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Cognitive Transformation Theory: Contrasting Cognitive and Behavioral Learning
Abstract
The traditional approach to learning is to define the objectives (the gap between the knowledge a person has and the knowledge the person needs to perform the task), establish the regimen for practice, and provide feedback. Learning procedures and factual data is seen as adding more information and skills to the person's storehouse of knowledge. However, this storehouse metaphor is poorly suited for cognitive skill, and does not address the differing learning needs of novices and experts. Teaching cognitive skills requires the diagnosis of the problem in terms of flaws in existing mental models, not gaps in knowledge. It requires learning objectives that are linked to the person's current mental models. It requires practice regimens that may have to result in "unlearning" that enables the person to abandon the current, flawed mental models. It requires feedback that promotes sensemaking. We propose a Cognitive Transformation Theory to guide the development of cognitive skills. Finally, we present several strategies that might be useful in overcoming barriers to understanding and to revising mental models. .
... During expertise development, humans establish 1 3 mental models which are initially very limited (e.g. Klein and Baxter 2009;Klein et al. 2006a, b). Repeated exposure to the task or situation allows humans to refine these mental models through experience (Anderson 2000;; Klein and Baxter 2009), relief working memory and increase human performance (Anderson 2000). ...
... Klein and Baxter 2009;Klein et al. 2006a, b). Repeated exposure to the task or situation allows humans to refine these mental models through experience (Anderson 2000;; Klein and Baxter 2009), relief working memory and increase human performance (Anderson 2000). Naturally, increasing occupational experience parallels with increasing age, giving rise to concerns about age-related cognitive decrements (Taylor et al. 2005) counteracting expertise benefits. ...
... Although not significant, our participant's reaction times decreased over time and with repeated exposure to automation failures. This suggests the presence of a trust calibration process according to the non-perfect capabilities of the speed control automation (McLeod et al. 2005) and a refinement of their mental representation of the capabilities of the automation, brought about by increasing experience with the automation Klein and Baxter 2009). We were therefore able to validate findings from other domains concerning negative effects of automation on performance (e.g. ...
Human failure performance of staff working in increasingly automated work environments, particularly control rooms, has been reported to deteriorate along with related constructs such as workload and fatigue once degrees of automation increased. At the same time, mediation effects of domain‐specific contextual factors were stressed, questioning the generalizability of the proposed automation effects onto domain‐specific applications. This thesis examined whether a specific contextual factor—monotony—mediated the proposed detrimental effects of degrees of automation on workload, fatigue, and human failure performance in domain‐specific railway automation, described by the taxonomy of grades of railway automation. Empirical evidence on workload, fatigue, and human failure performance, obtained in multiple laboratory studies with professional train drivers participating in simulated work at three different grades of railway automation, was presented. In line with the hypotheses, results showed detrimental effects of intermediate grades of railway automation in combination with increasing monotony on workload, fatigue, and human failure performance. Further results showed beneficial effects of the domain‐specific decrease in monotony on workload, fatigue, and human failure performance at high grades of railway automation featuring remote control and recovery of unattended railway operation. The presented results stress the impact of domain‐ specific contextual factors, such as monotony in railway automation, on automation effects. Task characteristics were shown to play a major role in shaping workload, fatigue, and human failure performance. The influence of contextual factors on the generalizability of established effects of degrees of automation on workload, fatigue and human failure performance is discussed.
... This analogy corresponds to the assessment of a situation and how crisis management personnel identify and define an unfolding crisis situation. This process relies on the personnel's cognitive skills to observe, understand, and assess the situation they face (Klein and Baxter 2009). Cognitive skills are dependent on mental models, which are the set of causal beliefs of how things fit together and are used to predict the effect of an action or decision (Klein and Baxter 2009). ...
... This process relies on the personnel's cognitive skills to observe, understand, and assess the situation they face (Klein and Baxter 2009). Cognitive skills are dependent on mental models, which are the set of causal beliefs of how things fit together and are used to predict the effect of an action or decision (Klein and Baxter 2009). Developing these cognitive skills is generally not a question about just acquiring more knowledge, but rather restructuring existing mental models (Klein and Baxter 2009). ...
... Cognitive skills are dependent on mental models, which are the set of causal beliefs of how things fit together and are used to predict the effect of an action or decision (Klein and Baxter 2009). Developing these cognitive skills is generally not a question about just acquiring more knowledge, but rather restructuring existing mental models (Klein and Baxter 2009). During restructuring, previous beliefs can be changed or rejected to better suit gained insights based on new experiences. ...
Resilience has in recent decades been introduced as a term describing a new perspective within the domains of disaster management and safety management. Several theoretical interpretations and definitions of the essence of resilience have been proposed, but less work has described how to operationalise resilience and implement the concept within organisations. This case study describes the implementation of a set of general resilience management guidelines for critical infrastructure within a Swedish Regional Medical Command and Control Team. The case study demonstrates how domain-independent guidelines can be contextualised and introduced at an operational level, through a comprehensive capability development programme. It also demonstrates how a set of conceptual and reflective tools consisting of educational, training and exercise sessions of increasing complexity and realism can be used to move from high-level guidelines to practice. The experience from the case study demonstrates the value of combining (1) developmental learning of practitioners’ cognitive skills through resilience-oriented reflection and interaction with dynamic complex open-ended problems; (2) contextualisation of generic guidelines as a basis for operational methodological support in the operational environment; and (3) the use of simulation-based training as part of a capability development programme with increasing complexity and realism across mixed educational, training and exercise sessions. As an actual example of a resilience implementation effort in a disaster medicine management organisation, the study contributes to the body of knowledge regarding how to implement the concept of resilience in operational practice.
