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Beyond the Threshold Hypothesis: Even Among the Gifted and Top Math/Science Graduate Students, Cognitive Abilities, Vocational Interests, and Lifestyle Preferences Matter for Career Choice, Performance, and Persistence

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Abstract

The assertion that ability differences no longer matter beyond a certain threshold is inaccurate. Among young adolescents in the top 1% of quantitative reasoning ability, individual differences in general cognitive ability level and in specific cognitive ability pattern (that is, the relationships among an individual’s math, verbal, and spatial abilities) lead to differences in educational, occupational, and creative outcomes decades later. Whereas ability level predicts the level of achievement, ability pattern predicts the realm of achievement. Adding information on vocational interests refines prediction of educational and career choices. Finally, lifestyle preferences relevant to career choice, performance, and persistence often change between ages 25 and 35. This change results in sex differences in preferences, which likely have relevance for understanding the underrepresentation of women in careers that demand more than full-time (40 hours per week) commitment.

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... Although students entering STEM may already be mathematically competent, mathematics-intensive courses in these programs are highly challenging even for beginner students who excelled in mathematics in high school. Previous work showed that different cognitive abilities differentiate achievements within high-ability groups, among them STEM students (Coyle, Snyder, Pillow, & Kochunov, 2011;Ferriman-Robertson, Smeets, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2010;Berkowitz & Stern, 2018). Here, we aimed to find out whether this also holds for individual differences in WM. ...
... Thus, similar to findings from K-12 education (Alloway & Alloway, 2010;Bull et al., 2008;Fuchs et al., 2010), our results point out the importance of WM also for high-level mathematics performance. Moreover, while previous research showed that higher order cognitive abilities differentiate even within the highest achievement level (Coyle et al., 2011;Ferriman-Robertson et al., 2010), the present results confirmed that this is also the case for WM. ...
... The present study adds to existing literature in several respects. First, the results align with those from previous research in showing that individual differences in cognitive abilities even at the high range can still play a role in academic learning and achievements (e.g, Ferriman-Robertson et al., 2010). Here, we showed this to be the case not only for complex cognition, but also at the level of basic information processing. ...
Article
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This study examined how working memory (WM) and mathematics performance are related among students entering mathematics-intensive undergraduate STEM programs (N = 317). Among students of mechanical engineering and math-physics, we addressed two questions: (1) Do verbal and visuospatial WM differ in their relation with three measures of mathematics performance: numerical reasoning ability, prior knowledge in mathematics, and achievements in mathematics-intensive courses? (2) To what extent are the effects of WM on achievements in mathematics-intensive courses mediated by numerical reasoning ability and prior knowledge in mathematics? A latent correlational analysis revealed that verbal WM was at least as strongly associated with the three mathematics measures as visuospatial WM. A latent mediation model revealed that numerical reasoning fully mediated the effects of WM on achievements in math-intensive courses, both directly and in a doubly mediated effect via prior knowledge in mathematics. We conclude that WM across modalities contributes significantly to mathematics performance of mathematically competent students. The effect of verbal WM emerges as being more pronounced than has been assumed in prior literature.
... In academic settings, interest predicts both grades and retention for STEM students (Crisp et al., 2009;Engberg & Wolniak, 2013;Grigg et al., 2018;Nye et al., 2018;Rosenzweig et al., 2021). Additional evidence supports the importance of interests in STEM career performance and persistence (Robertson et al., 2010). ...
... Given that interests drive academic and career choices, these findings have practical implications for educators and career advisors. Recruitment and retention within STEM are persistent challenges (Engberg et al., 2013;Robertson et al., 2010;Rozhenkova et al., 2022). This research reveals how interests are arrayed across majors, highlighting the overlap in typical interests between many STEM and non-STEM areas. ...
Article
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A good fit between students’ interests, academic major, and subsequent career is critical for occupational success and satisfaction. Substantial work has examined how individual differences in interests are linked with academic and career choices. However, less is known about the role of interest in student performance. To investigate how interests are related to academic outcomes, the current work combined psychological and institutional data in a sample of N = 8,326 students enrolled in 249 different majors. Study 1 identified five major clusters that reveal diversity in interests across STEM and non-STEM majors. These patterns suggest that the common STEM vs. non-STEM dichotomy may misrepresent differences and similarities in interests across majors. Study 2 used interests and institutional data to predict student GPA. The results clarify previous findings about the role of interests in performance and highlight the importance of person-environment fit.
... The relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance has received considerable attention from both educational researchers and college admission decision makers. Past research on cognitive ability and academic outcomes suggests a monotonic relationship between the two (Arneson et al. 2011;O'Connell 2018), and the monotonicity holds even for gifted students who are in the top 1% of cognitive ability (Robertson et al. 2010). Although monotonicity does not equate linearity, as the former indicates two variables changing in the same direction whereas the latter also requires the relationship to change at a constant rate (Arneson et al. 2011), previous findings support the notion that cognitive ability positively and continuously predicts academic performance throughout the ability continuum (Brown et al. 2021). ...
... While the results from previous studies tend to support a monotonic relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance across the whole ability continuum (Arneson et al. 2011;Robertson et al. 2010), some researchers have suggested the potential existence of cognitive thresholds for very difficult coursework, such that a certain level of cognitive ability is a prerequisite for reaching a satisfactory level of academic achievement (Hsu and Schombert 2010;Tynan et al. 2020). These two findings do not necessarily conflict with each other, as previous studies on the relationship between ability and academic performance usually employ overall measures of performance, such as GPA, that aggregate grades across a variety of courses, whereas cognitive threshold studies focus on performance on a single course or within a major. ...
Article
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While the dominant finding indicates a monotonic relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance, some researchers have suggested the existence of cognitive thresholds for challenging coursework, such that a certain level of cognitive ability is required for reaching a satisfactory level of academic achievement. Given the significance of finding a threshold for understanding the relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance, and the limited studies on the topic, it is worth further investigating the possibility of cognitive thresholds. Using a multi-institutional dataset and the necessary condition analysis (NCA), we attempted to replicate previous findings of cognitive thresholds on the major GPA of mathematics and physics-majored students, as well as the course grade of organic chemistry, to examine whether high SAT math scores constitute a necessary condition for obtaining satisfactory grades in these courses. The results from the two studies do not indicate an absolute cognitive threshold point below which students are doomed to fail regardless of the amount of effort they devote into learning. However, we did find that the chance of students with a low level of quantitative ability to succeed in highly quantitative courses is very small, which qualifies for the virtually necessary condition.
... In particular, they tested whether there were curvilinear relations which would lead to different effects of intelligence across the range of test scores. For instance, many laypersons believe that being too intelligent may actually lead to worse life outcomes, or at least that being intelligent past a certain point confers no additional advantage, a position sometimes called the threshold hypothesis (Gladwell, 2008;Robertson et al., 2010). However, the Brown et al. findings showed that intelligence tended to be a positive linear predictor of a range of outcome measures. ...
... Furthermore, where relationships with intelligence were detected, there was no evidence to support the threshold hypothesis. Even among high-intelligence subsamples, higher intelligence continued to confer benefits (Brown et al., 2021;Robertson et al., 2010). ...
Article
Memory is essential for everyday life. The understanding and study of memory has continued to grow over the years, thanks to well controlled laboratory studies and theory development. However, major challenges arise when attempting to apply theories of memory function to practical problems in society. A theory might be robust in explaining experimental data but fail to capture all that is important when taken out of the lab. The good news is that the application of memory in science to challenges in society is rapidly expanding. In Memory in Science for Society leading international researchers share their passion for combining memory in science with applications of that science to a wide range of challenges in society. Chapters demonstrate how that scientific passion has addressed challenges in education, life attainment, second language learning, remembering life events and faces of strangers, future planning and decision making, lifespan cognitive development and age-related cognitive decline, following instructions, and assessment and rehabilitation of cognitive impairment following brain damage. Written and edited by the leading researchers in the field, this book offers an important and influential addition to the memory literature, providing a new and comprehensive focus on the connection between theory and practice in memory and society.
... In particular, they tested whether there were curvilinear relations which would lead to different effects of intelligence across the range of test scores. For instance, many laypersons believe that being too intelligent may actually lead to worse life outcomes, or at least that being intelligent past a certain point confers no additional advantage, a position sometimes called the threshold hypothesis (Gladwell, 2008;Robertson et al., 2010). However, the Brown et al. findings showed that intelligence tended to be a positive linear predictor of a range of outcome measures. ...
... Furthermore, where relationships with intelligence were detected, there was no evidence to support the threshold hypothesis. Even among high-intelligence subsamples, higher intelligence continued to confer benefits (Brown et al., 2021;Robertson et al., 2010). ...
Chapter
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Memory is essential for everyday life. The understanding and study of memory has continued to grow over the years, thanks to well controlled laboratory studies and theory development. However, major challenges arise when attempting to apply theories of memory function to practical problems in society. A theory might be robust in explaining experimental data but fail to capture all that is important when taken out of the lab. The good news is that the application of memory in science to challenges in society is rapidly expanding. In Memory in Science for Society leading international researchers share their passion for combining memory in science with applications of that science to a wide range of challenges in society. Chapters demonstrate how that scientific passion has addressed challenges in education, life attainment, second language learning, remembering life events and faces of strangers, future planning and decision making, lifespan cognitive development and age-related cognitive decline, following instructions, and assessment and rehabilitation of cognitive impairment following brain damage. Written and edited by the leading researchers in the field, this book offers an important and influential addition to the memory literature, providing a new and comprehensive focus on the connection between theory and practice in memory and society.
