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The Influence of Others:
The Impact of Perceived
Human Crowding on
Perceived Competition,
Emotions, and Hedonic
Shopping Value
Sang-Eun Byun
1
and Manveer Mann
1
Abstract
While human crowding has been considered a driver of negative emotions, leading to unpleasant
shopping experiences, other studies have found that it does not necessarily result in negative
emotions but creates excitement in certain shopping contexts. To fill the research gap, this study
investigates whether perceived competition mediates the relationships among human crowding,
emotions, and hedonic shopping value. The authors tested the model with actual shoppers from fast
fashion retailers in the United States. Results showed that when perceived human crowding is
mediated through perceived shopping competition, it creates positive emotions and induces hedonic
shopping value.
Keywords
human crowding, perceived competition, emotion, hedonic value
Introduction
Retail crowding plays a critical role in shaping customers’ approach–avoidance behavior (Hui &
Bateson, 1991; Li, Kim, & Lee, 2009), emotions (Hui & Bateson, 1991; Machleit, Eroglu, & Mantel,
2000), shopping value (Eroglu, Machleit, & Barr, 2005), shopping time and search behavior within
the store (Eroglu & Harrell, 1986; Michon, Chebat, & Turley, 2005), and satisfaction (Eroglu &
Machleit, 1990; Machleit et al., 2000). The impact of retail crowding on consumers’ emotional and
behavioral reactions has been evaluated in terms of two dimensions of retail crowding: spatial
crowding and human crowding (Machleit et al., 2000). While spatial crowding arises from nonhu-
man elements in the environment, such as the layout of fixtures or merchandise, human crowding
arises from the number of individuals and rate and extent of social interaction among the people
1
College of Human Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
Corresponding Author:
Sang-Eun Byun, College of Human Sciences, Auburn University, 372A Spidle Hall, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
Email: seb0002@auburn.edu
Clothing & Textiles
Research Journal
29(4) 284-297
ªThe Author(s) 2011
Reprints and permission:
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DOI: 10.1177/0887302X11422820
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in the store (Machleit et al., 2000). Human crowding has been found to be the most important
component of crowding and extensive research has been done to examine its consequences (Michon
et al., 2005).
Although there has been a consensus that spatial crowding generates negative emotional and
behavioral reactions from customers (e.g., Eroglu, Machleit, & Chebat, 2005; Li et al., 2009;
Machleit et al., 2000; Rompay, Galetzka, Pruyn, & Garcia, 2008), there have been mixed results
regarding the impact of human crowding. For example, Bateson and Hui (1987), Eroglu and Harrell
(1986), and Michon, Chebat, and Turley (2005) found that human crowding (as well as spatial
crowding) is perceived as an unpleasant experience and negatively influences shopping behavior,
leading customers to adjust to crowdedness by reducing shopping time, altering shopping plans,
or refraining from exploratory behaviors in the store. On the other hand, a few studies, including
Li, Kim, and Lee (2009) and Wu and Luan (2007), found that perceived human crowding positively
impacts shoppers’ emotions. Such inconsistent results may indicate that there is an intervening
variable that affects the relationship between perceived human crowding and emotional responses.
In the same vein, Machleit, Eroglu, and Mantel (2000) suggested that human crowding does not
necessarily result in negative emotions or decrease satisfaction at certain retail formats (e.g.,
discount stores), implying that individual or situational factors may influence how human crowding
is perceived and evaluated.
A retail situation that creates competition, such as Black Friday (i.e., the day after Thanksgiving),
can impact consumers’ emotional and behavioral reactions by playing as a main driver of consumption
decisions (Nichols, 2010). Competitive retail environments draw traffic to the retail floor through
attractive store offerings (e.g., merchandise, service, or promotions). Moreover, when store offerings
are limited, the store can promote a sense of competition among the shoppers, thus driving them to act
more urgently to acquire scarce offerings (Byun & Sternquist, 2008). Although research to date has
overlooked how human crowding influences shoppers’ perceptions about competition with other
shoppers, the literature suggests that a crowded store can be associated with positive inferences such
as popularity or reputation of the store offerings, thus eliciting positive emotional and behavioral reac-
tions on the part of customers (Grewal, Baker, Levy, & Voss, 2003; Tse, Sin, & Yim, 2002). The above
discussion justifies the need for further investigation of the conditions in which human crowding gen-
erates positive emotional and behavioral responses (Grewal et al., 2003).