... Parents' awareness of inconsistencies between their expectations about their child's development and their observations reveal some of the options individuals have when they encounter information that does not align with their existing mental model. Our findings are consistent with research that suggests individuals learn by discovering errors in their mental models (Klein and Baxter 2009). While some parents describe feeling resistant toward new information in stage 1, we also found evidence of parents challenging their mental models to accommodate the new information they were learning about their child: "Maybe my child is perfect, and I'm the one with the problem". ...
... This finding suggests that feelings and values are dynamic and that feelings of uncertainty or sadness in stage 1 may lessen throughout transition (Milshtein et al. 2010). This finding also aligns with mental model research which indicates as individuals encounter new and unfamiliar situations, they may not be able to link the new information with their existing mental models (Klein and Baxter 2009). The disconnect between parental expectations and observations may prompt parents to begin searching for information, which we found to be associated with feelings of uncertainty. ...
Previous research suggests that parents may experience higher levels of depression, stress, and uncertainty around the time when their child receives a diagnosis of a developmental disorder. However, there is mounting evidence that some parents experience positive transformation related to their child’s diagnosis. We used an exploratory mixed method design to elicit parents’ mental models related to their child’s developmental diagnosis. We analyzed parents’ responses to six open-ended online survey questions to gain insights about parents’ transition with respect to their child’s diagnosis. Our findings indicate that some parents’ mental models associated with their child’s developmental diagnosis change. We found that parents associate awareness of their child’s differences with feeling uncertain and wanting to search for information. Parents’ descriptions of adapting to a new state was associated with experiencing frustration and confusion with providers and other people outside of their immediate family. Parents’ expressed confidence and pride describing their experiences related to accepting their child’s diagnosis. Parents’ descriptions of acceptance often focused on greater understanding of their needs. Our results suggest that a three-stage model to describe parent transition is appropriate. Additionally, it appears that parent mental models related to their child’s developmental diagnosis evolve over time. Future studies should explore the ways in which gaining insight about parent mental models of transition may inform developing education and other supports for families.
... Bu yaklaşımların bazıları geleneksel yaklaşımlar olarak adlandırılmıştır (Hannay ve Newvine, 2006). Ancak zamanla geleneksel yaklaşımların; öğrencilerin bilişsel düzeylerine önem vermemesi, bilgiyi genel olarak ezber yoluyla elde etmeyi hedeflemesi (Oflaz, 2015) ve bireysel farklılıkları yok sayması gibi nedenlerden dolayı eleştirilmiştir (Klein ve Baxter, 2006). Bu eleştiriler eğitim uzmanlarının bireyin öğrenme sürecine bakış açılarının değişmesini ve öğrenme yaklaşımlarına yönelik farklı alternatifler geliştirilmesini sağlamıştır (Russel ve Norvig, 2005). ...
Bu çalışmada “Beyin temelli öğrenme” konulu yüksek lisans tezlerinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemi YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezinde erişime açık olan “Beyin temelli öğrenme” konulu 40 yüksek lisans tezinden oluşmaktadır. Bu kapsamda ilgili tezler demografik, örneklem, araştırma türü, kullanılan değişken, analiz teknikleri ve bulgular açısından incelenmiştir. Tezlerin özellikleri içerik analiz tekniği ile analiz edilmiştir. Kod-kategori, frekans-yüzde değerleri belirlenerek ilgili dağılımlar ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Araştırma analizi sonucunda incelenen yüksek lisans tezlerinin genelinin nicel araştırma türünde olduğu ve tezlerde deneysel desenin tercih edildiği görülmüştür. Veri analiz teknikleri olarak t testi ve içerik analizi tekniğinin çoğunlukta olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Tezler sayıca en fazla Gazi Üniversitesi, Atatürk Üniversitesi gibi köklü üniversitelerde ve çoğunlukla İlköğretim ve Eğitim programları ve öğretimi anabilim dallarında hazırlanmıştır. En çok üzerinde çalışılan örneklem İlköğretim kademesindeki öğrenci gruplarından oluşmuştur. Tezlerde en çok kullanılan değişkenlerin akademik başarı ve tutum olduğu ve tezlerden elde edilen bulgulara göre bu değişkenlerin genelinde anlamlı farklılık ve olumlu değişim gözlenmiştir.