... Recent studies have failed to find support for the threshold hypothesis. A study of adolescents, for example, who scored in the top 1% of quantitative reasoning ability found that higher levels of cognitive ability remained predictive of more achievements, including patents, peer-reviewed publications, and doctorates (Robertson et al., 2010). Similarly, Jauk and colleagues (2013) did not find evidence for the threshold hypothesis in a separate study of creative achievement among the highly intelligent, although they did report a threshold for divergent thinking. ...
... Specifically, we aimed to identify the differential predictive validity of individual differences across the various domains of creative achievement. Whereas prior research has independently explored the relationships between creative achievement and personality (McCrae, 1987;Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011), creative achievement and college major (Feist, 2006), and creative achievement and intelligence (Jauk et al., 2013;Robertson et al., 2010), we aimed to provide a more informed understanding of how personality, vocational interests, and cognitive ability together account for variance in creative achievements. It was hypothesized that each of these individual differences domains would be variably predictive of creative achievement by domain, but we had no a priori hypotheses about the relative variance explained by each (personality vs. interests vs. cognitive ability). ...
Article
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We investigated the relationships between creative achievement, cognitive ability, temperament, and vocational interests using a large and diverse Internet-based sample. Ten creative domains (visual arts, music, creative writing, dance, drama, architecture, humor, scientific discovery, inventions, culinary arts) were positively associated with higher cognitive ability, intellect, and extraversion and lower agreeableness. Regarding cognitive ability, there was no evidence for the threshold effect on achievements. Regarding age, younger individuals endorsed a greater number of low-level achievements and older individuals endorsed more high-level achievements across the 10 creative domains. Other characteristics of individual differences (e.g., vocational interests) were more domain-specific for predicting creative achievement. We also introduce a revised method for the assessment and scoring of creative achievements and discuss suggestions for future research
... Much of the research to date illustrating a long-term link between early identified cognitive aptitudes and later creative achievement have been from the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY; Lubinski and Benbow, 2006) of which we will review more findings later. However, we will note here that SMPY has shown that early aptitudes are linked to rare, high-level creative achievements, such as obtaining patents, publications, and even university tenure (e.g., Wai et al., 2005;Park et al., 2007;Ferriman-Robertson et al., 2010). ...
... In contrast, several larger-scale studies and reviews have failed to support the existence of a threshold effect (Kim, 2005;Preckel et al., 2006;Weiss et al., 2020). Furthermore, others have found positive, linear relationships with creativity even within select cohorts of exceptionally talented individuals (Ferriman-Robertson et al., 2010). And ultimately, even Guilford, who originated or at least popularized the idea himself, was unable to find support for a threshold effect, as noted by Weiss et al. (2020). ...
Article
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Understanding how individual and contextual factors collectively contribute to the developmental histories that facilitate the emergence of creative expertise in science is improved by considering the contribution of the broad structure of developed cognitive abilities to creativity, prospective research on the high achieving or gifted students who may choose careers in and end up as creative scientists later in life, as well as retrospective studies of established creative scientists themselves and what their educational histories reveal. We first review and elaborate on these connections as documented in research which explore the development of talent, including cognitive mechanisms that include math and spatial reasoning and science related educational opportunities. We propose a research thought experiment that utilizes the multi-trait, multi-method matrix, and bifactor modeling to help understand the true overlap between measurement structures of cognitive and creative aptitudes. Then we explore the social and cultural contexts that may facilitate and/or hinder creative solutions in science through the lens of how these ecosystems influence talent development for gifted students and also the production of elite scientists. Based on this review, some policies will be suggested that may enhance the development of scientific creativity and broader societal innovation and expand the pipeline to include and fully develop the talents of disadvantaged students and provide nurturing environments to improve the likelihood of the emergence of scientific creative expertise.
... This lead Rubie-Davies (2015) to invite the teachers to be keen in forming positive teacher expectations about students, and Korman (1967) and Mansfield (1973) refer to the effect of these expectations on students' self-esteem, which they consider can play a role on even choosing occupations. Robertson, Smeets, Lubinski, and Benbow (2010) support this notion and add that these expectations can reflect students' career choices, and in the same sense Papageorge, Gershenson, and Kang's (2020, p. 3) assert that teacher expectations can raise students' views about themselves and their performance. ...
... Therefore, teachers see these three phases of conduct (academic, social, behavioral) as a good indication of a successful vocational future. The results confirm Robertson, Smeets, Lubinski, and Benbow's (2010) results, which indicate that students' cognitive abilities are important for career choice and performance. Papageorge, Gershenson, and Kang (2020, p. 3) assert that "teacher expectations matter because they raise students' views about their performance and outcomes." ...
Research
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The current study aimed to reveal Kuwaiti social studies teachers' expectations for the future conduct of the students who ordinarily sit close to the teacher. These expectations are related to academic, behavioral, social, and vocational conduct domains. A descriptive, analytical method was used. A questionnaire was used to collect data. The study was applied to a random sample of social studies teachers in Kuwaiti schools in six educational districts. The sample consisted of 224 social studies teachers. The study revealed that the level of social studies teachers' expectations about the future conduct of students sitting in locations close to the teacher was closely aligned with both the scientific and behavioral domains and moderately aligned with both the social and vocational domains. It was also found that there were no statistically significant differences in teachers' expectations due to years of experience, and there were no statistically significant differences in teachers' expectations due to gender in all study domains except for the academic domain, in which male teachers showed higher future academic expectations than the females. It is recommended to provide training courses for teachers on classroom management, emphasizing the importance of rotating students' seating locations and encouraging teachers to use other seating arrangements that provide equal opportunities for all students to be close to the teacher.
... Similarly, in graduate admissions, the predictive validity of the GRE ranges from 0.34 to 0.41 for cumulative graduate GPA and 0.26 to 0.51 for comprehensive exam performance (Kuncel & Hezlett, 2007). Besides grades, other career-and life-achievements such as publications, patents, university tenure, and income are also predicted by standardized test scores (Robertson et al., 2010;Wai et al., 2005). Indeed, predictive validity remains one of the chief features of standardized tests of cognitive ability in work and educational settings. ...
... Despite imperfections, standardized college admission tests (i.e., ACT and SAT) are construct-valid measures of developed general mental ability and one of the best predictors of an array of future academic, career, and life achievements (e.g., Brown et al., 2021;Kuncel et al., 2004;Robertson et al., 2010) and these tools have been carefully calibrated due to decades of criticism to minimize bias and adverse impact (e.g., Cronbach, 1975;Phelps, 2005;Sackett et al., 2008). Nevertheless, test critics maintain that standardized tests are not predictive of academic performance. ...
Article
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Research evidence in the social sciences often relies on effect size statistics, which are hard to understand for the public and do not always provide clear information for decision-makers. One area where interpretation of research evidence has profound effects on policy is college admission testing. In this paper, we conducted two experiments testing how different effect size presentations affect validity perception and policy preferences toward standardized admission tests (e.g., ACT, SAT). We found that compared to traditional effect size statistics (e.g., correlation coefficient), participants perceived admission tests to be more predictively valid when the same evidence was presented using an alternative effect size presentation. The perceived validity of the admission test was also positively associated with admission test policies (e.g., test-optional policy) preferences. Our findings show that policy preferences toward admission tests depend on the perception of statistical evidence, which is malleable and depends on how evidence is presented.
... También, Kang, H., et al. (2019) observaron que la disposición de las mujeres por una carrera científica obtuvo una correlación negativa. Al respecto, Robertson et al. (2010) mencionan que la persistencia en la carrera científica tiene relación con la perspectiva de la carrera, ya que se reconoce que las mujeres tienen preferencia por trabajar menos horas que los varones; se piensa que tienen la intención de tener calidad de vida, además cuando llegan a los treinta años le dan mayor valor a la familia que al trabajo, mientras que los varones ponen énfasis a sus carreras, al sueldo y a la toma de riesgos. Asimismo, Pereda et al. (2023) encontraron que las mujeres desisten más que los hombres cuando se sienten rechazadas, lo que influye sobremanera en su escasa presencia en sus carreras científicas. ...
Article
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La educación científica es fundamental para empoderar a las niñas y lograr abatir las desigualdades sociales, la pobreza y la violencia de género. El desarrollo de habilidades científicas en niñas permite incentivar su participación en la ciencia, aunado al crecimiento de su autoeficacia científica y motivación hacia el aprendizaje. El objetivo de esta investigación es identificar las percepciones que tienen las niñas de 9 a 13 años respecto a variables relacionadas con la educación científica, para analizar los escenarios sobre los que transitan y las formas en cómo estos afectan o pueden estimular sus motivaciones hacia las ciencias y el aprendizaje. Es un estudio cualitativo y se empleó el análisis de contenido. La recolección de datos fue a través de la entrevista semiestructurada; participaron 23 niñas estudiantes de una escuela pública en la Ciudad de México y zona conurbada. Las entrevistas se analizaron haciendo uso del software Atlas.ti; se realizó la codificación y posterior categorización. Se concluye que existen brechas significativas en la educación científica de las niñas que participaron en la investigación. Es imprescindible trabajar en modelos a seguir femeninos en el ámbito científico, además en la capacitación a docentes en métodos pedagógicos con perspectiva de género, contar con laboratorios escolares equipados y trabajar en talleres que fomenten habilidades avanzadas en matemáticas, enfocados en niñas para fortalecer su confianza y competencia en estas áreas.
