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Abstract

Although the surface of Venus is an extremely hostile environment, at about 50 kilometers above the surface the atmosphere of Venus is the most earthlike environment (other than Earth itself) in the solar system. It is proposed here that in the near term, human exploration of Venus could take place from aerostat vehicles in the atmosphere, and that in the long term, permanent settlements could be made in the form of cities designed to float at about fifty kilometer altitude in the atmosphere of Venus.

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... It has been stated that the problem with Venus is not that the surface is too hot or has a pressure that is too great but that the surface is too low [5]. At an altitude of about 52 kilometers the atmospheric pressure is Earth normal and the temperature is about 286 K (13 o C). ...
... The possibility of aerostat habitats and floating cities high in the Venusian Atmosphere seems to have been first described by Soviet scientists in the early 1970s [13] and then further developed by Geoffrey Landis [5]. Landis proposed that aerostats and even floating cities at around 50 km height could take advantage of the fact that the temperature and pressure are very Earth-like at that elevation. ...
... Certainly, the first Venusian explorers will utilize such structures to explore the planet and its atmosphere. It has also been proposed that the same approach could be utilized to construct giant floating cities for large human populations [5]. But is there a possible next step? ...
Conference Paper
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The successful terraforming of Venus (and similar planets with thick atmospheres) requires removal of excessive atmospheric gases, cooling of the planet, conversion of the remaining atmosphere to an Earth-normal oxygen/nitrogen mixture, and adjusting the planet's spin to an Earthlike 24-hour day. In the case of Venus, these steps, based on near-term, projected technologies, will take several millennia. The approach described in this paper can reduce this time significantly while conserving most of the planet's atmospheric gases for future use. A material shell is constructed above the surface of the planet supported at first by buoyancy and later by pneumatic pressure. Planetary gases above the shell are then pumped below the shell until one atmosphere of pressure is achieved. The shell mass is increased during this phase to minimize stress within the shell. Then the remaining atmosphere above the shell is converted into an oxygen and nitrogen mixture. Eventually the atmosphere above the shell is Earthlike with respect to composition, temperature, and pressure. The shell itself can be spun independently of the planet to achieve a 24-hour day/night cycle and a 23.5 o axial tilt. It should then be possible to terraform the surface of the shell using "traditional" terraforming techniques.
... Figure 14.14 shows some of the spacecraft that made it to Venus. The conditions mentioned above, at that "sweet-spot" within Venus' atmo-817 sphere, offer a unique opportunity for human habitation unlike any concepts con-818 sidered for settlements on the Moon, Mars, or any other planet, that is, a floating 819 base in the atmosphere, an "aerostat base" (Landis 2003). wear-and-tear on all moving parts, for example, railways and wheels. ...
... Landis further points out that an is free to drift in the atmosphere will experience pseudo-days of only 824 50 h. Furthermore, Venus' thick atmosphere and magnetized ionosphere will block 825 much of the radiation reaching the base(Landis 2003).826 Of course, not only must this settlement survive in the environment, but it must 827 also be able to generate the vital resources necessary for self-sufficiency. ...
... It has been 828 reported that the atmosphere at the top cloud layer is predominantly carbon dioxide 829 but contains traces of other elements like oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. While 830 these trace elements can be harvested in small quantities, more oxygen and 831 hydrogen can be obtained through chemical processing of the carbon dioxide and 832 sulfuric acid readily available in large quantities(Landis 2003). These can then be 833 combined into water through known processes.834 ...
Article
The exploration of space has been at the forefront of scientific thought anddiscovery for the last half century. Beginning with the first Sputnik satellite in 1957 to the Curiosity landing and the other numerous ongoing missions of today, mankindis setting its sights away from Earth.
... Mars also has 59 two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which have been known to have water-bearing carbonaceous 60 chondrite and close to 1 million tons of materials. 61 habitation, at least for now [10]. While other exoplanets, such as Kepler-452b (1,402 light years 66 ...
... Landis [10], permanent settlements could be made in the form of aerostat habitats (see Figure 10) 627 ...