Therefore, to fill the above research gaps, this study examines how perceived human crowding
affects perceived competition, consumer emotions, and hedonic shopping value experienced during
shopping. Specifically, we investigate whether perceived competition mediates the relationships
between (a) perceived human crowding and positive emotions and (b) perceived human crowding
and hedonic shopping value. We investigate these relationships in the domain of the fast fashion
retail environment, which is often characterized by relatively high human crowding due to high fre-
quency of store visits (Sull & Turconi, 2008). The findings of this study will extend the existing
retail crowding literature by integrating perceived competition as a critical mediator intervening
in the relationship between perceived human crowding and positive emotional and experiential
reactions.
Literature Review and Hypotheses Development
Negative Impact of Perceived Human Crowding on Emotions
Perceived crowding is a psychological state that occurs when a person’s demand for space exceeds
the supply (Stokols, 1972). Feelings of crowding emerge when the number of people or objects in a
limited space restricts activities or the amount of environmental stimuli exceeds coping capacities
(Machleit, Kellaris, & Eroglu, 1994). Even though a consumption-based experience may induce a
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multitude of emotions (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), these emotions can be effectively studied by
dividing them into the two dimensions of positive and negative emotions (Babin & Attaway, 2000;
Oliver, 1993). While positive emotional states include joy, excitement, acceptance, and interest,
negative emotional states include anger, discontent, irritation, worry, sadness, disgust, and contempt
(Havlena & Holbrook, 1986; Oliver, 1993; Richins, 1997). Negative emotions could result from
human crowding when customers are restricted in movement or in accomplishing their shopping
tasks (Eroglu & Harrell 1986; Machleit et al., 2000). Many studies have examined the direct effects
of perceived human crowding on emotions and found that greater perceptions of human crowding
result in increased negative emotions and decreased positive emotions (e.g., Argo, Dahl, & Man-
chanda, 2005; Eroglu, Machleit, & Barr, 2005; Eroglu, Machleit, & Chebat, 2005; Hui & Bateson,
1991; Machleit et al., 2000; Rompay et al., 2008). Based on the findings in the previous studies, we
hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 1: Perceived human crowding will increase negative emotions.
Hypothesis 2: Perceived human crowding will decrease positive emotions.
Perceived Human Crowding and Positive Emotions: Mediating Role of Perceived
Competition
The impact of perceived human crowding on positive emotions has received little empirical atten-
tion in the retail crowding literature (Eroglu, Machleit, & Barr, 2005). In general, retail crowding has
been considered as a negative store environmental cue, thus negatively affecting customers’ emo-
tions and behavioral intentions (Grewal et al., 2003). However, perception of crowding varies
depending on consumers’ prior expectations regarding the level of crowding in the store (Eroglu
& Harrell, 1986; Machleit et al., 2000; Pons & Laroche, 2007). When crowding is equal to or less
than customers’ prior expectations, crowding may not be associated with negative emotions
(Machleit et al., 2000). Moreover, consumers may develop different expectations for crowding
depending on the store format (e.g., department stores vs. discount stores) or retail concept (e.g.,
high-end designer stores vs. low-priced fast fashion stores). For instance, Machleit et al. (2000)
found that in discount-type stores where consumers can find special deals or value merchandise,
human crowding did not negatively affect satisfaction, whereas in other types of stores, human
crowding had a negative impact on satisfaction. Consistent with this finding, two studies conducted
in a relatively crowded retail environment (i.e., night markets and hypermarkets in Taiwan) found
that perceived human crowding positively impacted emotions, rather than negatively (Li et al., 2009;
Wu & Luan, 2007).