... P-E fit is multidimensional (Jansen & Kristof-Brown, 2006) and has many different operationalizations (Kristof, 1996). As such, it is wellknown that there are many potential ways that people can choose well-fitting jobs, such as choosing a job that matches one's abilities, lifestyle preferences, or desired income (Kazi & Akhlaq, 2017;Robertson et al., 2010). Although there is a clear link between interests and career choices (Hanna & Rounds, 2020), there is also a lot of expected variation in the degree to which interests are the primary driver in career decisions relative to other factors. ...
Article
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Although research and policy efforts have attempted to "even the hiring playing field" and progress equal opportunities, systemic employment patterns based on gender and ethnicity remain prevalent. An unexplored avenue of diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts is the degree to which all people can obtain jobs that fit their interests. The present study used a large, diverse sample of over 250,000 American employees to estimate the average vocational interest fit that people have with their jobs and differences in fit across race/ ethnicity, gender, and education. Overall, employees showed moderate positive vocational interest fit with their jobs, with an average profile correlation of .20 between person and job interests. There were small gender differences in vocational interest fit favoring men, especially White and Hispanic men, with minimal differences across other race/ethnicity groups. However, the largest group differences emerged for education, as employees with higher educational attainment showed greater vocational interest fit, particularly among women. Further intersectional analyses added greater nuance to these results, including how various groups achieve vocational interest fit across different types of jobs. Altogether, this work
... Moreover, PSW methods in general are supported by the references in the following arguments: a. Academic achievement (Barnes et al., 2022;Berkowitz et al., 2022;Buckley et al., 2019;Caemmerer et al., 2018;Gerst et al., 2021;Hajovsky et al., 2014;Höffler, 2010;Kendeou et al., 2014;McGrew & Wendling, 2010;Niileksela et al., 2016;Vanderwood et al., 2002;Zheng et al., 2011) b. Occupational choice andachievement (ALMamari &Traynor, 2021;Bertua et al., 2005;Coyle, 2022;Coyle et al., 2014;Goertz et al., 2014;Grobelny, 2018;Ludwikowski et al., 2019;Robertson et al., 2010;Schneider & Newman, 2015;Wai et al., 2009) c. Creative accomplishment (Benedek et al., 2017;Forthmann et al., 2019;Karwowski et al., 2021;Kaufman, 2015; Runco & Acar, 2012) d. ...
... Traditionally, Cognitive ability has been considered a crucial measure of academic performance, as proven by the research of Yen and his team [6] ,which assessed that tests of cognitive ability consistently reflect variations in academic achievement.Carroll [7] defined cognitive ability as the ability that involves some kind of cognitive task and perceived it as an instrumental tool to enhance learning and understanding. This perspective is reinforced by the insights from Robertson et al [8] . which assert that cognitive ability influences the development of students at every cognitive level. ...
... In humans this argument is not particularly convincing because human intelligence test scores are correlated with other measures of intelligence. For example, people who score highly in intelligence tests are more likely to achieve advanced educational degrees and pursue careers in areas, such as science, that are generally regarded as requiring intelligence [Robertson et al., 2010;Haier, 2017]. ...
... Generally speaking, females outperform males in schools (Maligalig and Albert 2008;Voyer and Voyer 2014) and sometimes even in physics achievement (Collado 2019; Constante and Agsalud 2019; Yerdelen-Damar and Pesman 2013). However, other studies also point in opoosite direction as girls' achievement scores in physics wane and tend to be outperformed by boys (Krakehl and Kelly 2021;Lubinski and Benbow 1992;Taasoobshirazi and Carr 2008) probably due to girls being less interested in this field of science than boys (Adams et al. 2006;Hoffmann 2002;Murphy and Whitelegg 2006;Robertson et al. 2010). Sex differences in cognitive understanding exist (Halpern 2014)due to differences in abilities such as spatial, memory as well as language and mathematical abilities (Halpern 2014). ...
Article
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Due to the necessity to continue learning even during the pandemic, schools opened utilizing distance learning modalities. However, there is a dearth of evidence on the effectivity of this modalities in physics. In this study, we investigated the effects of three physics distance learning modes; the module-only (MO), virtual lab plus module (VLM), and the physical lab plus module (PLM) classes in physics achievement and metacognition employing the pretest-posttest and repeated measures research designs. All learning modules used were in digital formats sent through free messaging platforms. Analysis of data includes paired samples t-test, one-way ANOVA, repeated measures ANOVA, and independent samples t-test. Results revealed that all three distance learning modes have significantly higher post-test than pre-test scores. Further analysis showed, however, that only VLM had significantly higher gain scores than MO. Initially, at pre-MO and post-MO administrations, male students had significantly higher metacognition but this diminished after they perform both virtual and physical labs. It was in post-PLM where students have significantly better metacognition than pre-MO and post-MO. This study showed that not only do physical and virtual labs supplement distance modular learning, they are also complementary that both must be used in distance learning.
... A substantial number of empirical findings indicate that innate talent is one of the most important predictors of people's attainment in their careers. Using longitudinal data that track the career trajectories of profoundly gifted individuals over decades, Lubinski and colleagues have repeatedly shown that those with high innate talent or aptitude are associated with high levels of career potential (Lubinski et al. 2001(Lubinski et al. , 2006(Lubinski et al. , 2014Robertson et al. 2010;Makel et al. 2016). For example, this stream of research finds that precocious and gifted individuals are far more likely than their peers to become tenured professors of elite universities, distinguished judges and attorneys, and top executives of prestigious organizations (Kell et al. 2013, Bernstein et al. 2019. ...
Article
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Innate talent and orientation toward hard work are highly important personal attributes with respect to workers’ productive capabilities. In this research, we identify a discrepancy between job candidates and recruiters in their relative valuation of these two attributes. Although innate talent is valued relatively more by job candidates than recruiters, the opposite is true for orientation toward hard work. We propose that the discrepancy is rooted in a misalignment of the fundamental motivations of the two parties in the job market. In seven studies (four preregistered), which include randomized trial experiments and quasi-experiments and use real life recruiters and job seekers (across a total of 112 industries) as participants, we provide evidence of the current effect and its underlying mechanism. Studies 1A–1C demonstrate the negative consequence of the discrepancy on job market efficiency, showing that it can lead candidates to adopt impression management strategies that lower their chance of getting the job. Studies 2A and 2B show that full-time workers consider career potential to be associated with both innate talent and hard work but position performance to be more strongly associated with hard work than innate talent. Finally, Studies 3A and 3B indicate that candidates are relatively more career-focused, whereas recruiters are relatively more position focused and that this difference in their relative focus mediates the current discrepancy. Implications of the present research for both job candidates and recruiters are discussed. Funding: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China General Program [Grant 72172136] awarded to X. Dai and University of Macau Multi-Year Research Grants [MYRG2020-00030-FBA and MYRG2022-00126-FBA] awarded to K. Si. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2023.1667 .
... It is often claimed that IQ tests only measure the ability of people to perform IQ tests, not intelligence itself. However, the results of IQ tests correlate with other indicators of intelligence, such as academic grades, the publication of scientific papers, and success in professional careers (Robertson et al. 2010). ...
Chapter
A.I.: Artificial Intelligence tells the story of a robot boy who has been engineered to love his human owner. He is abandoned by his owner and pursues a tragic quest to become a real boy, so that he can be loved by her again. This chapter explores the philosophical, psychological and scientific questions that are asked by A.I. It starts with A.I.’s representation of artificial intelligence, and then covers the consciousness of robots, which is closely linked to ethical concerns about the treatment of AIs in the film. There is a discussion about how A.I.’s interpretation of artificial love relates to scientific work on emotion, and the chapter also examines connections between the technology portrayed in A.I. and current research on robotics.
... The monitoring of cognitive abilities in large population surveys is receiving increasing attention in social science, epidemiology, and health policy research. It is widely recognized that cognitive abilities are powerful predictors of important life outcomes, including educational and work performance (Clark et al. 2010;Nye et al. 2022;Robertson et al. 2010;Wai et al. 2018), earnings and financial wellbeing (Furnham and Cheng 2016; Murnane et al. 2000), life satisfaction (Enkvist et al. 2013;St John and Montgomery 2010), health (Luciano et al. 2009;Stilley et al. 2010), successful aging (Castro-Lionard et al. 2011), and mortality (Batty et al. 2007;Duff et al. 2009). Large-scale monitoring of people's cognitive abilities allows for the investigation of protective and risk factors of cognitive impairment associated with aging (Finkel et al. 2003) and chronic medical conditions (Schagen et al. 2014). ...
