebrity identity mechanisms moderate this relationship. We find that CEOs' age, gender, and degree of media attention can strengthen the celebrity CEOs–CSR relationship, explaining the boundary conditions influencing the level of celebrity CEOs' impression management motivation. Additionally, environmental dynamism does not influence the association between celebrity CEOs and CSR performance. Our study provides new insights into the understanding of CSR antecedents, particularly from the perspective of CEOs’ psychological motivation, and contributes to formulating future CEO and CSR strategies.
Chapter
Due to technological advances, AI systems, among them facial recognition, are becoming more commonplace, a development which garners ethical and privacy-related concerns and has prompted the European Commission to develop the proposed AI Act of 2021. This study investigates whether current legislation, including the proposed AI Act, is enough to properly regulate the use of facial recognition systems in public spaces in the European Union. To this purpose, we outline the current status of EU legislation regarding these systems, examine several case studies of real-world use of such systems and the response thereto, and identify overarching ethical and legal issues that arise from these case studies. We find that currently, the ambiguous phrasing in the proposed legislation, combined with lack of enforcement of the need for consent, means that legislation is not sufficient to regulate the use of facial recognition in public spaces in the European Union. Therefore, based on the observations from the case studies, we make several recommendations that, when followed, encourage the use of facial recognition systems in public spaces in an ethical, legal and responsible way.
Article
Full-text available
The watching eyes effect has gained significant attention in recent years both from scientists and from policy makers and professionals in the field. The phenomenon posits that the mere presence of eye cues can promote prosocial behavior. However, there is a growing debate about the generality of the effect across various measures and contexts. This review seeks to combine various distinct -and formerly isolated- perspectives by identifying four key components for effective interventions based on the watching eyes effect: Anonymity, crowdedness, costs, and exposure. Eye cues need to reduce perceived anonymity, be placed in non-crowded places, target low-cost prosocial acts and appear for a short amount of time. Next to these conditions, we discuss implications for other cues to reputation and recommend directions that will stimulate further research and applications in society.
Article
The prevalence of eCCI (electronic customer-to-customer interaction) is rapidly growing as customers increasingly employ online tools to reach fellow customers and voice their opinions, especially after service failures. Adopting a quasi-experimental design, this research examines the impact of eCCI on restaurant customers, considering their need for approval. A total of 201 responses were obtained for the main experiment (Study 1). Results indicated that people with a lower need for approval reported greater social media engagement, customer-customer interaction justice, and empathy quality in the condition of positive eCCI. People with a higher need for approval exhibited similar responses on all dependent variables, regardless of the eCCI condition. The results remained stable across different restaurants’ response strategies (Study 2). This paper examines the novel eCCI phenomenon and adds a new twist to the literature on CCI and customer reviews. It further offers valuable guidelines for managerial involvement in digital customer service encounters.
Article
The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine whether specific personality traits differentially predict willingness to engage in altruistic prosocial behavior in the presence or absence of an effort cost. The study focused on narcissism, empathy, and self-sacrificing tendencies. Effortless prosocial behavior was measured using the Dictator Game, and effortful prosocial behavior was measured using the ‘pay-it-forward’ Effort Expenditure for Rewards Task (EEfRT). Narcissism was not associated with either effortful or effortless prosocial behavior. Empathy and self-sacrificing behavior influenced prosocial behavior differently depending on effort demands. High self-sacrificing tendencies predicted greater effortless prosocial behavior but less effortful prosocial behavior for an unknown recipient. In contrast, empathy was associated with increased effortful prosocial behavior.
Chapter
Socially situated thought and behaviour are pervasive and vitally important in human society. The social brain has become a focus of study for researchers in the neurosciences, psychology, biology and other areas of behavioural science, and it is becoming increasingly clear that social behaviour is heavily dependent on shared representations. Any social activity, from a simple conversation to a well-drilled military exercise to an exquisitely perfected dance routine, involves information sharing between the brains of those involved. This volume comprises a collection of cutting-edge essays centred on the idea of shared representations, broadly defined. Featuring contributions from established world leaders in their fields and written in a simultaneously accessible and detailed style, this is an invaluable resource for established researchers and those who are new to the field.
Chapter
Nightlife areas aim to offer a hospitable environment for a public that is looking for entertainment but also produces nuisance. A recent paradigm shift focuses on changing public behavior rather than policing. This chapter describes two case studies from the Netherlands. The observations showed that at night the nightlife areas become an unofficial ‘festival zone' with large groups of tobacco smokers on the streets. Noise from these smokers (and friends) was identified as a major problem. Based on the lessons learned, a behavioral intervention approach is proposed that relies on multi-stakeholder participation and combines technology and choice architecture. The use of technology is relevant in several steps of the approach, and can be useful in facilitating behavior, reducing the impact of disruptive behavior, and monitoring the effectiveness of interventions. However, the Amsterdam case study also suggests that technology should rather be a small component of a broader positive behavioral and multi-stakeholder approach.