Over the past several decades of information technology growth, work has become increasingly cognitive. It is also becoming more complex, thanks in part to growing networks of information, capability, and resources that link us and our work into large, distributed teams and organizations. In this paper, we assert that skills required for complex cognitive work are acquired in ways that qualitatively differ from the ways used for training routine procedural and rule-based skill. We conducted a literature review, peer workshop, and candidate-definition evaluation to derive a definition of complex cognitive skill (CCS). The CCS definition meets a number of evaluative criteria that include addressing complex cognitive work characteristics described in the relevant literature. The definition is expected to help researchers develop a more focused and coherent CCS research base and to help training practitioners justify the types of methods and resources required for supporting CCS acquisition. Future work will include assessing the definition for clarity, unambiguity, and, more generally, usefulness and usability.
The rapidly increasing sophistication of cyber threats occurring in parallel with our growing reliance on networked systems for everything from shopping to managing critical infrastructure is not a coincidence. Ransomware events, compromise of personal financial information, and hacking into critical infrastructure systems make the headlines on a seemingly daily basis. Still, the average system user continues to operate in a mode that signals belief those events will happen to someone else. This paper presents work conducted to determine training objectives and strategies for altering that “other guy” mentality and instilling a cyber-aware mindset. System users with a cyber-aware mindset should be less likely to fall for attacker ploys and more likely to actively contribute to their organization’s cyber defense. We identify two major categories of training objectives: cyber awareness and mindset objectives. Cyber awareness training objectives encompass three main areas of knowledge and capability: system baseline performance, anomaly detection and response, and systems thinking. Mindset training objectives encompass cognitive adaptations associated with acquiring a new mindset. These are adaptations to knowledge structures, cognitive heuristics, and metacognition. These training objectives are being used to guide the design of a scenario-based video game for training a cyber-aware mindset. This work highlights the importance of relevant conceptual knowledge to cyber awareness and research needs associated with mindset change, including mindset-change measurement, which we have begun to address for the purpose of evaluating the video game’s efficacy.
Learning content is increasingly diverse in order to meet learner needs for individual personalization, progression, and variety. Learners may encounter material through different content, which invites a measurable comparison method in order to tell when delivered content is sufficient or similar. Content recommendation and generation similarly motivate a fine-grained measure that enhances the search for just the right content or identifies where new learning content is needed to support all learners. Complexity offers a fine-grained way of measuring content which works across instructional domains and media types, potentially adding to existing qualitative and quantitative content descriptions. Reductionist complexity measures focus on quantifiable accounting which practitioners and computers in support of practice can use together to communicate about the complexity of learning content. In addition, holistic complexity measures incorporate contextual influences on complexity that practitioners typically reason about when they understand, choose, and personalize learning content. A combined measure of complexity uses learning objectives as a focus point to let teachers and trainers manage the scope of reductionist elements and capture holistic context factors that are likely to affect the learning content. The combined measure has been demonstrated for automated content generation. This concrete example enables an upcoming study on the expert acceptance and usability of complexity for differentiating between hundreds of generated scenarios. As the combined complexity measure is refined and tested in additional domains, it has potential to help computers reason about learning content from many sources in a unified manner that experts can understand, control, and accept.
This paper explores the current state of automated systems in the Royal Navy (RN), as well as exploring where personnel view systems would have the most benefit to their operations in the future. In addition, personnel’s views on the current consultation process for new systems are presented. Currently serving RN personnel ( n = 46) completed a questionnaire distributed at the Maritime Warfare School. Thematic analysis was conducted on the 5,125 words that were generated by personnel. Results show that RN personnel understand the requirement to utilize automated systems to maintain capability in the increasingly complex environments they face. This requirement will increase as future warfare continues to change and increasingly sophisticated threats are faced. However, it was highlighted that current consultation and procurement procedures often result in new automated systems that are not fit for purpose at time of release. This has negative consequences on operator tasks, for example by increasing workload and reducing appropriate system use, as well as increasing financial costs associated with the new systems. It is recommended that an increase in communication and collaboration between currently serving personnel and system designers may result in preventing the release of systems that are not fit for purpose.
To help learners navigate the multitude of learning resources soon to become available in the Total Learning Architecture (TLA) ecosystem, a Recommender algorithm will give learners learning-resource recommendations. Recommendations will support immediate training needs and provide guidance throughout one’s career. This paper describes initial work to define the logic that will be used by the Recommender. It describes our use of (1) expertise acquisition theory and (2) research on the learning effects of learner state and characteristics. The descriptions are accompanied by examples of relevant research and theory, the learner-support guidelines they suggest, and ways to translate the guidelines into Recommender logic. The TLA, together with the Recommender, have significant potential to aid professionals across a range of complex work domains, such as cyber operations, with their career development and growth and the acceleration of their expertise attainment.
This critical interpretive research synthesis is on the topic of adaptation and skill. After an initial identification of 1995 abstracts we identified and collated a database of 140 publications that explicitly reference expertise and adaptation. We found that empirical data on adaptive skill are sparse and the literature base is largely conceptual. We differentiate the adaptive nature of expertise from routine or every day skill, and we redress the balance between what constitutes expertise and when expertise matters. We present an overview of current models of expertise including a project that we completed for the UK Ministry of Defence on the nature of adaptive skill. We discuss implications for future training by presenting empirically based training principles designed to develop adaptive skill. We assert that adaptive skill is the conditio sine qua non of expertise and conclude with suggestions for further research.
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