Article
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Monitoring of cognitive abilities in large-scale survey research is receiving increasing attention. Conventional cognitive testing, however, is often impractical on a population level highlighting the need for alternative means of cognitive assessment. We evaluated whether response times (RTs) to online survey items could be useful to infer cognitive abilities. We analyzed >5 million survey item RTs from >6000 individuals administered over 6.5 years in an internet panel together with cognitive tests (numerical reasoning, verbal reasoning, task switching/inhibitory control). We derived measures of mean RT and intraindividual RT variability from a multilevel location-scale model as well as an expanded version that separated intraindividual RT variability into systematic RT adjustments (variation of RTs with item time intensities) and residual intraindividual RT variability (residual error in RTs). RT measures from the location-scale model showed weak associations with cognitive test scores. However, RT measures from the expanded model explained 22–26% of the variance in cognitive scores and had prospective associations with cognitive assessments over lag-periods of at least 6.5 years (mean RTs), 4.5 years (systematic RT adjustments) and 1 year (residual RT variability). Our findings suggest that RTs in online surveys may be useful for gaining information about cognitive abilities in large-scale survey research.
... Individuals who act and think differently than the norms can demonstrate a high level of intellectual capacity across multiple domains (Kaufman et al., 2010). In the literature, there has been research on gifted students and their achievement and preferences in various domains such as math, science, or art (Robertson et al., 2010;Stornelli et al., 2009). However, research on how these students use their skills to learn foreign languages is limited. ...
Article
This article describes a case study of a gifted student who spent about two months learning a new language through the use of a mobile application. The purpose of this study is to investigate how a gifted student perceives the effectiveness of Duolingo, as well as how the participant improved his language skills. The participant was a 14-year-old Turkish male who began using Duolingo knowing nothing about French. Data was gathered through interviews, self-reports, and language tests. According to the findings, Duolingo provided a user-friendly, enjoyable, and competitive learning environment for the participant, but it was not regarded as an all-in-one language-learning tool. The participant appeared to gain various language skills, particularly reading and writing skills, without referring to other sources. When considering the improvement level in this case, Duolingo should be a reciprocal learning tool as an addition to language courses rather than a replacement for regular language courses.
... One related area of research bears mentioning with regard to potential relationships between intelligence and creative achievement, particularly the notion that intelligence might be necessary (but not sufficient) for its expression: the so-called "threshold hypothesis." Here, the same camps are largely at play, with one group laying out the argument that more intelligence is always associated with increasingly higher levels of achievement, even creative achievement (Park et al 2008, Robertson et al 2010, although examples of achievements meeting the definition of "creative" are scant from this group (e.g., see Table 2). Various other groups have found a threshold (Karwowski et al 2016, Lee et al 2010, Shi et al 2017, with one group finding a threshold for creative potential but not creative achievement (Jauk et al 2013). ...
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Psychologist J. P. Guildford issued a challenge to study creativity nearly 70 years ago. How well have we done and what might the next steps be in our endeavors to understand creativity? The field of creativity research has examined the internal thinking process of creativity, largely through measures of divergent thinking and remote associates. We have tracked the creative successes of people assumed to be of high talent and high intelligence. And, we have evaluated creative products. More recently, we have correlated various cognitive and personality measures, purported to be linked to creativity, with brain structure and function. In spite of this flurry of activity, there are some problems. These assessments do not provide specific or significant predictive validity of creative achievement. Similarly, while Guilford desired to separate creativity from the purview of intelligence in his challenge, these constructs appear to be as entangled today as they were in the 1950ʹs. When viewing all predictive variables of creative achievement across person, process, and product, we found that the personality trait of openness to experience – provides the best combination of specificity and predictive power. Finally, we join others in calling for more study of imagination as a mental tool that individuals at all skill levels use to predict outcomes, visualize scenarios, and engage in counterfactual thinking – in service of creative achievement.
... This likability to a particular environment also influences career choice and performance. People choose to stay or leave based on these above factors, and it has numerous studies have shown that more than men, women have a stronger preference to work in environments that cater to people (Thorndike, 1911;Woodcock et al., 2013), social interests (Su et al., 2009;Robertson et al., 2010), subjective task values ( Meece et al., 1982;Eccles, 2007), and communal goals ( Diekman et al., 2010;McCarty et al., 2014). Women have consistently performed better than men in occupations that are peopleorientated, and Men performed in occupations that are oriented toward things (Woodcock et al., 2013). ...
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A steady Gender gap is observed with the number of students enrolled in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields in higher education and universities. The underrepresentation of women in the field of STEM is world-wide. Numerous studies have contemplated different factors for this gap and studies on interests showing, that women's career decisions are often influenced by their interest which is inclined towards working ‘with people’ and deviates them from STEM. Men prefer to work with ‘material and gadgets’ which interests more men towards STEM. Increment in “enterprising and artistic interests” among the women, less awareness on the career and study opportunities, lesser female mentors, the duration to become an expert in STEM, lesser encouragement from the opposite sex, has an impact on the number of females in STEM. The gap was more prominent in egalitarian countries and termed as the “education gender-equality paradox”. The difference in early childhood spatial ability can also contribute to the emergence of gender differences in mathematics and science later. This article also suggests more research into making STEM attractive for both genders, providing early education that provides makes STEM attractive for both genders.
... Students in the sophisticated profile have the potential to enrich society in scientific domains, for example, by generating new ideas and finding solutions for social, economic, or environmental problems. Thus, it might be beneficial to foster the science abilities of these students (e.g., by having them participate in early student science competitions) and motivate them to pursue STEM careers (e.g., Robertson et al., 2010). These findings also provide an alternative, empirical perspective on debates regarding what should be considered epistemic sophistication (Elby et al., 2016;Rosman et al., 2017). ...
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Recent research has integrated developmental and dimensional perspectives on epistemic beliefs by implementing an approach in which profiles of learners' epistemic beliefs are modeled across multiple dimensions. Variability in study characteristics has impeded the comparison of profiles of epistemic beliefs and their relations with external variables across studies. We examined this comparability by integrating data on epistemic beliefs about the source, certainty, development, and justification of knowledge in science from six studies comprising N = 10,932 German students from elementary to upper secondary school. Applying latent profile analyses to these data, we found that profiles of epistemic beliefs that were previously conceptualized were robust across multiple samples. We found indications that profiles of epistemic beliefs homogenize over the course of students' education, are related to school tracking, and demonstrate robust relations with students' personal characteristics and socioeconomic background. We discuss implications for the theory, assessment, and education of epistemic beliefs. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10648-022-09661-w.
... Lifestyle preferences, vocational interests, and expected outcomes have a great influence on career choice of an individual. People from low socioeconomic status are usually overrepresented in lower-paid occupations as they do not have more choices like that of high class (Robertson et al. 2010). Thus outcome expectations are differently shaping youth attitude to agricultural profession from different socioeconomic status groups (Gottfredson, 2005;Ommani, 2011). ...
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The focus of this research paper is to assess the role of intrinsic factors (personal interest, outcome expectations) in shaping youth's attitude towards agricultural occupations. For this purpose, 486 youth under age group15-29 years were randomly selected from 12 villages in district Mardan. The data were collected through a data collection instrument/ questionnaire. This study revealed that the majority of the respondents were graduates and unemployed. Respondents showed less favorable attitudes towards agricultural occupations though most of them belonged to farming families. Low outcome expectations from agricultural occupations cause unfavorable attitudes towards agricultural occupations among youth.
... For a broader review of how higher cognitive aptitude is often assumed to be a challenge but is found to be largely positive, see Brown et al. (2021). This review includes four representative samples from the United States and United Kingdom from 1957 to the present, illustrating few difficulties related to higher aptitude and that there is not a threshold beyond which greater aptitude no longer impacted life outcomes in educational, occupational, health, and social domains (also see Martin et al., 2010;Ferriman-Robertson et al., 2010;Francis et al., 2016). The Marland Report (1972) cited early studies by Yoder (1894), Terman (1904), and Dolbear (1912) noting, these studies refuted earlier beliefs about the "mad genius" syndrome, although there are recent writings which show that giftedness may produce severe problems for certain individuals. ...
Article
The Marland Report included many correct observations about gifted education. Some findings, for example, were based on Project Talent, a large‐scale population representative longitudinal study of the US high school population. This paper uses the intersection of cognitive aptitudes and gifted education as a framework and synthesizes studies using prospective longitudinal data from numerous sources. Additional retrospective data on US high achievers are reviewed, as are longitudinal findings from other countries. All these sources will be used to reevaluate a selected set of claims made in the Marland Report. Specifically, we explore (a) the definition and understanding of gifted students; (b) the identification of and longitudinal research on gifted students; and (c) we briefly discuss the context of the Marland Report in the wider history of education policy and reform in the US, including how to best support talented students using information from the field of education policy.
... Students in the sophisticated profile have the potential to enrich society in scientific domains, for example, by generating new ideas and finding solutions for social, economic, or environmental problems. Thus, it might be beneficial to foster the science abilities of these students (e.g., by having them participate in early student science competitions) and motivate them to pursue STEM careers (e.g., Robertson et al., 2010). These findings also provide an alternative, empirical perspective on debates regarding what should be considered epistemic sophistication (Elby et al., 2016;Rosman et al., 2017). ...