Book
Full-text available
This book investigates urban nightlife transformations and the challenge of enhancing the sense of belonging in sensitive areas like local communities and historical sites and offers new insights into controlling the chaotic intervention of traditional or digital technology, whether from citizens themselves or local authorities"-Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020055424 (print) | LCCN 2020055425 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799870043 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799870050 (paperback) | ISBN 9781799870067 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Public spaces. | Nightlife. | Technology-Social aspects. Classification: LCC NA9053.S6 T73 2021 (print) | LCC NA9053.S6 (ebook) | DDC 725-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020055424 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020055425
Article
Full-text available
The cause(s) of reduced use of force and complaints following police body-worn camera (BWC) deployment remain unclear, though some argue that BWCs generate a civilizing effect on citizen behavior. This potential effect rests on four pre-conditions: (1) BWC presence and citizen awareness; (2) BWC activation; (3) Escalated citizen behavior or the potential for escalation; (4) Citizen mental capacity for BWC awareness. Prior research has not established the civilizing effect’s existence, or how often these pre-conditions are met; this study aims to fill that gap. Data was collected during systematic social observation (SSO) of 166 encounters between citizens and officers in the Tempe, Arizona Police Department. The results tell a simple story. Two pre-conditions (activation, citizen mental capacity) are consistently met; awareness and escalated behavior are not. Overall, 1.2% of encounters saw all pre-conditions met. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for research on BWCs.
Article
Full-text available
When laboratory studies lose touch with real world context, they may generate fundamental misunderstandings of the principles of human cognition, behaviour, and associated brain processes. This article describes how this can occur, and proposes an alternative research approach-cognitive ethology-that enables researchers to link cognitions and behaviours as they operate in everyday life, with those studied in controlled, lab-based investigations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
Previous research in consumer behavior and decision-making has explored many important aspects of social observation. However, the effect of social observation during the specific time wherein consumers construct their preferences remains relatively understudied. The present work seeks to fill this knowledge gap and adds to this literature by studying how consumers react to being observed during the preference-construction stage (i.e., prior to reaching their decision). While existing research on social observation focuses on accountability and self-presentation concerns, the present study uncovers an additional unique concern. Specifically, eight studies (three additional studies reported in the web appendix) find that being observed prior to reaching the decision threatens consumers’ sense of autonomy in making the decision, resulting in an aversion to being observed. Furthermore, we find that such threats lead consumers to terminate their decision by avoiding purchase or by choosing default options. Given the extent to which consumers are observed in the marketplace by other individuals and by online platforms, and given the rise in consumers’ privacy concerns associated with such practices, understanding consumer reactions to being observed in the pre-decisional stage is an important topic with practical implications.
Article
Full-text available
Human behavior during earthquakes and post-earthquake evacuation is crucial to earthquake safety. Understanding decision-making processes may explain why people respond in different ways to earthquakes. This information can assist with the development of earthquake evacuation guidelines and practices. Verbal Protocol Analysis (VPA) can be used to investigate decision-making processes. VPA encourages participants to think aloud while they are executing tasks. However, it is difficult to obtain such data during actual earthquakes or traditional evacuation drills. Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) is an innovative tool that can be applied to investigate human behavior under extreme conditions such as earthquakes. In this study, we used a head-mounted display (HMD)-based IVR for investigating decision-making processes during an earthquake emergency based in Auckland City Hospital. A total of 83 hospital staff and visitors completed the experiment. VPA was carried out along with the IVR. The responses of VPA were analyzed to identify decision-making themes. Results show that participants tended to be influenced by other people, especially those in authority positions, and wanted to accompany other people while evacuating. Participants were also found to have wait-or-flight responses in post-earthquake evacuation. Implications for current earthquake evacuation guidelines and practice are provided based on the results.
Article
Full-text available
S’appuyant sur la théorie de l’autodétermination, deux études expérimentales ont été conçues pour tester l’influence du climat social sur l’auto-efficacité du leadership et les comportements de leadership transformationnels chez des échantillons indépendants d’étudiants universitaires. Dans les deux études, les participants ont été répartis de façon aléatoire dans l’une des trois conditions suivantes : soutien des besoins de base (BNS), contrôle du comportement (BC) ou contrôle psychologique (PC). L’auto-efficacité du leadership intérimaire des participants, leur potentiel de leadership transformationnel, la satisfaction du groupe et le rendement du groupe ont ensuite été évalués. L’étude 1 (n = 199) et l’étude 2 (n = 176) ont montré que le climat associé au BNS prédisait un effet significatif sur le potentiel de leadership transformationnel, mais contrairement à nos hypothèses, n’a pas eu d’effet sur l’auto-efficacité du leadership. De plus, les trois climats sociaux n’ont pas révélé d’effet significatif sur la satisfaction ou le rendement du groupe. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats portent sur le rôle bénéfique d’un climat associé au BNS dans le développement du leadership chez les jeunes adultes.
Article
Full-text available
The shooter bias effect reveals that individuals are quicker to “shoot” armed Black (vs. White) men and slower to “not shoot” unarmed Black (vs. White) men in a computer task. In three studies (N = 386), we examined whether being observed would reduce this effect because of social desirability concerns. Participants completed a “shooting” task with or without a camera/live observer supposedly recording behavior. Cameras were strapped to participants’ heads (Studies 1a/1b) and pointed at them (Study 1b). In Study 2, a researcher observed participants complete the task while “filming” them with a smartphone. We replicated the shooter bias, but observation only reduced the effect in Study 2. These results reveal that being observed can reduce the shooter bias effect.
Article
People often behave differently when they know they are being watched. Here, we report the first investigation of whether such social presence effects also include brain monitoring technology, and also their impacts on the measured neural activity. We demonstrate that merely informing participants that fMRI has the potential to observe (thought-related) brain activity is sufficient to trigger changes in functional connectivity within and between relevant brain networks that have been previously associated selectively with executive and attentional control as well as self-relevant processing, social cognition, and theory of mind. These results demonstrate that an implied social presence, mediated here by recording brain activity with fMRI, can alter brain functional connectivity. These data provide a new manipulation of social attention, as well as shining light on a methodological hazard for researchers using equipment to monitor brain activity.