Chapter
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Planetary Goals and Challenges for Human Exploration of Mars, there is consensus that the landing site should have the necessary grade and resources to support a habitat construction for scientific research, in situ resource production and other general activities which could not be supported in the Mars Descent/Ascent Vehicle. Identifying the appropriate site with desired topography and resources is just the start of any construction project; there are a number of additional infrastructure and logistics challenges to create an independent, sustainable, and permanent infrastructure (habitat) that is resilient to the extreme environment of space. This chapter presents a state-of-the-art survey on past and recent design concepts for large (i.e., intended for permanent presence) scale and small (e.g., short presence) lunar and Martian habitats. This chapter also highlights the effects of the extreme space environment on structural systems and examines vital construction requirements to establishing suitable physical and psychological long-term habitations. Finally, the present review identifies key limitations and challenges with respect to developing space infrastructure that warrants urgent research.
... With a gravity of 0. 9 Earth, it appears that this planet is extremely comparable to Earth. However, due to the greenhouse effect, Venus' atmosphere is hotter and denser than that of Earth [2]. ...
... In earlier study, the argument was made for human colonies in the Venusian atmosphere's habitable zone [9]. In the near future, aerostat vehicles in Venus' atmosphere may be used for human exploration, and in the long run, cities that float fifty to sixty kilometers above the planet's surface may be used for permanent habitation. ...
Article
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The similarity of Venus and Earth in bulk properties make Venus an appealing target for future colonization. Several proposals have been put forward for colonizing and even terraforming Venus despite the extreme conditions on the planet's surface. Such a terraforming project would face large challenges centred around removing Venus's massive carbon dioxide atmosphere and replacing it with a habitable environment. Although the atmosphere of Venus is the most Earth like environment in the solar system (apart from Earth itself) at a height of around 50 kilometres above the surface, Venus' surface is a highly hostile environment. Here it is suggested that in the near future aerostat vehicles in Venus' atmosphere could be used for human exploration, and that in the long run cities built to float at an altitude of around 50 kilometres could be used for permanent settlements. Venus' atmosphere is a fascinating area to research scientifically and to explore with humans in the future. Because of its hostile environment, which is the result of a huge and dense super-greenhouse atmosphere, Venus is frequently passed over as a candidate for habitation or terraforming. In the scenario presented in this research, Venus might be made habitable and ready for colonization in a matter of centuries. In addition, the materials used to build the orbital infrastructure required to start and sustain the terraforming process are also utilised to build orbital homes.
... More recently, Landis [18] detailed a proposal for manned aerostat habitats in the atmosphere of Venus, situated at an altitude of 50 km, which has temperature and atmospheric pressure close to that on Earth. He proposed using breathable air as a lifting gas, as the ambient pressure at that altitude would be approximately 1 bar, allowing the habitable interior to serve a dual purpose in contributing to producing lift. ...
... Finally, Landis calculated that with the use of breathable gas to generate buoyancy would allow a citysized lifting vessel to support a mass equal to that of a comparably sized city, thus representing a design capable of supporting large numbers of humans. From this habitat, he suggested that exploration of the surface and access to resources there could be achieved through aircraft or balloons [18]. ...
Conference Paper
While Mars has been the focus of most recent attention as a target for human exploration in the near future, human exploration of other bodies in the Solar System may yield scientific advances in areas that cannot be studied in Martian conditions. One of these bodies is Venus, a planet commonly considered Earth's "sister planet" due to its similar size, in addition to possessing an atmosphere more comparable in thickness to Earth's than that of Mars. In this work, we propose a potential design concept for a manned mission to Venus. We begin by exploring the anticipated challenges faced by manned missions to Venus, including harsh surface conditions, challenging atmospheric characteristics, exposure to radiation, and questions regarding energy sources. We then review previously proposed ideas for manned missions to Venus. Finally, we propose a floating habitat design as a possible concept for addressing the challenges that a manned Venus mission would face. This habitat would allow establishment of a four-to six-member crew within the cloud layer of Venus at an altitude of 50 km. We propose this in preference to a surface-based habitat due to the harsh surface conditions of Venus that preclude easy establishment of a manned station. We discuss the expected solar power available for such a design, highlight features of the proposed design that address challenges discussed previously, and discuss areas that will require further research to make this concept a reality. Ultimately, in proposing this design, we intend to stimulate further discussion and research into manned missions to Venus, both to advance knowledge in the scientific community, and to foster humankind's curiosity in space exploration.