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Recent research has integrated developmental and dimensional perspectives on epistemic beliefs by implementing an approach in which profiles of learners’ epistemic beliefs are modeled across multiple dimensions. Variability in study characteristics has impeded the comparison of profiles of epistemic beliefs and their relations with external variables across studies. We examined this comparability by integrating data on epistemic beliefs about the source, certainty, development, and justification of knowledge in science from six studies comprising N = 10,932 German students from elementary to upper secondary school. Applying latent profile analyses to these data, we found that profiles of epistemic beliefs that were previously conceptualized were robust across multiple samples. We found indications that profiles of epistemic beliefs homogenize over the course of students’ education, are related to school tracking, and demonstrate robust relations with students’ personal characteristics and socioeconomic background. We discuss implications for the theory, assessment, and education of epistemic beliefs.
... and the world of work). In this case, vocational interest (Robertson et al., 2010;Glosenberg et al., 2019), and student's perceptions of the world of work will be able to influence student learning outcomes (Stoll et al., 2017). ...
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The challenge of education in Indonesia with the entry of the era of society 5.0 requires efforts to improve student learning outcomes, especially engineering education students. This paper focuses on looking at the influence of vocational interest on learning outcomes, perceptions of the world of work based on society 5.0 on learning outcomes, and vocational interests and perceptions of the world of work together on learning outcomes. The results of the study found that (1) there was a significant influence between vocational interest on student learning outcomes by 10.3%, (2) there was a significant influence between perceptions of the world of work based on society 5.0 on student learning outcomes by 11.3% and (3) there is a joint influence of vocational interest and perceptions of the world of work based on society 5.0 on student learning outcomes by 16%. Thus, it can be concluded that vocational interest and perceptions about the world of work based on society 5.0 are two factors that contribute to student learning outcomes. This means that the higher the vocational interest and perception of the world of work based on society 5.0, the student learning outcomes will tend to be higher.
... While the belief that high-IQ student are more at risk of school failure has not been supported by the literature and seems contradictory with the generally positive correlation between IQ and achievement, it is not inconceivable that this relationship might reverse or at least level off beyond a certain IQ level, such that individuals with very high IQ might succeed less well than expected from the linear relationship observed in non-gifted children. Again, this threshold hypothesis has not been supported by the literature, as a series of studies showed the existence of differences in degrees earned and other indicators of success depending on ability levels, even within the highly gifted SMPY population (Park et al., 2008;Robertson et al., 2010). ...
Thesis
This dissertation aimed at providing a greater understanding of what fosters or hampers the acquisition of academic skills in children. To do so, we have conducted a series of studies using longitudinal data from two French cohorts, the EDEN cohort and the DEPP Panel 2007, assessing the relative influences of a wide variety of factors on diverse aspects of academic achievement in middle school. First, we studied the extent of the association between intelligence and academic skills in France. We assessed the strength of this relationship, as well as the socio-economic and conative influences on academic skills and their progression beyond the role of IQ. We further investigated the relationship between IQ and academic achievement among intellectually gifted student. Second, we digged into one component of academic skills, numeracy, examining its preschool predictors. We assessed the relative predictive power of cognitive, socio-emotional and environmental factors on arithmetic skills as well as their mediation relationships; and investigated the differential cognitive predictors of addition, subtraction and multiplication. Third, we similarly studied the preschool cognitive, socio-emotional and environmental influences on the acquisition of different literacy skills, and their mediating relationships. Fourth and last, we examined sex differences in both literacy and numeracy, assessing the influence of evaluation characteristics on these gaps. The results of these studies provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the acquisition of academic skills in France, and have practical implications for practitioners and actors in the education sphere.
... Studies reporting the relationship between intelligence and creative activities were also excluded 1 . Finally, we excluded studies involving gifted students (e.g., Makel et al. 2016;Robertson et al. 2010). ...
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This paper presents a meta-analysis of the links between intelligence test scores and creative achievement. A three-level meta-analysis of 117 correlation coefficients from 30 studies found a correlation of r = .16 (95% CI: .12, .19), closely mirroring previous meta-analytic findings. The estimated effects were stronger for overall creative achievement and achievement in scientific domains than for correlations between intelligence scores and creative achievement in the arts and everyday creativity. No signs of publication bias were found. We discuss theoretical implications and provide recommendations for future studies.
... Beyond the cognitive ability profile of mathematicians, we investigated domaingeneral and domain-specific aspects of personality. Personality traits and interests have been found to be important for career choices (Robertson et al., 2010), and their investigation can, thus, provide a more comprehensive picture of the psychological correlates of mathematical expertise. In contrast to cognitive abilities, there is very scarce evidence on personality traits in expert mathematicians. ...
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While the cognitive foundations for mathematical abilities have been investigated thoroughly in individuals with and without mathematical difficulties, our current knowledge about the cognitive abilities as well as the personality traits associated with mathematical expertise is still scarce. In this study we systematically investigated which domain-general (working memory [WM], patterning, visual statistical learning [VSL]) and domain-specific cognitive abilities (approximate number system [ANS], symbolic numerical magnitude comparison, ordinality, arithmetic), as well as personality traits (Big Five, need for cognition [NFC], attitudes towards mathematics), are related specifically to mathematical expertise. To this end, we compared 42 mathematicians with 42 non-mathematicians from fields with no to minimal mathematical content. In contrast to previous research, this study included not only mathematicians with lower expertise (Bachelor and Master students) but also mathematicians with higher expertise (faculty members of the institute of mathematics) to provide a more differentiated look at mathematical expertise. Mathematicians and non-mathematicians were matched for age, sex, educational level and, importantly, for general intelligence. All analyses were done with Bayesian statistics to investigate differences and similarities across these groups. After controlling for intelligence, the results showed that mathematicians and non-mathematicians had very similar profiles. They were comparable in WM capacity, VSL, and general patterning abilities; only in the patterning domain time did mathematicians solve more items. Both groups performed equally in ANS and the ordinality task. However, mathematicians had a more accurate mental representation of symbolic numbers and a better arithmetic fact knowledge. Similarities also emerged in NFC and the Big Five, except for openness where mathematicians were less open to experiences. Unsurprisingly, mathematicians had a more positive attitude towards mathematics than non-mathematicians. Comparing mathematicians with lower and higher expertise did not reveal differences in domain-general and domain-specific abilities. This also applied to the personality traits; the groups did not differ except for the motivation to do mathematics, in which the faculty members were more motivated than the students. Overall, these findings contribute to a deeper and more differentiated understanding of mathematical expertise.
... The results from human intelligence tests have been shown to be correlated with other measures of success. For example, people who score highly in intelligence tests are more likely to achieve advanced educational degrees and pursue careers in areas, such as science, that are generally regarded as requiring intelligence [Robertson et al., 2010]. This correlation of intelligence tests with societal measures of intelligence gives IQ and g-score considerable plausibility as measures of human intelligence. ...
Article
A systematic understanding of the relationship between intelligence and consciousness can only be achieved when we can accurately measure intelligence and consciousness. In other work, I have suggested how the measurement of consciousness can be improved by reframing the science of consciousness as a search for mathematical theories that map between physical and conscious states. This paper discusses the measurement of intelligence in natural and artificial systems. While reasonable methods exist for measuring intelligence in humans, these can only be partly generalized to non-human animals and they cannot be applied to artificial systems. Some universal measures of intelligence have been developed, but their dependence on goals and rewards creates serious problems. This paper sets out a new universal algorithm for measuring intelligence that is based on a system’s ability to make accurate predictions. This algorithm can measure intelligence in humans, non-human animals and artificial systems. Preliminary experiments have demonstrated that it can measure the changing intelligence of an agent in a maze environment. This new measure of intelligence could lead to a much better understanding of the relationship between intelligence and consciousness in natural and artificial systems, and it has many practical applications, particularly in AI safety.
... Studies reporting the relationship between intelligence and creative activities were also excluded. 2 Finally, we excluded studies involving gifted students (e.g., Makel et al. 2019;Robertson et al. 2010). ...
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This paper presents a meta-analysis of the links between intelligence test scores and creative achievement. A three-level meta-analysis of 117 correlation coefficients from 30 studies has found a correlation of r = .16 (95% CI: .12, .19), closely mirroring previous meta-analytic findings. The estimated effects were stronger for overall creative achievement and achievement in scientific domains than for correlations between intelligence scores and creative achievement in the arts and everyday creativity. No signs of publication bias were found. We discuss theoretical implications and provide recommendations for future studies.
... A study of adolescents, for example, who scored in the top 1% of quantitative reasoning ability found that higher levels of cognitive ability remained predictive of more achievements, including patents, peer-reviewed publications, and doctorates (Robertson et al., 2010). Similarly, Jauk and colleagues (2013) did not find evidence for the threshold hypothesis in a separate study of creative achievement among the highly intelligent, although they did report a threshold for divergent thinking. ...
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We investigated the relationships between creative achievement, cognitive ability, temperament, and vocational interests using a large and diverse internet-based sample. Ten creative domains (visual arts, music, creative writing, dance, drama, architecture, humor, scientific discovery, inventions, culinary arts) were positively associated with higher cognitive ability, intellect and extraversion, and lower agreeableness. With regard to cognitive ability, there was no evidence for the threshold effect on achievements. With regard to age, younger individuals endorsed a greater number of low-level achievements and older individuals more high-level achievements across the 10 creative domains. Other characteristics of individual differences (e.g., vocational interests) were more domain-specific for predicting creative achievement. We also introduce a revised method for the assessment and scoring of creative achievements, and discuss suggestions for future research.