The above findings imply that whether or not human crowding generates positive reactions is
determined by individual or situational factors (Machleit et al., 2000). In this regard, we argue that
understanding the process through which human crowding produces positive emotions may require
an examination of its relationship with perceived competition with other shoppers in the store. In a
retail situation, consumer emotions and choice behavior are often influenced by other shoppers
(Nichols, 2010). Although there are few empirical studies that examine the retail conditions through
which human crowding generates positive emotions, the idea of competition and its critical role in
understanding consumer reactions to human crowding are supported in the literature. For example,
Stokols (1972) noted that ‘‘Conditions of social crowding introduce social constraints on available
space and imply competition with other persons for scarce resources (for example, space and mate-
rial)’’ (p. 75). People may attribute a higher level of human crowding to greater competition among
the shoppers, especially when shoppers compete for limited products or deals in a competitive envi-
ronment (Li et al., 2009). Nichols (2010) also suggested that in flea markets, thrift stores, and antique
stores that sell unique or scarce items at low prices, people tend to feel a sense of competition among
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the shoppers, and are thus likely to consider the presence of other shoppers in the store. By the same
token, Byun and Sternquist (2008) noted that fast fashion retailers, such as ZARA and H&M, have
attracted a high number of customers by accelerating perceived perishability and scarcity through
the implementation of a short renewal cycle and a deliberately limited supply, thereby encouraging
shoppers to compete for limited products. Such retail situations are likely to increase the level of
perceived competition on the part of consumers by making them highly conscious of other persons’
behavior while shopping or leading them to feel rivalry against others to acquire a desired item
before it is taken by other shoppers (Byun & Sternquist, 2008; Nichols, 2010). In addition, people
are likely to feel excitement or thrill with an anticipation of finding a deal in a competitive retail
atmosphere (Bardhi, 2003; Nichols, 2010). Thus, it is likely that perceived human crowding and its
impact on positive emotions may arise from perceived competition with other shoppers. In a formal
form, we postulate that perceived human crowding will induce positive emotions when it is mediated
by perceived shopping competition. Therefore,
Hypothesis 3: Perceived competition will mediate the relationship between perceived human
crowding and positive emotions.
Impact of Emotions on Hedonic Shopping Value
Shopping value is evaluated through accomplishment of an intended goal and/or through the expe-
rience of enjoyment or fun (Babin, Darden, & Griffin, 1994; Bloch & Richins, 1983). While utili-
tarian value is achieved through completing a task, hedonic value is elicited through the experience
of fun and playfulness associated with the buying process, irrespective of the fulfillment of utilitar-
ian goals or the completion of a specific task (Babin et al., 1994; Holbrook & Hirshman, 1982).
Compared to utilitarian value, hedonic shopping value is more significantly associated with satisfac-
tion, word of mouth, repatronage anticipation (e.g., Chang, Burns, & Francis, 2004; Jones, Reynolds,
& Arnold, 2006), and stronger patronage intentions due to the gratification created by emotional
experiences during shopping (e.g., Babin & Babin, 2001).
The literature shows that positive emotions elicit a higher approach response and negative emotions
elicit a higher avoidance response (Babin & Darden, 1996; Eroglu & Machleit, 1990; Hui & Bateson,
1991; Machleit et al., 2000). For example, negative emotions during shopping may lead to less engage-
ment in exploratory shopping (Eroglu & Harell, 1986; Harrell, Hutt, & Anderson, 1980), thus reducing
hedonic shopping value (Babin et al., 1994). Positive emotionslead shoppers to stay longer and explore
more, making the shopping activities fun and enjoyable, thus inducing hedonic value (Babin & Attaway,
2000; Forsythe & Bailey, 1996; Li etal., 2009). Extensive research has empirically discovered a signif-
icant relationship between emotions and hedonic shopping value in that positive emotions (such as exci-
tement and thrill) increase hedonic shopping value, while negative emotions (such as anger and
irritation) reduce hedonic experience of shopping (Babin & Attaway, 2000; Babin et al., 1994; Eroglu,
Machleit, & Barr, 2005). Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 4: Negative emotions will decrease hedonic shopping value.
Hypothesis 5: Positive emotions will increase hedonic shopping value.
Perceived Human Crowding and Hedonic Shopping Value: Mediating Role of Perceived
Competition
To date, few empirical studies have examined the influence of perceived human crowding on hedo-
nic shopping value. However, the literature suggests that human crowding does not directly elicit
hedonic value but affect it through other intervening variables (Eroglu, Machleit, & Barr, 2005).