... The atmospheric pressure and temperature at the surface of Venus are 92 bars and 450 0 C respectively. Most electronic devices and sensors cannot operate at 450 0 C. Furthermore, the upper atmospheric regions of Venus have temperatures and pressures very similar to Earth [1]. The upper reaches of atmosphere at about 55km have a temperature of about 27 0 C at a pressure of 50kPa and at 40km have temperatures of about 143 0 C at pressures of about 350kPa [1]. ...
... Most electronic devices and sensors cannot operate at 450 0 C. Furthermore, the upper atmospheric regions of Venus have temperatures and pressures very similar to Earth [1]. The upper reaches of atmosphere at about 55km have a temperature of about 27 0 C at a pressure of 50kPa and at 40km have temperatures of about 143 0 C at pressures of about 350kPa [1]. The Venus exploratory mission vehicle is required to operate for several hours in these conditions. ...
Conference Paper
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Unique cooling systems have to be designed to cool the electronic components of space exploration rover, especially in places like Venus, which has harsh surface conditions. The atmospheric pressure and temperature at the surface of Venus are 92 bars and 450°C respectively which make operation of electronic devices and sensors very difficult. Conventional cooling methods are currently deemed unfeasible due to the short life span of moving parts of the refrigerator systems at high temperatures. Furthermore, alternate energy sources such as solar power is not an option on Venus, since the cloud layer consisting of concentrated sulfuric acid droplets is thick and the surface reduces the solar intensity at the surface to about 2% of the intensity above the atmosphere. Therefore developing alternate method of power and cooling system is essential for Venus operation of any robotic rover. The advantages of using thermoacoustic systems are that there are no moving parts and they have efficiency comparable to conventional systems. Additionally there is a dearth in literature at using thermoacoustic refrigeration at high temperatures. This work discusses the development and optimization of a standing wave thermoacoustic engine refrigerator system to be used as a cooling device for the electronic components. The effects of various parameters such as gas mixture ratio, pressure, stack material etc. are discussed. The system designed provides cooling from 443K to 323K providing 150W of cooling.
... However, in the middle atmospheric layers, 43 km to 63 km higher from the surface, there is the so-called "habitability zone" of Venus, a region with similar temperature and pressure to Earth's atmospheric conditions at ground level [43]. This fact has led many scientists to suggest the re-visiting of Venus in a new scope, as it may offer many possibilities regarding habitability studies towards our future steps on Mars, or even colonization of Venus with a floating manned space mission [43,47]. Furthermore, several astrobiological missions to Venus have also been proposed to probe its clouds [48]. ...
Article
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The new space era has expanded the exploration of other planets of our solar system. In this work, radiation quantities are estimated in the Venusian atmosphere using the software tool DYASTIMA/DYASTIMA-R, such as the energy deposit and the ambient dose equivalent rate. Monte Carlo simulations of the secondary particle cascades for different atmospheric layers were performed during solar minimum and solar maximum conditions, as well as during the extreme solar particle event that took place in October 1989, with a focus on the so-called Venusian zone of habitability.
... Various other LTA aircraft were proposed for human transportation between floating aerostats in dense Venusian CO 2 -based atmosphere. To the best of our knowledge the original idea for colonization of Venus using aerostats was first time mentioned by Soviet scientists in late 1960's ("Venera" missions) and the idea was later also picked up by some NASA researchers (e.g., Landis, 2003). ...