Article
The watchful eye of others often leads people to alter their behaviour. Eye tracking methodology has been used to create implied social presence, as well as to examine gaze patterns to erotic stimuli, but the effects of implied social presence on visual attention to erotic and neutral stimuli remains largely unknown. In the present study, we examined precisely this issue. We compared looking behaviour of men and women who were either aware that their gaze patterns were being monitored (implied social presence) and those who lacked this knowledge (no implied presence). Women in the aware condition made significantly fewer fixations than men, whereas no such gender differences were found in the unaware condition. Across both conditions, men made significantly more fixations to the erotic stimuli compared to the neutral stimuli and the background. For women, no significant differences were found in the number of fixations to the erotic stimuli and the background, although women look at these areas more than the neutral stimuli. These results demonstrate that eye tracking creates an implied social presence, and this differentially affects the looking behaviour of women versus men. Moreover, gendered sexual norms coupled with the need to manage self-presentation may influence women’s sexual urges and expressions. The inhibition of sexuality displayed by women indicates that sexual double standards still exist in society and need to be addressed. As well, theoretical, methodological, and clinical implications of eye tracking methodology should be taken into consideration in future research.
Article
This study examines the impact of religiosity and clawback on corporate reporting behavior. Previous research indicates that the supervision and punishment aspects of God, and secular authorities are able to improve prosocial actions. This present study examines whether clawback that has a punishment feature moderates the effect of religiosity on the intention to manipulate earnings. This study uses an experimental method with 266 participants who are personnel from finance departments. Our results suggest that the main effect of religiosity has no significant effect on the reduction of accruals manipulation. However, the interaction of religiosity and clawback has a significant effect. Although we find that clawback strengthens the negative influence of religiosity on accrual manipulation, we find that it strengthens the positive influence of religiosity on manipulation of real activity. © 2019
Article
Full-text available
Are happy people more likely to be cooperative and successful negotiators? On the basis of the Affect Infusion Model (AIM; Forgas, 1995a), Experiment 1 predicted and found that both good and bad moods had a significant mood-congruent effect on people's thoughts and plans, and on their negotiation strategies and outcomes in both interpersonal and intergroup bargaining. Experiment 2 replicated these results and also showed that mood effects were reduced for persons more likely to adopt motivated processing strategies (scoring high on machiavellianism and need for approval). Experiment 3 confirmed these effects and demonstrated that the mood of the opposition also produced more mood-congruent bargaining strategies and outcomes. The results are discussed in terms of affect priming influences on interpersonal behaviors, and the implications of these findings for real-life cognitive tasks and bargaining encounters are considered.
Article
Full-text available
Charitable organizations play a vital role in our society, as is evidenced by their enormous economic and social impact. Yet, for many of them, soliciting adequate resources to carry out their mandates is a continuing struggle. Confronted with a growing need for their services, fierce competition from other charities, and shrinking support from government agencies, charities may turn to marketers for help in developing effective promotional strategies. Unfortunately, marketing literature is unable to provide meaningful guidance because scant research attention has hampered a fuller understanding of why people help. The authors integrate relevant research in marketing, economics, sociology, and social psychology to advance theoretical understanding of helping behavior. They develop research propositions regarding specific promotional strategies that charitable organizations can employ to elicit help.
Article
Full-text available
Impression management, the process by which people control the impressions others form of them, plays an important role in interpersonal behavior. This article presents a 2-component model within which the literature regarding impression management is reviewed. This model conceptualizes impression management as being composed of 2 discrete processes. The 1st involves impression motivation—the degree to which people are motivated to control how others see them. Impression motivation is conceptualized as a function of 3 factors: the goal-relevance of the impressions one creates, the value of desired outcomes, and the discrepancy between current and desired images. The 2nd component involves impression construction. Five factors appear to determine the kinds of impressions people try to construct: the self-concept, desired and undesired identity images, role constraints, target's values, and current social image. The 2-component model provides coherence to the literature in the area, addresses controversial issues, and supplies a framework for future research regarding impression management.
Article
Full-text available
Objective self-awareness theory has undergone fundamental changes in the 3 decades since Duval and Wicklund's (1972) original formulation. We review new evidence that bears on the basic tenets of the theory. Many of the assumptions of self-awareness theory require revision, particularly how expectancies influence approach and avoid - ance of self-standard discrepancies; the nature of standards, especially when they are changed; and the role of causal attribution in directing discrepancy reduction. How - ever, several unresolved conceptual issues remain; future theoretical and empirical directions are discussed. The human dilemma is that which arises out of a man's capacity to experience himself as both subject and ob- ject at the same time. Both are necessary—for the sci- ence of psychology, for therapy, and for gratifying liv- ing. (May, 1967, p. 8)
Article
Full-text available
Several studies indicate that mood can influence the likelihood of an individual demonstrating instances of helping behavior, and one previous laboratory study has indicated that music can be used to bring about manipulations of mood to such an end. To investigate this in a naturalistic setting, 646 users of a university gym were played either uplifting or annoying music while theyworked out. Upon completion of theirworkout, they were asked to either sign a petition in support of a fictitious sporting charity (i.e., a low-cost task) or to distribute leaflets on their behalf (i.e., a high-cost task). Responses to the petition-signing measure indicated a ceiling effect with almost all participants offering to help. However, consistent with previous research on mood and helping behavior, uplifting music led to participants offering to help more on the high-cost, leaflet-distributing task than did annoying music.