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In this regard, Eroglu, Machleit, and Barr (2005) noted that people may desire a certain level of arou-
sal in certain retail settings and a high level of human crowding may be associated with the desired
level of stimulation. In a similar vein, Nichols (2010) suggests that consumer competition can moti-
vate shoppers to be actively involved in shopping activities by provoking emotional experiences,
thus affecting the valuation of their shopping experience. Accordingly, we postulate that human
crowding will positively affect hedonic shopping value when a crowded store is associated with per-
ceived competition among the shoppers. Such an indirect relationship between perceived human
crowding and hedonic shopping value can be attributed to the thrill or arousal associated with the
process of finding a good deal and the sense of achievement derived from the competition with other
shoppers for unique or scarce products (Bardhi, 2003; Nichols, 2010). Fast fashion retailers, who
provide high-fashion merchandise at low prices, create a competitive retail environment by accel-
erating the perceived limited availability of fast fashion merchandise (Byun & Sternquist, 2008).
Given that hedonic shopping value is induced by increased arousal, heightened involvement, escap-
ism, and spontaneity (Babin et al., 1994), it is predicted that perceived competition is likely to induce
hedonic shopping value by making shopping more thrilling and compelling (Bardhi, 2003). There-
fore, we propose that a positive impact of perceived human crowding on hedonic value is likely to be
mediated by perceived competition among the shoppers. Accordingly, it is hypothesized as follows:
Hypothesis 6: Perceived competition will mediate the relationship between perceived human
crowding and hedonic shopping value.
Method
Measures
Since there is no measurement available in the literature for perceived competition, a multi-item
scale was developed in this study based on one-to-one interviews and conceptual discussion in the
literature. For the emotion measures, we used Richin’s (1997) inventory of emotional items and one-
to-one interviews. For the other three constructs, we adopted existing scales and reported the reli-
abilities of the original scales. Table 1 presents the measurement items and psychographic properties
for the five constructs used in this study. All items were measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale with
endpoints of ‘‘strongly disagree’’ (1) a n d ‘‘ strongly agree’’ (7).
Item Generation: One-to-One Interviews
Perceived competition. Following Churchill’s (1979) scale development procedures for latent con-
structs, we developed a multiple-item scale for perceived shopping competition. We recruited 10
female undergraduate and graduate students who had recently shopped at one of the leading fast
fashion stores in the United States for interviews. We asked each respondent to recall her most recent
shopping trip in one of several fast fashion stores and to describe the shopping experience in detail,
including her observations, perceptions, or feelings about the products, the number of people in the
store, the store atmosphere, and purchase/nonpurchase decisions. Follow-up questions asked about
the perception of competition among shoppers during the shopping trip. We generated items based
on the one-to-one interviews and the conceptual discussion in the literature. Next, to evaluate the
quality of the measurements in terms of the clarity, reliability, and validity of the scales, we con-
ducted face validity tests with two faculty members, six doctoral students, and three master’s stu-
dents in retailing, consumer behavior, and marketing. Based on their feedback, the items were
modified. After minor wording revisions to improve item clarity, comprehension, and readability,
the instrument was used for the main survey. Examples of this scale include ‘‘While shopping in this
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store, I felt competition with other customers’’ and ‘‘While shopping in this store, I was conscious
about other customers’ behavior.’’
Established Scales
Perceived human crowding. For this measure, we used the scales developed by Machleit, Kellaris,
and Eroglu (1994). Although the original scale constituted 8 items to measure human and spatial
crowding, only the 4 items corresponding to human crowding were used in this study. The reported
reliability coefficients ranged from .79 to .93.
Emotions. For measuring positive emotions, items that reflect joy and excitement were taken from
an inventory of emotional items of consumption experience, developed by Richins (1997). In total, 3
items—happy, excited, and thrilled—were used in this study due to the high frequency in respon-
dents’ verbal descriptions of their positive emotions during shopping in the store. For measuring
negative emotions, we adopted items representing anger from Richins because anger was the stron-
gest emotion that resulted from human crowding (Machleit et al., 2000). In total, 4 items—angry,
irritated, frustrated, and annoyed—were the most repeated items from the one-to-one interviews.
Table 1. Measurement Properties
Measurement Items
Item
Reliability
Composite
Reliability
Perceived human crowding
The store seemed very crowded to me .70 .91
The store was a little too busy .87
There were a lot of shoppers in the store .71
Perceived competition
While shopping in this store ...