Article
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Vertical flight performance of Lighter-than-Air free hot-air balloons is derived and discussed. Novel mathematical model using lumped-parameters has been used to model balloon flight dynamics and steady-state performance in particular. Thermal model was not treated as the super-heat is under the control of aeronauts/pilots. Buoyancy or gross lift, net or effective lift, specific lift, and excess specific lift were derived for a general single envelope balloon and can be applied to hot-air, gas and hybrid balloons. Rate-of-climb, absolute ceiling, rate-of-descent, and the maximum rate-of-descent or the uncontrolled terminal descent have all been modeled and sample computations performed for AX8 or AX9 FAI-class hot-air balloons. Lifting index or the specific net/effective lift have been computed treating ambient and hot air as ideal gases at various pressure altitudes and representative envelope temperatures. Drag coefficient in upward and downward vertical flights have been chosen based on best available data. Experimental scale and full-scale flight tests are suggested for more accurate estimates of external aerodynamics in vertical balloon flights. CFD computations of coupled inner- and external-flows are also recommended in future efforts. Knowledge of free balloon’s vertical performance is essential in flight planning and operational safety of flight.
... The case for human settlements in the habitable level of the Venus atmosphere has been made in earlier work [1]. In the near term, human exploration of Venus could take place from aerostat vehicles in the atmosphere, and in the long term, permanent settlements could be made in the form of cities designed to float at fifty to sixty kilometers above the surface. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Although the surface of Venus is an extremely hostile environment, at about 50 kilometers above the surface the atmosphere of Venus is the most earthlike environment (other than Earth itself) in the solar system, and the atmospheric pressure is similar to the Earth surface atmospheric pressure of 1 Bar, there is abundant solar energy, and the temperature is in the habitable "liquid water" range of 0-50C. Although humans cannot breathe the atmosphere, pressure vessels are not required to maintain one atmosphere of habitat pressure, and pressure suits are not required for humans outside the habitat. In the near term, human exploration of Venus could take place from aerostat vehicles in the atmosphere, and in the long term, permanent settlements could be made in the form of cities designed to float at about fifty kilometer altitude in the atmosphere of Venus.
... Важно понимать, что достижение других планет является вопросом не только фундаментальных научных исследований, но имеет и практические перспективы -от межпланетной колонизации [1,3,4] (что по-прежнему воспринимается как фантастика) до их использования в качестве источников минеральных ресурсов [5][6][7]. Основное внимание исследований и разработок на данную тему сконцентрировано на ближайших объектах Солнечной системы -Луне, Марсе, Венере [7][8][9], а также астероидах [5,6]. Не меньший интерес вызывают и спутники газовых гигантов [10]. ...
Article
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The article contains the overview of perspective satellite navigation systems for other planets and objects of Solar System. The example of this conception for the Moon is considered. The paper contains the brief overview of Moon exploration perspectives. An overview of countries’ space agencies programs on the Moon with automatic and human missions. The problem of lunar and cislunar navigation is considered, the ways of its solution are overviewed. One of the possible cases for lunar and cislunar navigation system realization is to create the satellite system similar to the Earth’s GNSS using the existing experiences. The main goal of the article is the conception of lunar receiver designed for the lunar navigation satellite system in case it is similar to GLONASS. The formulas’ simplifications because of Moon’s features are considered, including: absence of atmosphere and as a result absence of ionospheric and tropospheric delays; more simple gravity field because of small flattering (almost spherical shape). The conclusions on perspectives of the lunar navigation are made.
... It has been noted by many authors that at an altitude of 50 km, the Venusian atmosphere has a remarkably similar temperature and pressure to that of Earth. In the words of Landis (2003), ". . . viewed in a different way, the problem with Venus is merely that the ground level is too far below the one atmosphere level". ...
Preprint
In the light of the recent announcement of the discovery of the potential biosignature phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus I present an independent reanalysis of the original JCMT data to assess the statistical reliability of the detection. Two line detection methods are explored, low order polynomial fits and higher order multiple polynomial fits. It is found that, similar to other reanalyses of ALMA Venus spectra, the polynomial fitting process results in false positive detections in the JCMT spectrum. Furthermore, a non-parametric bootstrap analysis reveals that neither line detection method is able to recover a statistically significant detection. There is thus no significant evidence for phosphine absorption in the JCMT Venus spectra.