Article
Full-text available
The effect of lighting level and room decor on interpersonal communication was investigated. Arousal and comfort models were invoked to generate hypotheses that (a) brighter lighting would stimulate more general communication, (b) lower lighting levels would encourage more intimate communication, (c) over time, lower light levels would dampen both general and intimate communication, and (d) home-like decor would encourage more general and more intimate communication. In a 2 × 2 between-subjects design, pairs of female friends wrote two letters to one another in bright vs. soft lighting and office-like vs. home-like decor. All the hypotheses were confirmed, except that brighter light encouraged more rather than less intimate communication.
Article
Full-text available
In three experiments, respondents’ behavior conformed to the dictates of a relevant norm (the norm against littering) only under conditions of normative focus. This relationship held true across three types of procedures for producing normative focus (physiological arousal, modeling, and self-directed attention), across two types of settings (public and private), and across two types of norms (social and personal). Moreover, factors that would be expected to affect normative action were influential only when the norm was focal. These factors included the degree to which the action violated the relevant norm (Study 2) and the degree to which an individual subscribed to that norm (Study 3). Implications are discussed for developing campaigns to encourage prosocial behavior.
Article
Full-text available
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Gathers evidence from biology and psychology bearing on the issue of whether altruism is part of human nature. The traditional views of both evolutionary biology and psychology left little room for altruism. Current variants of the Darwinian model—group selection, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, and inclusive fitness—point to the acquisition of altruistic as well as egoistic structures in humans. Psychological research is also compatible with this view. There may be a general human tendency to help others in distress that has properties analogous to egoistic motivation and yet comes into play independently of egoistic motivation. The theory of inclusive fitness also requires that mediators of altruistic action be selected (rather than altruistic action itself), because this would provide the necessary flexibility. Evidence is presented suggesting that empathy may fit the evolutionary requirements of such a mediator: It is reliably aroused in humans in response to misfortune in others, it predisposes the individual toward helping action and yet is amenable to perceptual and cognitive control, and it appears to have a neural base that may have been present early in human evolution. (80 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Techniques borrowed from sensory psychophysics were used in 2 studies examining nervousness and tension associated with the anticipation of performing in front of an audience. In Study 1 (60 undergraduates), a laboratory experiment, performance apprehension increased as a multiplicative power function of audience size and status but decreased as a power function of the number of performers. In Study 2, a correlational field study, performers in a university Greek Week talent show who appeared as members of large acts reported less nervousness and tension than performers who appeared in small acts, and again, an inverse power function provided a good fit to the data. Results support the combination of B. Latané's (in press) theory of social impact and A. Modigliani's (1968, 1971) theory of embarrassment. Implications for social facilitation and affiliation theories and for performers are discussed. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Notes that self-awareness theory has generated a considerable amount of research activity; however, the most widely used manipulation of self-focus—the mirror—has not been satisfactorily validated. Exp I was an attempt to do so. At the same time an attempt was made to validate the Self-Consciousness Scale (SCS), an instrument designed to measure chronic dispositions to be self-attentive. 79 female undergraduates responded to a sentence completion blank either in an empty room or while facing a mirror. Results indicate that the mirror does manipulate, and the private subscale of the SCS does measure, self-attention. Exp II, with 81 female undergraduates, was a replication of the 1st study, but using an audience instead of a mirror. Results indicate that audience presence also heightens self-attention. Implications for attentional analyses of social behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Self-presentation is the use of behavior to communicate some information about oneself to others. The 2 main self-presentational motives are to please the audience and to construct (create, maintain, and modify) one's public self congruent to one's ideal. It is proposed that a wide range of social behavior is determined or influenced by these self-presentational concerns. Research evidence is examined to show the relevance of the self-presentational motives to giving and receiving help, conformity, reactance, attitude expression and change, responses to evaluations, aggressive behavior, self-serving and counter-defensive attributional statements, task performance, ingratiation, and emotion. (149 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Positive mood at work (as an affective state) was hypothesized to be significantly and positively associated with the performance of both extrarole and role-prescribed prosocial organizational behaviors. Moreover, positive mood was hypothesized to have effects on prosocial behavior above and beyond the effects of fairness cognitions. Conversely, positive mood as a trait (i.e., positive affectivity) was expected to be unrelated to either form of prosocial behavior. Finally, the form of role-prescribed prosocial behavior investigated, customer-service behavior or helpful behavior directed at customers, was hypothesized to be positively associated with sales performance. These hypotheses were tested with a sample of 221 salespeople. All of the hypotheses were supported. Implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Proposes a theory of social impact specifying the effect of other persons on an individual. According to the theory, when other people are the source of impact and the individual is the target, impact should be a multiplicative function of the strength, immediacy, and number of other people. Furthermore, impact should take the form of a power function, with the marginal effect of the Nth other person being less than that of the ( N–2)th. When other people stand with the individual as the target of forces from outside the group, impact should be divided such that the resultant is an inverse power function of the strength, immediacy, and number of persons standing together. The author reviews relevant evidence from research on conformity and imitation, stage fright and embarrassment, news interest, bystander intervention, tipping, inquiring for Christ, productivity in groups, and crowding in rats. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Sociability, measured as amount of participation in a peer-group conversation, was examined as a function of traits (Personality Research Form), social context, and physical setting. Same-sex quartets of 84 13–17 yr old students discussed a topic selected by an outsider and a topic of the group's own choice. Amount of participation was expected to vary with personality (affiliation, defendence, and dominance), social context (level of acquaintance and friendship in the group), physical setting (seating arrangement), and interactions among these. Ss' participation rate was significantly related to affiliation, level of friendship, a person × setting interaction (seating arrangement × defendence) and a person × person interaction (affiliation × defendence). These relationships are discussed as they relate to a model of sociability and as they bear on the person × situation issue. Results demonstrate that sociability is a function of dispositions brought to a setting by an individual, the social context of that setting, and the physical arrangement of the setting. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Two experiments using female subjects investigated the effects of mood and self-focused attention on the willingness to help another. Experiment 1 induced a positive, negative, or neutral mood and also two kinds of high self-awareness (by either the mirror procedure or requiring essays) as well as a low self-awareness condition. Experiment 2 used a different technique to induce the three moods and also established either high or low attention to the self with the mirror procedure. In both studies, self-awareness did not interact significantly with mood in affecting the subjects' reported feelings, although there were indications in Experiment 2 of an intensification of the negative mood under self-focus. Furthermore, in both studies self-awareness operated together with the positive mood to increase the subjects' effort in behalf of the supplicant, whereas the joint operation of self-focus and negative mood was much weaker. Also in the second experiment, self-awareness raised the frequency of positive ideas about the self in the happy subjects and increased the frequency of negative self-ideas in the negative mood group. In a multiple regression analysis, these frequencies of positive and negative ideas about the self, but not a mood index, successfully predicted the amount of work the subject did for the supplicant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Based on a theory of objective self awareness three experiments were conducted with undergraduates to test the hypothesis that self-focused attention can alter self esteem levels. In Experiments I and II subjects were exposed either to the sound of their own voices or to the sound of another's voice, and while listening to the tape-recording they filled out a self esteem measure. Consistent with the theory, subjects whose attention was focused upon themselves by means of exposure to their own tape-recorded voices showed lower self esteem than subjects who heard another's voice. The impact of the self awareness manipulation on self esteem was greatest when it was first introduced. In Experiment III the variable of positive-negative feedback on a fictitious personality trait was added to the self-focused attention variable. An interaction resulted such that self-focused attention lowered self esteem given negative feedback, while there was a tendency toward the opposite result given positive feedback.
Article
Full-text available
In recent years, abundant evidence from behavioral and cognitive studies and functional-imaging experiments has indicated that individuals come to understand the emotional and affective states expressed by others with the help of the neural architecture that produces such states in themselves. Such a mechanism gives rise to shared representations, which constitutes one important aspect of empathy, although not the sole one. We. suggest that other components, including people's ability to monitor and regulate cognitive and emotional processes to prevent confusion between self and other, are equally necessary parts of a functional model of empathy. We discuss data from recent functional-imaging studies in support of such a model and highlight the role of specific brain regions, notably the insula, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the right temporo-parietal region. Because this model assumes that empathy relies on dissociable information-processing mechanisms, it predicts a variety of structural or functional dysfunctions, depending on which mechanism is disrupted.
Article
Full-text available
Service encounters often occur in the presence of multiple customers who share the servicescape with each another. This study was conducted to ascertain the positive and/or negative effects that other customers may have upon one's service experience. Using the critical incident technique, data were gathered from 486 customers regarding satisfying or dissatisfying episodes with service organizations that were the result of other customer's presence. Analysis of the data revealed specific categories of other customers' influence, which are described and examined across various respondent characteristics. Implications for those who manage organizations that provide service to multiple customers simultaneously are posited.
Article
Full-text available
This paper explores how people behave when CCTV cameras operate in public space. We examine how behavioral patterns change over time, and assess the short-term influence of CCTV on behavior in public space. Using videotape footage of four CCTV sites, we document pro-social, anti-social, traffic and guardianship behaviors over a four-month study period. Our study of CCTV in Cincinnati found that surveillance cameras create somewhat of an initial deterrent effect in the month, perhaps two months, following implementation. We conclude that erecting signs to notify people about the cameras could possibly increase the level of deterrence of CCTV. Signs about CCTV cameras in operation would also address some of the fairness issues raised by civil libertarians. We also suggest that shifting CCTV cameras around on a frequent basis could solve two dilemmas: first, it would increase the number of hotspots under surveillance, and hence remove some of the inequities observed in CCTV deployment; second, short and periodic, as opposed to permanent, deployment of CCTV cameras would capitalize upon some of the initial deterrent effects of the cameras that are observed in our data. Yes Yes
Article
Full-text available
Two field studies investigate the importance of social presence (real and imagined) and familiarity with the purchase act in producing embarrassment in the context of an embarrassing product purchase. The results indicate that awareness of a social presence during purchase selection and commitment, whether real or imagined, is a motivating factor in creating embarrassment for the consumer. Further, our results show that the more familiar consumers are with an embarrassing product purchase, the less embarrassed they are likely to feel. Familiarity with an embarrassing product purchase is also shown to have implications for the effect of social presence. That is, familiarity with purchase acts as a moderator for the relationship of real social presence and embarrassment by reducing the influence of the social presence. In the context of an imagined social presence, purchase familiarity is shown to reduce the likelihood of imagining. These findings are integrated into a discussion of the theoretical implications and the potential avenues for future research in the area. Copyright 2001 by the University of Chicago.