I felt competition with other customers .60 .89
I was conscious about other customers’ behavior .52
I felt like I am competing with other shoppers for products .78
I felt like running a race .75
Negative emotions
Annoyed .84 .93
Irritated .91
Frustrated .78
Angry .59
Stressed .56
Positive emotions
Happy .65 .82
Excited .59
Thrilled .56
Hedonic shopping value
Shopping at this store was truly a joy .66 .91
I continued to shop, not because I had to, but because I wanted to .54
Shopping at this store truly felt like an escape .57
Compared to other things I could have done, the time spent shopping at this store
was truly enjoyable
.73
I enjoyed being immersed in exciting new products .50
While shopping at this store, I felt a sense of adventure .53
Shopping at this store was a very nice time out .69
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An item, stressed, was combined with these 4 items based on the respondents’ descriptions in the
one-to-one interviews. Therefore, 5 items were used to assess negative emotions.
Hedonic shopping value. For measuring hedonic shopping value, we adopted the items developed
by Babin, Darden, and Griffin (1994). The scale is composed of 11 items and the reported reliability
of the scale ranged from .69 to .83. However, the tense of the original scales was modified in this
study to measure hedonic aspects of shopping experienced during shopping at a store.
Data Collection
The study was conducted in a field setting by employing mall intercept and mail survey methods.
We included actual shoppers from 10 different stores of ZARA and H&M in a large metropolitan
city in the northeastern United States. We included only female shoppers for this study because
women are the major target market of these two retailers. Following the recommendation for a mall
intercept method by Bush and Hair (1985), the questionnaires were distributed at various times and
days of the week, thereby reducing response bias due to the potential differences in the character-
istics of shoppers in a mall intercept at different times and days of the week. We distributed
2,000 take-home questionnaires with postage paid envelopes to shoppers who just exited the store.
To encourage respondents to record accurate memories of their shopping experience, thereby
increasing the validity of responses, we asked participants to return their questionnaire within 48
hr. Questionnaires were numbered so that we could eliminate those returned after the time limit.
After we excluded surveys with excessive missing values and those returned after the time limit, the
remaining 234 questionnaires were used for the main analysis.
Of this number, approximately 60%of the responses came from shoppers at H&M and 40%from
shoppers at ZARA. Both groups of shoppers had similar demographics (age, income, education, and
ethnicity). The majority of the respondents were between the ages of 20 and 29, had an annual
income below $34,999, and either were pursuing a university degree or had a higher educational
background. About 39.3%were Caucasian and 30.8%were Asian.
Analysis and Results
Reliability and Validity of the Measures
Using AMOS (analysis of moment structures) 18, we performed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
to further assess the psychometric properties of the multi-item scales for the five constructs. The
maximum likelihood estimation was used. We excluded items with poor loading values (<.60;
Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) and large standardized residuals (>j+2.58j; Schumacker & Lomax,
2004). During these steps, 1 item from perceived human crowding and 4 items in hedonic shopping
value were dropped. Following the recommendation by Hair et al. (1998), we retained at least 3
items for each construct. Table 1 reports the measurement properties for the final items.
Overall, although that the CFA model had a significant chi-square value (w
2
¼399.01, df ¼193, p
< .001), other fit indices provided evidence for the sound psychometric properties of the five con-
structs used in this study (w
2
/df ¼2.06, NNFI ¼.946, comparative fit index [CFI] ¼.946, root mean
square error of approximation [RMSEA] ¼.068). Table 1 reports the measurement properties for the
final items. Squared multiple correlations (i.e., item reliability) for each measurement were greater
than the recommended cutoff value of .5 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1991). The composite reliabilities of all
measures ranged from .82 to .93, indicating satisfactory reliability (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The
factor loading values for each individual indicator to its respective latent variable were highly sig-
nificant (p< .001), and all loading coefficients were above .71 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The
average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct was greater than .50 (Fornell & Larcker,
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1981). These results provided evidence that the measured items robustly represented the underlying
constructs, showing strong convergent validity. The AVE for each construct was greater than shared
variance (i.e., squared correlations) between constructs and verifying discriminant validity (Fornell
& Larcker, 1981). The AVE and the shared variance between the constructs are presented in Table 2.