... Landis et al. [59,60] proposed a concept of solar powered aircraft system for the exploration of the Venus citing the advantage of good solar intensity in the Venus atmosphere, the slow rotation of Venus allowing the aircraft to be operated in the zone of continuous sunlight, thus eliminating the need for energy storage. They also discussed colonization of the Venus that could be possible using the aerostat vehicles in the atmosphere of the 50 km altitude. ...
Article
Venus and Earth are called sister-planets considering their similar size, and the density. It is the nearest planet to the Earth in the solar system. From 1960s various missions for exploration of the atmosphere of Venus have been carried out by USA, Europe, Russia & Japan. This paper focuses on use of Lighter-than-Air systems for exploring the atmosphere of Venus. The paper summarizes the progress of research work carried out since the 1960s till date. The paper starts with an overview of the atmospheric properties of Venus, and then describes the types of balloon missions planned & executed, choice of lifting gases & selection criteria for materials used for envelope construction. In the end, some key gaps in literature are identified which need to be filled while planning the future missions for exploration of the atmosphere of Venus.
... Humans explore to satisfy their curiosity of their environment, to acquire resources to support an expanding population, and to start a new life in a new location. Venus has the potential to be a critical part to that spacefaring civilization as both a destination in itself and as a stepping stone to sending humans to Mars [1]. ...
... Exploration above 50 kilometers, below which the haze layer starts to increase the acid content and reduce the amount of light available for photovoltaics, is appealing to both mission designers and planetary scientists. Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center [1] and the Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VEXAG) [2] both call for exploration, habitation and potential colonization of Venus above the haze layer, where breathable air (20% oxygen, 70% nitrogen) is a lifting gas and the atmosphere is Earth-like in quality. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The atmosphere of Venus is an exciting destination for both further scientific study and future human exploration. A recent internal NASA study of a High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC) led to the development of an evolutionary program for the exploration of Venus, with focus on the mission architecture and vehicle concept for a 30-day crewed mission into Venus’s atmosphere at 50 km. Key technical challenges for the mission include performing the aerocapture maneuvers at Venus and Earth, inserting and inflating the airship at Venus during the entry sequence, and protecting the solar panels and structure from the sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. Two proofs of concept were identified that would aid in addressing some of the key technical challenges. To mitigate the threat posed by the sulfuric acid ambient in the atmosphere of Venus, a material was needed that could protect the systems while being lightweight and not inhibiting the performance of the solar panels. The first proof of concept identified candidate materials and evaluated them, finding FEP- teflon to maintain 90% transmittance to relevant spectra even after 30 days of immersion in concentrated sulfuric acid. The second proof of concept developed and verified a packaging algorithm for the airship envelope to inform the entry, descent, and inflation analysis.
... If human habitats were to be emplaced at Venus, this altitude would be an Earthlike location. 59 Terraforming, the process of altering a planetary environment to make it hospitable to life, has been proposed for both Venus and Mars. 60 Terraforming Venus is a process which would require long periods of time and large expenditures of energy, but which may not be beyond the reach of future engineering capabilities. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
As humanity begins to reach out into the solar system, it has become apparent that supporting a human or robotic presence in transit and/or on station requires significant expendable resources including consumables (to support people), fuel, and convenient reliable power. Transporting all necessary expendables is inefficient, inconvenient, costly, and, in the final analysis, a complicating factor for mission planners and a significant source of potential failure modes. Over the past twenty-five years, beginning with the Space Exploration Initiative, researchers at the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC), academic collaborators, and industrial partners have analyzed, researched, and developed successful solutions for the challenges posed by surviving and even thriving in the resource limited environment(s) presented by near-Earth space and non-terrestrial surface operations. In this retrospective paper, we highlight the efforts of the co-authors in resource simulation and utilization, materials processing and consumable(s) production, power systems and analysis, fuel storage and handling, propulsion systems, and mission operations. As we move forward in our quest to explore space using a resource-optimized approach, it is worthwhile to consider lessons learned relative to efficient utilization of the (comparatively) abundant natural resources and improving the sustainability (and environment) for life on Earth. We reconsider Lunar (and briefly Martian) resource utilization for potential colonization, and discuss next steps moving away from Earth. © 2014, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc. All rights reserved.