... Although our samples included participants from several different generations and outcomes measured at various points in life across the United States and United Kingdom, most scored within the typical cognitive ability range. This is often identified as a weakness of past studies that have attempted to test for threshold effects (Ferriman-Robertson et al., 2010). However, the goal of our study was to observe whether these effects could be detected within representative samples. ...
Article
Despite a long-standing expert consensus about the importance of cognitive ability for life outcomes, contrary views continue to proliferate in scholarly and popular literature. This divergence of beliefs presents an obstacle for evidence-based policymaking and decision-making in a variety of settings. One commonly held idea is that greater cognitive ability does not matter or is actually harmful beyond a certain point (sometimes stated as > 100 or 120 IQ points). We empirically tested these notions using data from four longitudinal, representative cohort studies comprising 48,558 participants in the United States and United Kingdom from 1957 to the present. We found that ability measured in youth has a positive association with most occupational, educational, health, and social outcomes later in life. Most effects were characterized by a moderate to strong linear trend or a practically null effect (mean R ² range = .002–.256). Nearly all nonlinear effects were practically insignificant in magnitude (mean incremental R ² = .001) or were not replicated across cohorts or survey waves. We found no support for any downside to higher ability and no evidence for a threshold beyond which greater scores cease to be beneficial. Thus, greater cognitive ability is generally advantageous—and virtually never detrimental.
... In a study on women's participation in the labour force, Hakim (2002) used an interview survey on a national representative sample of 3,651 persons aged 16 years or older, and found that three lifestyles of women including home-centred, adaptive, and work-centred were major determinants of employment patterns, job choice, and fertility. Robertson et al. (2010) concluded that lifestyle preference is a determinant of career development beyond abilities and interests. In the study, lifestyle was defined as number of hours willing to work versus time spent with family, friends and community. ...
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Using a mixed method approach, this study investigated the effect of lifestyles on job search criteria of the generation Y in Thailand. Lifestyle was viewed via the Attitudes, Interest, Opinions (AIO) concept. Eight focus group sessions were conducted with 68 participants; a survey was conducted with 2,293 persons' country-wide. An exploratory factor analysis was performed and extracted 17 lifestyles, which were then regressed against 6 job search criteria. We found that persons with different lifestyles considered job search criteria differently. Extrinsic criteria, i.e., salary and job security were influenced by lifestyles that reflected pecuniary importance such as hard-working, self-image and fashion, active online, and masculinity. Intrinsic criteria, i.e., college major-job match, opportunity advancement, and challenge of the job, were influenced by lifestyles that reflected personal and inner interests. Job security was more important to males while college major-job match was more important to females. JEL Classification: M12
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This much-needed book introduces readers to the related fields of expertise, creativity, and performance, exploring our understanding of the factors contributing to greatness in creative domains. Bringing together research from the fields of creativity and expertise, it provides fresh insights for newcomers and seasoned scholars alike with its approachable guide to the multidimensional complexities of expertise development. It transcends traditionally studied fields such as chess, sports, and music, instead exploring the intersection of expertise with creativity and the performing arts. Dedicated applied chapters cover eight fields, including mind-games, music, dance, creative writing, acting, art, and STEM. The book also examines the facilitators of creative performance, including aesthetic sensitivity, creativity, and mental imagery as well as the obstacles to performance such as burnout, procrastination, and gender-related challenges. The book concludes by engaging with pressing issues facing expertise, including the impact of AI. Student-friendly pedagogy is featured throughout, including 'Spotlight on...', 'Check it out...', and 'Consider this...' boxes to position material within context and engage students' learning. Whether revealing how an actor brings their part to life, how writers conjure up their storylines and vibrant characters, or what lies behind scientific invention, The Psychology of Creative Performance and Expertise offers a fascinating insight into the multifaceted journey towards achieving creative excellence. This is a valuable resource for final-year undergraduates, postgraduate students, and scholars across a range of disciplines, including expertise or skill acquisition, the psychology of performance, and creativity.
Chapter
While literatures on intelligence, creativity, and wisdom recently intersect, these three constructs are usually analyzed separately, focusing on their specificity rather than their complementariness. Indeed, correlational findings suggest that the overlap between intelligence and creativity, intelligence and wisdom, and wisdom and creativity is moderate at best. However, many studies suffer from a very narrow understanding and measurement of these constructs. What seems promising are perspectives that search for complex forms of relationships, going beyond simple correlational associations. Examples might include a necessary-condition analysis (NCA) approach, where intelligence is theorized as a necessary (yet not sufficient) condition of creativity and a necessary condition of wisdom. This chapter discusses previous attempts to study the relationship between intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, focusing on more nuanced and complex links. It mainly focuses on the function these three constructs, separately and together, might play in bringing positive change. To this end, I discuss how intelligence, creativity, and wisdom make emancipation or well-being possible, their role in healing, responding to political populism and social media fake news, and reducing stereotypes and prejudices.KeywordsIntelligenceCreativityWisdomProtestPrejudiceNecessary condition analysis
Chapter
In this chapter we discuss the link between intelligence and problem-solving. To preview, we argue that the ability to solve problems is not just an aspect or feature of intelligence – it is the essence of intelligence. We briefly review evidence from psychometric research concerning the nature of individual differences in intelligence, and then review evidence for how intelligence relates to complex problem-solving. We also consider the question of what mechanisms might underlie both problem-solving and intelligence, focusing on fluid intelligence and some of our own research on placekeeping ability. We then discuss the predictive validity of intelligence as it relates to job performance, mortality, expertise, and academic achievement. We also discuss practical uses of intelligence tests. Finally, we consider the question of whether intelligence as problem-solving ability can be improved through training. We close with directions for future research.
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Bu araştırmanın amacı, üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin kariyer gelişimlerini inceleyen makaleleri yayınlandığı yıllara, araştırmanın yapıldığı ülkeye, konularına, araştırma yöntemine, veri toplama araçlarına ve çalışma grubunun özelliklerine göre incelemektir. Çalışma kapsamında, SPRINGER (f=5), SAGE (f=18), WOS (f=12), SCOPUS, (f=4), TAYLOR&FRANCIS (f=2) veri tabanlarında yer alan 2000-2021 yılları arasında çalışılan ve tarama sonucu ulaşılan 41 makale yer almaktadır. Araştırmanın seçim ölçütlerine uygun makaleler doküman analizi yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. Doküman analizi sonuçları, makalelerin yarısının 13-17(%50) yaş aralığındaki öğrenci örneklemlerinde ve en çok ABD’de (%43) çalışıldığını göstermiştir. Üstün yetenekli öğrencilerde en çok karşılaşılan özelliğin mükemmeliyetçilik olduğu bulunmuştur. Bu araştırma kapsamındaki makalelerin yarıdan fazlasının betimsel yöntem (%63) ile çalışıldığı, deneysel ve kültürlerarası çalışmaların sınırlı sayıda olduğu bulunmuştur. Araştırma kapsamındaki makalelerde kariyer karar verme süreci, öz yetkinlik, dezavantajlı grupta yer alan üstün yetenekli öğrenciler gibi konuların daha çok çalışıldığı belirlenmiştir.
Article
Background Given the gendering of engineering roles and competencies, the evidence that the skills required for engineering management are widely referred to as social, and the fact that men engineers are stereotyped as more technical, and women as more social, it might be theorized that (a) those that occupy managerial (vs. technical) roles in engineering are more socially oriented, and (b) that this will especially be the case for women. However, no research has empirically tested the relationship between having socially oriented characteristics and being in managerial roles within the engineering profession, nor have gender differences been examined. Purpose We test whether social interests and communal goal strivings are linked to engineers' positioning in managerial roles and explore gender as a moderator of these relationships. Additionally, because enterprising interests and agentic goal strivings have been linked to managerial roles in other occupations, we test these as additional predictors of engineers' positioning in managerial roles. Method In a field survey of 274 industry engineers from multiple organizations and subfields, we tested the relationships described using hierarchical linear regression analysis. Results Enterprising interests and agentic goals, but not social interests and communal goals, were associated with being in managerial roles, and there were no gender differences in these relationships. Conclusions Our findings challenge perceptions that managerial roles in engineering, and particularly women's positioning in these roles, are associated with socially oriented tendencies. Findings have implications for research on gender stereotyping and intraoccupational gender segregation in engineering and hold educational implications for curriculum, instruction, and advising.
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Spatial abilities have been shown to have significant input in nurturing Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematic expertise. However, little is done to systematically nurture STEM skills in education let alone investigate innovative approaches to help develop them in students. This paper utilized seminal work in the spatial abilities literature to investigate the extent to which ACT test scores for mathematics and science are used to recruit STEM students. The findings indicate that geometry-related items on the ACTs focus on static, two-dimensional space, recall, and interpretation of graphs. The tests highlight a big gap in nurturing and assessing the use of visual imagery in both mathematics and science. These findings underscore the need for including visual imagination skills in the school curriculum in general and in early childhood in particular.