Hypotheses Testing
We conducted a latent structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis with maximum likelihood esti-
mation to test the significance of the parameters in the structural model. In total, 23 items were sub-
mitted to the structural path analysis. The results indicated that the proposed model had a significant
chi-square value (w
2
¼423.49, df ¼196, p< .001), but other model fit indices indicated a satisfac-
tory fit to the data (w
2
/df ¼2.16, NNFI ¼.940, CFI ¼.940, RMSEA ¼.071). The results of the
hypotheses testing are presented in Figure 1. The results illustrated that all of the parameter estimates
for the structural paths were significant and in the hypothesized direction.
As proposed, perceived human crowding showed a significant impact on both negative emotions
(g¼.71, p< .001) and positive emotions (g¼.33, p< .001), supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2. In
addition, perceived human crowding had a positive impact on perceived competition (g¼.55, p<
.001), which in turn led to positive emotions (b¼.40, p< .001).
In testing mediation effects, we followed a modern approach recommended by Preacher and
Hayes (2008) and Zhao, Lynch, and Chen (2010), who dispute Baron and Kenny’s (1986) traditional
prior requirement of the significance of the direct effect (X –> Y). They argue that a significant
direct effect is not always necessary for mediation to occur. Instead, in the modern approach, the
significance of the indirect effect (ab) is the only requirement to establish mediation. The boot-
strap test (with 5,000 bootstrap samples) was implemented to test a mediation effect of perceived
competition between perceived human crowding and positive emotions. The result showed that the
indirect effect was positive and significant (the standardized estimate ¼.220), with a bias corrected
95%confidence intervals excluding zero (.092 *.389; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Therefore,
Hypothesis 3 was supported. The standardized estimates of total effect, direct effect, and indirect
effect of perceived human crowding on positive emotions are presented in Table 3. In summary, both
significant direct (.331) and indirect (.220) effects existed in the effect of perceived human crowd-
ing and positive emotions. The signs for the direct effect (negative) and indirect effect (positive) are
opposite in direction, showing a competitive mediation (Zhao, Lynch, & Chen, 2010).
In support of Hypotheses 4 and 5, both positive and negative emotions significantly influenced
hedonic shopping value. Specifically, while positive emotions revealed a strong positive impact
on hedonic shopping value (b¼.53, p< .001), negative emotions showed a moderate, negative
impact on hedonic shopping value (b¼.30, p< .001), showing an asymmetric power of positive
and negative emotions on hedonic shopping value. Finally, perceived human crowding showed a
positive impact on perceived competition (g¼.55, p< .001, as shown in Hypothesis 3), which
Table 2. Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Shared Variance
12345
1. Perceived human crowding .76
2. Perceived competition .283 .66
3. Negative emotions .484 .192 .74
4. Positive emotions .007 .048 .049 .60
5. Hedonic shopping value .020 .048 .073 .410 .60
Note. The AVE for each construct is reported on the diagonal and the shared variance between the constructs is reported in
the lower half of the matrix.
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in turn, led to increased hedonic shopping value (b¼.25, p< .001). The bootstrapping method was
used to examine the significance of the indirect effect of perceived competition on the relationship
between perceived human crowding and hedonic shopping value. In our model, since there are
multiple mediators (including positive and negative emotions and perceived competition) between
perceived human crowding and hedonic shopping value, following the recommendation by Preacher
and Hayes (2008), MPlus was used to test the significance of a specific mediation effect. The result
(based on 5,000 bootstrap samples) showed that the bias corrected 95%confidence intervals for the
specific indirect effect of perceived competition (estimate ¼.227) excluded the value of 0 (.024 to
.539), indicating that perceived competition significantly mediates the relationship between per-
ceived human crowding and hedonic shopping value. Therefore, Hypothesis 6 was supported. Addi-
tionally, we tested whether there was a significant direct effect between perceived human crowding
and hedonic shopping value. We conducted a w
2
difference test to compare the models with/without
a direct path between perceived human crowding and hedonic shopping value. The result showed no
significant difference in the model fit (Dw
2
¼.299, df ¼1, p¼.585), indicating no direct effect
between perceived human crowding and hedonic shopping value. Therefore, perceived competition
showed an indirect-only mediation (Zhao et al., 2010) in the relationship between perceived human
crowding and hedonic shopping value.