... The surface of Venus is over 700 K and is extremely hostile, but at a height of about 50-55 km the Venusian atmosphere has similar pressure and temperature to the Earth's atmosphere at ground level. The benign condition at this location has caused at least one researcher [16] to suggest colonizing Venus, referring to it as the most Earth like environment in the solar system. So it is not surprising that the effective radiation dose starting 50 km above the surface of Venus is very similar to Earth's-compare Venus's effective radiation dose curve shown in Fig. 9 to Earth's shown in Fig. 8. ...
Article
NASA is concerned with protecting astronauts from the effects of galactic cosmic radiation and has expended substantial effort in the development of computer models to predict the shielding obtained from various materials. However, these models were only developed for shields up to about 120 g/cm2 in mass thickness and have predicted that shields of this mass thickness are insufficient to provide adequate protection for extended deep space flights. Consequently, effort is underway to extend the range of these models to thicker shields and experimental data is required to help confirm the resulting code. In this paper empirically obtained effective dose measurements from aircraft flights in the atmosphere are used to obtain the radiation shielding function of the Earth's atmosphere, a very thick, i.e. high mass, shield. Obtaining this result required solving an inverse problem and the method for solving it is presented. The results are shown to be in agreement with current code in the ranges where they overlap. These results are then checked and used to predict the radiation dosage under thick shields such as planetary regolith and the atmosphere of Venus.
... The higher reaches of the Venusian atmosphere are the most Earth-like of any planet in the solar system, and thus may be explored for possible astrobiology (Schulze-Makuch and Irwin, 2002). Balloons high above the Venusian surface can perform reconnaissance and deploy short-lived (on the order of seconds) immobile sensors, since Venus has severe surface conditions, with temperatures of 735 K (which would melt lead, tin, and zinc), and hot spots in excess of 975 K (Landis, 2003). ...
Article
A fundamentally new scientific mission concept for remote planetary surface and subsurface reconnaissance will soon replace the engineering and safety constrained mission designs of the past, allowing for optimal acquisition of geologic, paleohydrologic, paleoclimatic, and possible astrobiologic information of Mars and other extraterrestrial targets. Traditional missions have performed local ground-level reconnaissance through rovers and immobile landers, or global mapping performed by an orbiter. The former is safety and engineering constrained, affording limited detailed reconnaissance of a single site at the expense of a regional understanding, while the latter returns immense datasets, often overlooking detailed information of local and regional significance. A “tier-scalable” paradigm integrates multi-tier (orbit⇔atmosphere⇔ground) and multi-agent (orbiter⇔blimps⇔rovers/sensorwebs) hierarchical mission architectures, not only introducing mission redundancy and safety, but enabling and optimizing intelligent, unconstrained, and distributed science-driven exploration of prime locations on Mars and elsewhere, allowing for increased science return, and paving the way towards fully autonomous robotic missions.
... Finally, even if humans cannot terraform the surface of Venus, it will still be possible for humans to visit and live in aerostats in the atmosphere of Venus [13]. ...
Article
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The scientific discipline of astrobiology addresses one of the most fundamental unanswered questions of science: are we alone? Is there life elsewhere in the universe, or is life unique to Earth? The field of astrobiology includes the study of the chemical precursors for life in the solar system; it also includes the search for both presently existing life and fossil signs of previously existing life elsewhere in our own solar system, as well as the search for life outside the solar system. Two of the promising environments within the solar system being currently considered are the surface of the planet Mars, and the hypothesized oceans underneath the ice covering the moon Europa. Both of these environments differ in several key ways from the environments where life is found on Earth; the Mars environment in most places too cold and at too low pressure for liquid water to be stable, and the sub-ice environment of Europa lacking an abundance of free energy in the form of sunlight. The only place in the solar system where we know that life exists today is the Earth. To look for life elsewhere in the solar system, one promising search strategy would be to find and study the environment in the solar system with conditions that are most similar to the environmental conditions where life thrives on the Earth. Specifically, we would like to study a location in the solar system with atmospheric pressure near one bar; temperature in the range where water is liquid, 0 to 100 C; abundant solar energy; and with the primary materials required for life, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, present. Other than the surface of the Earth, the only other place where these conditions exist is the atmosphere of Venus, at an altitude of about fifty kilometers above the surface.