Article
Full-text available
While the majority of consumer research that has studied social influences has focused on the impact of an interactive social presence, in this research we demonstrate that a noninteractive social presence (i.e., a mere presence) is also influential. We conduct two field experiments in a retail setting to show when and how a noninteractive social presence that differs in size and proximity impacts consumers' emotions and self-presentation behaviors. In doing so, we refine Social Impact Theory by identifying boundary conditions under which the theory does not hold. (c) 2005 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Article
Full-text available
The psychophysiological responses of 60 subjects were measured as they observed a performer play a roulette game. Half of the subjects were led to believe that they were similar to the performer in personality and values, and half were led to believe that they were dissimilar. Half of the subjects in each condition believed that the performer won money and experienced pain as he played the game, and half believed that he performed a cognitive and motor skill task. Subjects who observed a performer who ostensibly experienced pleasure and pain exhibited greater psychophysiological reactions than subjects who did not. Subjects who believed they were similar to the performer tended to react more strongly than subjects who believed they were different from him. Similar subjects also reported identifying most with the performer and feeling the worst while he waited to receive shocks. It was concluded that the similar subjects empathized most with the performer who appeared to experience pleasure and pain. When required to make a choice between helping themselves at a cost to the performer or helping the performer at a cost to themselves, the subjects who reacted most empathically behaved most altruistically. The results were interpreted as casting some light on century-old questions about the human capacity for altruism.
Article
Full-text available
Working largely independently, numerous investigators have explored the role of self-focused attention in various clinical disorders. This article reviews research examining increased self-focused attention in these disorders. Results indicate that regardless of the particular disorder under investigation, a heightened degree of self-focused attention is found. Hence, as ordinarily conceptualized, self-focused attention has little discriminatory power among different psychological disorders. Using information processing constructs, a somewhat different model of self-focused attention is proposed, and it is suggested that certain deviations in this process constitute a psychopathological kind of attention. A meta-construct model of descriptive psychopathology is then outlined to examine how certain aspects of attention can be considered specific to certain disorders and others common to different disorders.
Article
Full-text available
Observed in 2 initial studies was converging evidence that helping improves the helpers' moods and self-evaluations. In these studies Ss induced to help showed improved moods and self-evaluations relative to Ss not given an opportunity to help. A 3rd study examined the moderating effects of desired relationship type on reactions to having helped. In this study Ss were led to desire either a communal or an exchange relationship with another. They then helped the other or were not allowed to help. Among Ss led to desire a communal relationship, but not among those led to desire an exchange relationship, helping was associated with greater improvements in moods than not helping. Helping tended to improve self-evaluations regardless of desired relationship type. However, this effect reached statistical significance only among subjects led to desire a communal relationship.
Article
Full-text available
Past research has shown rather consistently that positive mood states lead to increased helpfulness. In an expanded analysis of the published literature, we examined six distinct views about this relation: the focus of attention, objective self-awareness, separate process, social outlook, mood maintenance, and concomitance hypotheses. For each of 61 positive affect conditions in which it was possible to generate an effect-size estimate corresponding to the relative degree of helpfulness exhibited by positive mood subjects (compared with neutral affect subjects), judges assessed the contextual levels of variables relevant to each of the six hypotheses by reading the Method section of each article. Higher-order partial correlation coefficients were then calculated to isolate the independent contribution of each of the theoretically relevant variables to the variation among the 61 effect sizes. The results support the focus of attention, separate process, social outlook, and mood maintenance hypotheses, and partially support the objective self-awareness and concomitance hypotheses.
Article
Full-text available
Hebb's critique of Krebs' review of infrahuman research on altruism is examined. It is suggested that although there is a good deal of descriptive evidence for helping behavior in infrahumans, experimental support for the assumption that the helping responses were based on altruistic motivation is lacking. It is concluded that evidence from human research on empathy has gone furthest to explain altruism.
Article
Full-text available
In 2 diary studies of lying, 77 college students reported telling 2 lies a day, and 70 community members told 1. Participants told more self-centered lies than other-oriented lies, except in dyads involving only women, in which other-oriented lies were as common as self-centered ones. Participants told relatively more self-centered lies to men and relatively more other-oriented lies to women. Consistent with the view of lying as an everyday social interaction process, participants said that they did not regard their lies as serious and did not plan them much or worry about being caught. Still, social interactions in which lies were told were less pleasant and less intimate than those in which no lies were told.