*** p < .001
χ2=423.486, df = 196,p < .001, NNFI = .940, CFI = .940, RMSEA = .071
.40***
-.30***
.71 ***
Hedonic
Shopping Value
-.33***
.55***
Positive
Emotion
.53***
.25***
Perceived
Human Crowding
N
egative
Emotion
Perceived
Competition
Figure 1. Final structural model.
Table 3. Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects of Perceived Human Crowding on Positive Emotions
Standardized
Estimates
Bias Corrected Confidence
Interval (95%)
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Direct effect
Perceived human crowding !positive emotions .331 .563 .108
Indirect effect Perceived
Human crowding !perceived competition !positive emotions .220 .092 .389
Total effect .111 .273 .042
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Discussion
This study examined the mediating role of perceived shopping competition in the relationship
between perceived human crowding and experience of positive emotions and hedonic shopping
value. The proposed model was tested in a field study setting that targeted actual shoppers from two
leading fast fashion retailers in the United States. We supported the model and all hypotheses were in
the proposed directions. To our knowledge, this study is the first empirical research to test the role of
perceived competition in understanding the impact of human crowding on positive emotions and
hedonic shopping value. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
First, the results showed that perceived human crowding affects both positive and negative emo-
tions. Perceived human crowding substantially generates negative emotions while reducing positive
emotions. This finding is consistent with previous studies that found negative impacts of human
crowding (e.g., Bateson & Hui, 1987; Eroglu & Harrell, 1986; Michon et al., 2005). However,
we found that perceived competition significantly mediates the impact of perceived human crowd-
ing on positive emotions. Namely, when perceived human crowding is associated with perceived
competition, it does elicit positive emotions such as joy, excitement, and thrill. By supporting the
mediating role of perceived competition on the impact of human crowding on positive emotions, this
study sheds light on one of the conditions in which human crowding can elicit positive emotional
response. Accordingly, we argue that the role of human crowding on consumers’ emotional and
behavioral responses should be evaluated with a consideration of the level of perceived competition
in a store. From a measurement standpoint, this study developed a multi-item scale for perceived
competition.
Second, we supported the role of emotions in increasing or decreasing hedonic shopping value.
Consistent with previous studies (e.g., Babin & Attaway, 2000; Babin et al., 1994; Eroglu, Machleit,
& Barr, 2005), while positive emotions increased hedonic value, the experience of negative emo-
tions reduced hedonic value. However, human crowding may not result in decreased hedonic shop-
ping value. In contrast to previous studies, in which crowded stores were generally associated with
unpleasant shopping experience and the resultant avoidance behavior (e.g., Bateson & Hui, 1987;
Eroglu & Harrell, 1986; Michon et al., 2005), this study found a significant mediating role of per-
ceived competition, thus supporting the opposite view that a crowded store can elicit hedonic shop-
ping value through creating a sense of competition among the shoppers. These findings enhance our
understanding of the process through which human crowding positively affects hedonic shopping
value.
Furthermore, we confirmed the asymmetric power of negative and positive emotions on hedonic
shopping value. Consistent with previous findings (e.g., Babin & Attaway, 2000), when compared to
negative emotions, positive emotions generated a greater impact on hedonic shopping value, imply-
ing the predominant importance of inducing positive emotions to improve customers’ hedonic shop-
ping experiences. In this regard, our study suggests that when consumers feel a sense of competition
with other shoppers, which can be inferred from perceived human crowding in a store, they tend to
experience thrill and excitement from shopping, further enhancing hedonic shopping value. There-
fore, it would be beneficial for retailers to create a sense of competition among shoppers to translate
perceived crowdedness into positive emotions and hedonic shopping value. Consumers are likely to
compete when they perceive scarcity (Nichols, 2010). Limited promotions or ‘‘buy it now’’ or ‘‘act
now’’ promotional campaigns are increasingly adopted by retailers to create a competitive and com-
pelling store atmosphere (Byun & Sternquist, 2008), a retail condition that this study proposed to
induce positive emotions and hedonic shopping value from a crowded store.