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ABSTRACT Objectives: The purpose of this study was to compare the influence of students' characteristics on social studies student teachers' expectations of students' behavioral, attitudinal, or ambitious performances and other student teachers. Methodology: A descriptive quantitative approach consisted of administering a questionnaire on a sample of 135 student teachers of various specializations and GPAs at Kuwait University. Data analysis compared the mean of the sample respondents. Results: The results showed that student teachers of different GPAs and fields of specialization tend to form different expectations about diverse classroom students based on some of their characteristics. However, no differences in these expectations based on the student teachers' GPAs and fields of specialization existed. Conclusion: Recommendations were brought to the Kuwaiti Ministry of Education and the teacher preparation program in Kuwaiti universities. The influence of these student characteristics on achievement is suggested to be researched by further studies. Keywords: teachers' expectations, student characteristics, students' behaviors. خصائص التلاميذ وأثرها على تكوين التوقعات لدى الطلبة المعلمين الخاصة بسلوكيات واتجاهات وطموحات المتعلمين: دراسة مقارنة بين الدراسات الاجتماعية والتخصصات الأخرى د. عبد الله الهاجري، د. عبد العزيز الشمري ملخص الأهداف: مقارنة مدى تأثير خصائص المتعلمين على توقعات الطلبة-المعلمين الخاصة بالأداء السلوكي أو الاتجاهات أو طموح هؤلاء المتعلمين وذلك ما بين تخصص الدراسات الاجتماعية وغيرها. المنهجية: استخدم الباحث المنهج الوصفي الكمي من خلال استبانة معدة لهذا الغرض وعينة من 135 من الطلبة المعلمين بكلية التربية بجامعة الكويت بمراعاة مختلف تخصصاتهم ومعدلاتهم الدراسية كمتغيرات للدراسة. نتائج الدراسة: أظهرت النتائج أن الطلاب-المعلمين من مختلف المعدلات ومجالات التخصص يقومون بتشكيل توقعات مختلفة حول الطلاب على أساس مستوى جاذبيتهم وترتيب الهندام ولم توجد أية فروق في هذه التوقعات بين الطلبة-المعلمين من مختلف التخصصات والمعدلات الدراسية. الخاتمة: قدمت الدراسة توصياتها إلى وزارة التربية والتعليم الكويتية وبرامج إعداد المعلمين بالجامعات الكويتية. وختم الباحث دراسته بالدعوة لإجراء مزيد من البحث لدراسة تأثير هذه الخصائص الطلابية على التحصيل العلمي في المادة. الكلمات المفتاحية: توقعات المعلمين، خصائص التلميذ، سلوكيات التلميذ.
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Usury is a plague which haunts most of the underdeveloped sections of the society. The objective of this paper is to show the dark pages of the private moneylenders, their history, why people go to them and not to formal financial institutions. The paper also discusses on the surety asked for loans by loan sharks, consequences of default of payment by borrowers, notorious instances, various laws to protect the affected and probable solutions for this issue. Media is continuously reporting the evils of usury which clearly reveals the wicked grip usury has on the society. Nobody, the rich or the poor is spared. Government also has taken initiatives. But the problem is perennial. To support this study, a review was done on the media reporting on usury. The paper is a review of the “private money lenders” in India.
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There are tremendous challenges faced by women street vendors (WSVs) for financial security. Using banks for their financial transaction will give them respite from private money lenders thereby leading to their financial inclusion in the society. The objective of the study is to convince these WSVs to increase their usage of banks by garnering the help of workers from the public distribution system (PDS). It is hypothesised that these PDS workers will act as influencers in convincing the WSVs to use the banks in a better manner. Two sets of questionnaires were developed; one was administered to get their bank usage pattern. Then, PDS workers were requested to educate WSVs on benefits of banks. After six months the second questionnaire was administered to find any significant change in behaviour with the same set of WSVs. The effect of age and education level of the WSVs in accepting the advice of PDS workers to use banks is investigated using Multivariate generalized linear model (MGLM). The results suggest that education level of the SVs has a clear and contingent influence on their acceptance of PDS workers advices, while age makes no significant difference. Based on the analysis, it is concluded that PDS workers do make a difference in educating the WSVs on the benefits of using banks. It was also found that the impact of PDS workers is higher with the WSVs whose education levels are lower. It is suggested that policy makers can use PDS workers to target WSVs with lower education level for educating them on the benefits of using banks for financial transactions instead of relying on private money lenders.
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Research from the individual-differences tradition pertinent to the optimal development of exceptional talent is reviewed, using the theory of work adjustment (TWA) to organize findings. The authors show how TWA concepts and psychometric methods, when used together, can facilitate positive development among talented youth by aligning learning opportunities with salient aspects of each student's individuality. Longitudinal research and more general theoretical models of (adult) academic and intellectual development support this approach. This analysis also uncovers common threads running through several positive psychological concepts (e.g., effectance motivation, flow, and peak experiences). The authors conclude by underscoring some important ideals from counseling psychology for fostering intellectual development and psychological well-being. These include conducting a multifaceted assessment, focusing on strength, helping people make choices, and providing a developmental context for bridging educational and industrial psychology to facilitate positive psychological growth throughout the life span.
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Adolescents identified before the age of 13 (N = 320) as having exceptional mathematical or verbal reasoning abilities (top 1 in 10,000) were tracked over 10 years. They pursued doctoral degrees at rates over 50 times base-rate expectations, with several participants having created noteworthy literary, scientific, or technical products by their early 20s. Early observed distinctions in intellectual strength (viz., quantitative reasoning ability over verbal reasoning ability, and vice versa) predicted sharp differences in their developmental trajectories and occupational pursuits. This special population strongly preferred educational opportunities tailored to their precocious rate of learning (i.e., appropriate developmental placement), with 95% using some form of acceleration to individualize their education.
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Counseling psychology developed in the 1950s out of applied psychology, which at that time was the application of the psychology of individual differences. The present article traces this historical development, from individual differences psychology through psychological testing, vocational counseling, and student personnel work, to counseling psychology. The individual differences tradition in counseling psychology research and practice is described, and the ways in which individual differences psychology has influenced counseling psychology and how, in turn, counseling psychology has contributed to the psychology of individual differences are discussed. The article concludes with speculations on the future relationship between the 2 fields. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The importance of spatial ability in educational pursuits and the world of work was examined, with particular attention devoted to STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) domains. Participants were drawn from a stratified random sample of U.S. high schools (Grades 9-12, N = 400,000) and were tracked for 11+ years; their longitudinal findings were aligned with pre-1957 findings and with contemporary data from the Graduate Record Examination and the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth. For decades, spatial ability assessed during adolescence has surfaced as a salient psychological attribute among those adolescents who subsequently go on to achieve advanced educational credentials and occupations in STEM. Results solidify the generalization that spatial ability plays a critical role in developing expertise in STEM and suggest, among other things, that including spatial ability in modern talent searches would identify many adolescents with potential for STEM who are currently being missed.
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The magnitude and variability of sex differences in vocational interests were examined in the present meta-analysis for Holland's (1959, 1997) categories (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional), Prediger's (1982) Things-People and Data-Ideas dimensions, and the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) interest areas. Technical manuals for 47 interest inventories were used, yielding 503,188 respondents. Results showed that men prefer working with things and women prefer working with people, producing a large effect size (d = 0.93) on the Things-People dimension. Men showed stronger Realistic (d = 0.84) and Investigative (d = 0.26) interests, and women showed stronger Artistic (d = -0.35), Social (d = -0.68), and Conventional (d = -0.33) interests. Sex differences favoring men were also found for more specific measures of engineering (d = 1.11), science (d = 0.36), and mathematics (d = 0.34) interests. Average effect sizes varied across interest inventories, ranging from 0.08 to 0.79. The quality of interest inventories, based on professional reputation, was not differentially related to the magnitude of sex differences. Moderators of the effect sizes included interest inventory item development strategy, scoring method, theoretical framework, and sample variables of age and cohort. Application of some item development strategies can substantially reduce sex differences. The present study suggests that interests may play a critical role in gendered occupational choices and gender disparity in the STEM fields.
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Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students (275 men, 255 women) were assessed at ages 25 and 35 years. In Study 1, analyses of work preferences revealed developmental changes and gender differences in priorities: Some gender differences increased over time and increased more among parents than among childless participants, seemingly because the mothers' priorities changed. In Study 2, gender differences in the graduate students' life values and personal views at age 35 were compared with those of profoundly gifted participants (top 1 in 10,000, identified by age 13 and tracked for 20 years: 265 men, 84 women). Again, gender differences were larger among parents. Across both cohorts, men appeared to assume a more agentic, career-focused perspective than women did, placing more importance on creating high-impact products, receiving compensation, taking risks, and gaining recognition as the best in their fields. Women appeared to favor a more communal, holistic perspective, emphasizing community, family, friendships, and less time devoted to career. Gender differences in life priorities, which intensify during parenthood, anticipated differential male-female representation in high-level and time-intensive careers, even among talented men and women with similar profiles of abilities, vocational interests, and educational experiences.