Article
Full-text available
To summarize briefly, key general points in this presentation include the following: To promote wellness, healthcare facilities should be designed to support patients in coping with stress. As general compass points for designers, scientific research suggests that healthcare environments will support coping with stress and promote wellness if they are designed to foster: 1. Sense of control; 2. Access to social support; 3. Access to positive distractions, and lack of exposure to negative distractions; A growing amount of scientific evidence suggests that nature elements or views can be effective as stress-reducing, positive distractions that promote wellness in healthcare environments. In considering the needs of different types of users of healthcare facilities--patients, visitors, staff--it should be kept in mind that these groups sometimes have conflicting needs or orientations with respect to control, social support, and positive distractions. It is important for designers to recognize such differing orientations as potential sources of conflict and stress in health facilities (Schumaker and Pequegnat, 1989). For instance, a receptionist in a waiting area may understandably wish to control the programs on a television that he or she is continuously exposed to; however, patients in the waiting area may experience some stress if they cannot select the programs or elect to turn off the television. Some staff may prefer bright, arousing art for corridors and patient rooms where they spend much of their time; however, for many patients, such art may increase rather than reduce stress. A difficult but important challenge for designers is to be sensitive to such group differences in orientations, and try to assess the gains or losses for one group vis-a-vis the other in attempting to achieve the goal of psychologically supportive design. Designers should also consider programs or strategies that combine or mesh different stress-reducing components. For example, it seems possible that a program enabling patients to select at least some of their wall art or pictures would foster both control and access to positive distraction. As another example, the theory outlined in this paper suggests that an "artist-in-residence" program, wherein an artist with a caring, supportive disposition would work with patients, might foster social support in addition to control and access to positive distraction. Running through this presentation is the conviction that scientific research can be useful in informing the intuition, sensitivity, and creativity of designers, and thereby can help to create psychologically supportive healthcare environments.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Article
Full-text available
Are happy people more likely to be cooperative and successful negotiators? On the basis of the Affect Infusion Model (AIM; Forgas, 1995a). Experiment 1 predicted and found that both good and bad moods had a significant mood-congruent effect on people's thoughts and plans, and on their negotiation strategies and outcomes in both interpersonal and intergroup bargaining. Experiment 2 replicated these results and also showed that mood effects were reduced for persons more likely to adopt motivated processing strategies (scoring high on machiavellianism and need for approval). Experiment 3 confirmed these effects and demonstrated that the mood of the opposition also produced more mood-congruent bargaining strategies and outcomes. The results are discussed in terms of affect priming influences on interpersonal behaviors, and the implications of these findings for real-life cognitive tasks and bargaining encounters are considered.
Article
Full-text available
This meta-analysis synthesized 226 effect sizes reflecting the relation between self-focused attention and negative affect (depression, anxiety, negative mood). The results demonstrate the multifaceted nature of self-focused attention and elucidate major controversies in the field. Overall, self-focus was associated with negative affect. Several moderators qualified this relationship. Self-focus and negative affect were more strongly related in clinical and female-dominated samples. Rumination yielded stronger effect sizes than nonruminative self-focus. Self-focus on positive self-aspects and following a positive event were related to lower negative affect. Most important, an interaction between foci of self-attention and form of negative affect was found: Private self-focus was more strongly associated with depression and generalized anxiety, whereas public self-focus was more strongly associated with social anxiety.
Article
Full-text available
On the basis of the idea that situational norms are mentally represented as associations between environments and normative behavior, it was proposed that an environment can automatically direct normative behavior. More specifically, when situational norms are well-established (e.g., when entering the library, one should be silent), an environment is capable of automatically activating mental representations of normative behavior and the behavior itself. In these experiments, participants were exposed to pictures of environments, and effects on accessibility of representations of normative behavior and on actual behavior were assessed. Results indicated that representations of behavior and actual behavior itself are activated automatically when (a) goals to visit the environment are active and (b) strong associations between environment and normative behavior are established.
Article
Full-text available
A new social desirability scale was constructed and correlated with MMPI scales. Comparison was made with correlations of the Edwards Social Desirability scale. The new scale correlated highly with MMPI scales and supported the definition of social desirability. Ss need to respond in "culturally sanctioned ways."
Article
Impression management, the process by which people control the impressions others form of them, plays an important role in interpersonal behavior. This article presents a 2-component model within which the literature regarding impression management is reviewed. This model conceptualizes impression management as being composed of 2 discrete processes. The 1st involves impression motivation-the degree to which people are motivated to control how others see them. Impression motivation is conceptualized as a function of 3 factors: the goal-relevance of the impressions one creates, the value of desired outcomes, and the discrepancy between current and desired images. The 2nd component involves impression construction. Five factors appear to determine the kinds of impressions people try to construct: the self-concept, desired and undesired identity images, role constraints, target's values, and current social image. The 2-component model provides coherence to the literature in the area, addresses controversial issues, and supplies a framework for future research regarding impression management.
Article
A solution is suggested for an old unresolved social psychological problem.
Article
Hypotheses derived from a self-presentation analysis of the increments in helping following transgression were examined. Subjects (N = 63) present when a confederate spilled a box of computer cards were asked to volunteer to assist in an unrelated experiment. Prior to the solicitation of help, confederates either did nor did not confess to having spilled the cards. Help was solicited under either public or anonymous conditions. The prediction that subjects would be more willing to help under public than anonymous conditions was supported. Subjects under public conditions were more willing to help when confederates had confessed. The prediction that the mere occurrence of the accident would increase helping was not supported. Results are consistent with the self-presentation analysis but call into question the reliability of the transgression-compliance relationship.
Article
Research in social psychology suggests that motives such as self-bolstering and impression management can lead people to engage in deliberate misrepresentationsduring interpersonal communications. This articleextends our understandingof such behaviorto a new domain;that of consumer communications. Drawing on research on lying behavior and symbolic consumption,we suggest that misrepresentationabout productsand possessionsis particularly likely to occurwhen these productsor possessionsare used to create a positiveself-imagein the contextof socialinteraction. Experiments 1 and 2 simulatea social interactionwherein misrep-resentation about the purchase price of a product helps participants to manage impressions. A third experiment extends these findings by testing for wealth-related misrepresentation in the context of an interaction wherein participantsactually communicate their family's wealth to a recipient. Consistentwith predictionsderivedfrom existingresearchon symbolicconsumption, all 3 experimentsprovidesupportfor the criticalimportanceof recipientstatuson the likelihood of misrepresentation. The first 2 experimentsadditionallyexamine the role of individualdiffer-ences and brand differences. Results on these dimensionsare also supportiveof our underlying theoretical premise regarding the antecedents of lying behavior.