However, retailers should also be aware that creating competition through limited promotions,
such as one-day sales, could be perceived negatively by some shoppers. Therefore, limited promo-
tions used to increase traffic and sales should be carefully designed. Too frequent use of such
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promotions or deals with little value could rather cause negative emotional (e.g., anger, frustration,
or irritation) and behavioral reactions, rather than creating excitement or competition among shop-
pers. Finally, while human crowding could be associated with positive emotions such as excitement
when it is attributed to a sense of competition among shoppers, physical restrictions in movement
while shopping or long waiting lines at checkout in a crowded store are likely to result in strong neg-
ative emotions (Grewal et al., 2003; Machleit et al., 2000), the factors which in turn disrupt the ful-
fillment of hedonic value from shoppers. Given our finding that perceived human crowding creates
negative emotion as well as positive emotions through perceived competition, retailers can encour-
age human crowding to create a sense of competition, but it is essential that they also design spacious
retail layouts that facilitate an easy traffic flow or create or expand self-checkout areas for faster
transactions (Grewal et al., 2003; Li et al., 2009).
Limitation and Suggestions for Future Research
Before generalizations are drawn from our findings, several caveats are warranted regarding the lim-
itations of this study. First, we targeted female shoppers from two fast fashion retailers located in a
specific city, thus limiting representativeness of the sample and generalizability of our findings. Sec-
ond, despite our attempt to reduce confounding factors by limiting the survey response time to 48 hr,
some respondents may not have had clear memories about their shopping experience in the store that
this survey asked about.
The limitations inherent in this study suggest several directions for future research. First, we
examined the mediating role of perceived competition in the fast fashion retail environment. Further
studies need to extend the applicability of the proposed model in other retail contexts to validate the
findings of the study. In addition, more research needs to be undertaken to understand how consu-
mers feel competition and the impact of perceived competition in a retail context. In this study, we
focused on human crowding as an environmental condition that creates a sense of competition
among the shoppers. Other antecedents, such as promotional variables (e.g., perceived value and
promotion/product availability) and individual variables (e.g., deal proneness, impulsivity, and
shopping orientations), should be incorporated to increase the understanding of the drivers of per-
ceived competition.
Moreover, prior expectations for human crowding and tolerance level for crowding have been
suggested to be significant moderators that determine the impact of perceived human crowding
on consumer reactions. As discussed, previous studies (e.g., Machleit et al., 2000) found that a
higher level of prior expectations for human crowding does not affect the level of satisfaction. In
addition, Eroglu, Machleit, and Barr (2005) found that the level of tolerance for crowding moderates
the relationship between perceived human crowding and hedonic shopping value. For those with
high tolerance for crowding, perceived human crowding does not significantly decrease hedonic
shopping value. Therefore, future studies should expand the proposed model by incorporating these
variables to better predict the impact of perceived human crowding on emotional and experiential
responses. Similarly, hedonic versus utilitarian shopping situations, age, and gender may also influ-
ence how human crowding is perceived and emotionally experienced during shopping, thus calling
for a study of this topic. Furthermore, cultural traditions often offset the perception of interpersonal
space (Stokols, 1972). Previous studies have empirically found that cultural characteristics influence
the perceptions of human crowding (e.g., Pons & Laroche, 2007; Pons, Laroche, & Mourali, 2006).
Therefore, the model proposed in this study could be tested in other cultural settings to examine the
moderating role of culture on the perceptions of human crowding.
Finally, this study focused on hedonic shopping value as an outcome of perceived human crowd-
ing. A further study should consider utilitarian shopping value as well to examine the interplays
among these variables and to provide a full understanding of the impact of perceived human
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crowding on shopping value. Several researchers have also studied how crowding influences shop-
ping satisfaction (e.g., Eroglu, Machleit, & Barr, 2005; Machleit et al., 2000) and behavioral reac-
tions (Eroglu, Machleit, & Chebat, 2005; Eroglu & Machleit, 1990; Hui & Bateson, 1991). Future
studies may include satisfaction and behavioral outcomes (e.g., purchase behavior and patronage
intentions) in the proposed model to enrich the understanding of the consequences of perceived
human crowding. The inclusion of these constructs will also provide critical insights in understand-
ing the role of perceived competition in altering consumer satisfaction and behavioral outcomes.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
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Bios
Sang-Eun Byun is an assistant professor in the Department of Consumer Affairs at Auburn University. Her
research areas cover consumer in-store decision making, store personality, price perceptions, cross-cultural
studies, and global retailing strategies.
Manveer Mann is a PhD candidate in the Department of Consumer Affairs at Auburn University. Her research
areas cover consumer behavior, branding, and global retailing strategies.
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