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The underrepresentation of women at the top of math-intensive fields is controversial, with competing claims of biological and sociocultural causation. The authors develop a framework to delineate possible causal pathways and evaluate evidence for each. Biological evidence is contradictory and inconclusive. Although cross-cultural and cross-cohort differences suggest a powerful effect of sociocultural context, evidence for specific factors is inconsistent and contradictory. Factors unique to underrepresentation in math-intensive fields include the following: (a) Math-proficient women disproportionately prefer careers in non-math-intensive fields and are more likely to leave math-intensive careers as they advance; (b) more men than women score in the extreme math-proficient range on gatekeeper tests, such as the SAT Mathematics and the Graduate Record Examinations Quantitative Reasoning sections; (c) women with high math competence are disproportionately more likely to have high verbal competence, allowing greater choice of professions; and (d) in some math-intensive fields, women with children are penalized in promotion rates. The evidence indicates that women's preferences, potentially representing both free and constrained choices, constitute the most powerful explanatory factor; a secondary factor is performance on gatekeeper tests, most likely resulting from sociocultural rather than biological causes.
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The authors review criticisms commonly leveled against cognitively loaded tests used for employment and higher education admissions decisions, with a focus on large-scale databases and meta-analytic evidence. They conclude that (a) tests of developed abilities are generally valid for their intended uses in predicting a wide variety of aspects of short-term and long-term academic and job performance, (b) validity is not an artifact of socioeconomic status, (c) coaching is not a major determinant of test performance, (d) tests do not generally exhibit bias by underpredicting the performance of minority group members, and (e) test-taking motivational mechanisms are not major determinants of test performance in these high-stakes settings.
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This review provides an account of the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) after 35 years of longitudinal research. Findings from recent 20-year follow-ups from three cohorts, plus 5- or 10-year findings from all five SMPY cohorts (totaling more than 5,000 participants), are presented. SMPY has devoted particular attention to uncovering personal antecedents necessary for the development of exceptional math-science careers and to developing educational interventions to facilitate learning among intellectually precocious youth. Along with mathematical gifts, high levels of spatial ability, investigative interests, and theoretical values form a particularly promising aptitude complex indicative of potential for developing scientific expertise and of sustained commitment to scientific pursuits. Special educational opportunities, however, can markedly enhance the development of talent. Moreover, extraordinary scientific accomplishments require extraordinary commitment both in and outside of school. The theory of work adjustment (TWA) is useful in conceptualizing talent identification and development and bridging interconnections among educational, counseling, and industrial psychology. The lens of TWA can clarify how some sex differences emerge in educational settings and the world of work. For example, in the SMPY cohorts, although more mathematically precocious males than females entered math-science careers, this does not necessarily imply a loss of talent because the women secured similar proportions of advanced degrees and high-level careers in areas more correspondent with the multidimensionality of their ability-preference pattern (e.g., administration, law, medicine, and the social sciences). By their mid-30s, the men and women appeared to be happy with their life choices and viewed themselves as equally successful (and objective measures support these subjective impressions). Given the ever-increasing importance of quantitative and scientific reasoning skills in modern cultures, when mathematically gifted individuals choose to pursue careers outside engineering and the physical sciences, it should be seen as a contribution to society, not a loss of talent. © 2006 Association for Psychological Science.
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The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984) grew out of the University of Minnesota's Work Adjustment Project, a 20-year federally funded research program to study how vocational rehabilitation clients adjusted to work. This research, conducted in the 1960s and 1970s, is reported in 30 bulletins of the Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation series (Industrial Relations Center, University of Minnesota--Minneapolis) and in several journal articles, book chapters, and books. Since the mid-1970s, the Work Adjustment Project has continued as the Vocational Psychology Research Program of the Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota. When it started, the Work Adjustment Project attempted a wide-ranging, broad-gauged approach to its research problem (Scott, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1960). It collected data on a large number of individuals and on a large number of variables, such as job satisfaction, work attitudes, job performance ratings, work histories, education and training experiences, aptitudes, needs, interests, and personality traits. It quickly became apparent that such a large mass of data could be analyzed in endless ways and that a theoretical framework was needed to narrow down and provide focus for data analysis. TWA was developed for this purpose (Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1964). Furthermore, TWA was found useful in providing direction for subsequent research. In turn, the ensuing research led to revisions and additions to TWA (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Dawis, Lofquist, & Weiss, 1968; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Why aren't more women pursuing careers in science, engineering, and math? Is the lack of women in these fields a consequence of societal discouragements, innate differences in ability between the sexes, or differences in aspirations? These questions always spark a host of other questions--and a multiplicity of answers--all of which have important implications for gender equality and for retaining the nation's competitiveness in the technological marketplace. The most reliable and current knowledge about women's participation in science is presented in this collection of 15 essays written by top researchers on gender differences in ability. The contributors were chosen to reflect the diversity and complexity of views on the topic, about which knowledge has been accumulating and evolving for decades. The editors provide an introduction that defines the key issues and embeds them in historical context and a conclusion that synthesizes and integrates the disparate views. Taken together, the book makes a convincing case that sex differences are neither as unambiguous as earlier researchers suggested nor as insubstantial as some current critics claim. Sex differences in career choices are definitely not inevitable, as the past 30 years have documented both a sea change in the gender makeup of various fields and fluctuations in ability-score differences between the sexes. However, as the essays make clear, such changes leave open the possibility of cultural and biological bases for today's sex differences in science, engineering, and math participation. Written to appeal to students and nonspecialists as well as psychologists and other social scientists, the contributors reframe this key controversy and challenge readers' emotional and political biases through solid empirical science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Obra que aborda el éxito en la vida, se describe qué es lo que las personas exitosas o los mejores tienen para serlo, los millonarios, los zares de software, los futbolistas destacados, los músicos exitosos en general las personas geniales que llevan de la mano el éxito.
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A sample of 1,586 intellectually talented adolescents (top 1%) were assessed on the math portion of the SAT by age 13 and tracked for more than 25 years. Patents and scientific publications were used as criteria for scientific and technological accomplishment. Participants were categorized according to whether their terminal degree was a bachelor's, master's, or doctorate degree, and within these degree groupings, the proportion of participants with at least one patent or scientific publication in adulthood increased as a function of this early SAT assessment. Information about individual differences in cognitive ability (even when measured in early adolescence) can predict differential creative potential in science and technology within populations that have advanced educational degrees.
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Reported is the 20-year follow-up of 1,975 mathematically gifted adolescents (top 1%) whose assessments at age 12 to 14 revealed robust gender differences in mathematical reasoning ability. Both sexes became exceptional achievers and perceived themselves as such; they reported uniformly high levels of degree attainment and satisfaction with both their career direction and their overall success. The earlier sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability did predict differential educational and occupational outcomes. The observed differences also appeared to be a function of sex differences in preferences for (a) inorganic versus organic disciplines and (b) a career-focused versus more-balanced life. Because profile differences in abilities and preferences are longitudinally stable, males probably will remain more represented in some disciplines, whereas females are likely to remain more represented in others. These data have policy implications for higher education and the world of work.
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U.S. math-science graduate students possessing world-class talent (368 males, 346 females) were assessed on psychological attributes and personal experiences in order to examine how their talents emerged and developed. Comparisons were made, using similar assessments, with mathematically talented students (528 males, 228 females) identified around age 13 and tracked into adulthood by the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY). Well before college, both samples were academically distinguished: however, the graduate students could be identified during adolescence as a subset of mathematically talented youths based on their nonintellectual attributes. Their profiles corresponded to what earlier psychological studies found to characterize distinguished (and exclusively male) scientists: exceptional quantitative reasoning abilities, relatively stronger quantitative than verbal reasoning ability, salient scientific interests and values, and finally, persistence in seeking out opportunities to study scientific topics and develop scientific skills. On these attributes, sex differences were minimal for the graduate students (but notfor the SMPY comparison groups). Developing exceptional scientific expertise apparently requires special educational experiences, but these necessary experiences are similar for the two sexes.
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Talent-search participants (286 males, 94 females) scoring in the top 0.01% on cognitive-ability measures were identified before age 13 and tracked over 20 years. Their creative, occupational, and life accomplishments are compared with those of graduate students (299 males, 287 females) enrolled in top-ranked U.S. mathematics, engineering, and physical science programs in 1992 and tracked over 10 years. By their mid-30s, the two groups achieved comparable and exceptional success (e.g., securing top tenure-track positions) and reported high and commensurate career and life satisfaction. College entrance exams administered to intellectually precocious youth uncover extraordinary potential for careers requiring creativity and scientific and technological innovation in the information age.
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A sample of 2,409 intellectually talented adolescents (top 1%) who were assessed on the SAT by age 13 was tracked longitudinally for more than 25 years. Their creative accomplishments, with particular emphasis on literary achievement and scientific-technical innovation, were examined as a function of ability level (sum of math and verbal SAT scores) and tilt (math SAT score minus verbal SAT score). Results showed that distinct ability patterns uncovered by age 13 portend contrasting forms of creative expression by middle age. Whereas ability level contributes significantly to creative accomplishments, ability tilt is critical for predicting the specific domain in which they occur (e.g., securing a tenure-track position in the humanities vs. science, technology, engineering, or mathematics; publishing a novel vs. securing a patent).
The sexual paradox: Men, women, and the real gender gap
  • S Pinker
Pinker, S. (2008). The sexual paradox: Men, women, and the real gender gap. New York, NY: Scribner.