Article
This article reports on the findings of a systematic review--incorporating meta-analytic techniques--of the available research evidence on the effects of closed-circuit television (CCTV) on crime in public space. A number of targeted and comprehensive searches of the published and unpublished literature and contacts with leading researchers produced twenty-two CCTV evaluations that met our criteria for inclusion in this review. CCTV had a significant desirable effect on crime, although the overall reduction in crime was a rather small 4 percent. All nine studies showing evidence of a desirable effect of CCTV on crime were carried out in the United Kingdom. Conversely, the other nine studies showing no evidence of any desirable effect of CCTV on crime included all five North American studies. CCTV was most effective in reducing crime in car parks. It had no effect on violent crimes but had a significant desirable effect on vehicle crimes.
Article
This paper discusses mediation of the crowding experience in architectural interiors by three environmental variables: setting orientation, room color, and visual complexity of the interior. Subjects' perceptions of space available and thresholds of crowding were assessed by the placement of miniature figures in model rooms and room ratings along several dimensions. Data presented indicated that perceptions of physical space available in the setting and crowding thresholds are effectively mediated by variations in interior design. While the actual amount of space was kept constant, subjects perceived dark rooms as smaller and crowded with fewer figures than corresponding light rooms. High visual complexity was found to interact with setting orientation and room color; nonsocial dark rooms were perceived as smaller than other high complexity interiors. The implications of these results for the design of interior spaces are discussed.
Article
Considers the conditions which cause the consciousness to focus on the self as an object. The theory that self-awareness has motivational properties deriving from social feedback is discussed and considered with relation to conformity, attitude-behavior discrepancies, and communication sets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
An experiment was conducted to examine the role played by social approval as an incentive for helping behavior. After filling out the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, 95 female undergraduates were asked to make donations to a research fund under either public or private conditions. The following predictions, derived from social learning theory, were supported: (a) more money is donated under public conditions than under private conditions (p < .01), (b) more money is donated by individuals high in need for approval than those low in need for approval (p < .05), and (c) the effect of need for approval on donating is greater under public conditions than under private conditions (p < .05).
Article
This study aimed to investigate effects of the interior design of a counseling room on participants' self-disclosure and impressions of a counselor. The authors examined the effects of lighting and decorations. It tested four conditions crossing decorations (with or without home-like decorations) and type of lighting (bright or dim). Eighty undergraduate students (clients) were randomly assigned to one of the conditions and individually underwent a structured interview with an interviewer (a counselor) and then completed a questionnaire. The results showed that dim lighting yielded more pleasant and relaxed feelings, more favorable impressions of the interviewer, and more self-disclosure than did the bright lighting. However, the authors found no predominant pattern of the decorations. Thus, the pleasant and relaxed feelings related to dim lighting may well enhance the perceived attractiveness of a counselor and self-disclosure from clients. The results imply that interior design could influence communication and other relationships in counseling rooms.
Article
It was shown that the reaction to success and failure differs when it is communicated publicly or privately and when the reaction to success and failure is measured publicly or privately. Participants took an intelligence test and received fictitious results which were positively or negatively discrepant from the average. The dependent variable was the evaluation of the intelligence test. It was found that when the subject's evaluation of the test was private, the test was evaluated more positively under public than under private success. However, it was evaluated more negatively under public than under private failure. Under public success feedback the test was evaluated more positively under private than under public evaluation, whereas under public failure feedback the effect was reversed. The results are interpreted in terms of a self-presentation model and were discussed in the context of earlier research within the field of interpersonal relations.
Article
Three experiments were designed to demonstrate that objective self-awareness, a state in which the individual evaluates himself and attempts to attain correctness and consistency in his beliefs and behaviors, can mediate both opinion change and performance facilitation. In Experiment I, objective self-awareness was increased for some Ss when they heard their own tape-recorded voices, and relative to an appropriate control condition, those Ss showed increased agreement with the modal opinion of a positive reference group. In Experiment II, the subjects engaged in counterattitudinal essay-writing, and some of them were exposed to an operating television camera while they wrote. It was found that opinion change in the direction of the counterattitudinal essays was greater among subjects who were exposed to the camera than among those who were not. Experiment III was an attempt to demonstrate that performance facilitation effects can be produced through self-evaluation. Approximately half of the Ss performed a routine task while facing a mirror, while the remaining Ss performed the same task with no mirror. It was argued theoretically that the mirror would effect self-evaluation with respect to performance rate, and consistent with this expectation, performance was better in the presence of a mirror.
Article
Presents a model of self-awareness that proposes the existence of three sources of self-information. (1) The social milieu includes self-relevant feedback, a social comparison mechanism leading to perspective-taking, and audiences. (2) The physical environment contains self-focusing and reflecting stimuli such as mirrors and video cameras. (3) The self can develop bodily awareness through proprioception and can reflect upon itself using imagery and inner speech. Furthermore, self-awareness is mainly mediated by the prefrontal lobes. Various links are established between these different neurological, social, and cognitive elements of the model.
Article
Perceived control is proposed to be a crucial variable in mediating the consumer's emotional and behavioral responses to the physical environment and the contact personnel that constitute the service encounter. Results of an experimental test of this proposition confirm the importance of perceived control in mediating the effects of two situational features of the encounter--consumer density (the number of consumers that are present in a service setting) and consumer choice (whether it is a person's own decision to enter into, and stay in, a service situation)--on the pleasantness of the service experience and the consumer's approach-avoidance responses to the service encounter. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.