... Atmospheric carbon dioxide is a plentiful resource for life support, and although humans cannot breath the atmosphere, no pressure vessel is required. Further, oxygen and nitrogen are lifting gasses on Venus: you can actually ÿll the envelope of an aerostat with gas you can breathe [11]. ...
Article
How will humans and robots cooperate in future planetary exploration? Are humans and robots fundamentally separate modes of exploration, or can humans and robots work together to synergistically explore the solar system? It is proposed that humans and robots can work together in exploring the planets by use of telerobotic operation to expand the function and usefulness of human explorers, and to extend the range of human exploration to hostile environments.
Chapter
Our Solar System consists of 9 planets, hundreds of moons and thousands of smaller bodies, such as asteroids and comets. If we look at past and present missions it seems that at first sight most of these bodies are of no interest for studying the subject of re-entry. Russia and the United States sent their probes to Venus and Mars, the Americans landed on the Moon, and a Japanese spacecraft on an asteroid in November 2005. And let us not forget about the joint NASA/ESA mission Cassini/Huygens: the European Huygens probe made a perfect entry, descent and landing in the atmosphere and on the surface of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.
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This work discusses the potential of combining non-thermal plasmas and conducting membranes for in situ resource utilization (ISRU) on Mars. By converting different molecules directly from the Martian atmosphere, plasmas can create the necessary feed-stock and base chemicals for processing fuels, breathing oxygen, building materials, and fertilizers. Different plasma sources operate according to different principles and are associated with distinct dominant physicochemical mechanisms. This diversity allows exploring different energy transfer pathways leading to CO[Formula: see text] dissociation, including direct electron-impact processes, plasma chemistry mediated by vibrationally and electronically excited states, and thermally driven dissociation. The coupling of plasmas with membranes is still a technology under development, but a synergistic effect between plasma decomposition and oxygen permeation across conducting membranes is anticipated. The emerging technology is versatile, scalable, and has the potential to deliver high rates of production of molecules per kilogram of instrumentation sent to space. Therefore, it will likely play a very relevant role in future ISRU strategies.
Article
In the light of the recent announcement of the discovery of the potential biosignature phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus, I present an independent reanalysis of the original James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) data to assess the statistical reliability of the detection. Two line detection methods are explored: low-order polynomial fits and higher order multiple polynomial fits. A non-parametric bootstrap analysis reveals that neither line detection method is able to recover a statistically significant detection. Similar to the results of other reanalyses of ALMA(Atacama Large Millimetre Array) Venus spectra, the polynomial fitting process results in false positive detections in the JCMT spectrum. There is thus no significant evidence for phosphine absorption in the JCMT Venus spectra.
Conference Paper
The objective of this project was to conceptualize a future colonization mission to Venus that addresses key concerns including launch window selection, entry strategy, and long-term habitation. A Lambert solver was developed to find an efficient route to Venus with respect to mission delta-v. Low fidelity simulations were performed to consider feasibility with respect to g-loading and aerothermodynamics. Hyperbolic entry was found to be a feasible cost-saving option that satisfies deceleration and thermodynamic constraints, but with an extremely narrow entry corridor. The ability to perform a deceleration burn alleviates the risk in the former maneuver, but with corresponding mass of fuel trade-off. Past Venusian missions were analyzed to help inform vehicle design decisions.
Article
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The performance of Al0.3Ga0.7As/InP/Ge triple-junction solar cells (TJSC) at the geosynchronous orbit of Venus had been simulated in this paper by assuming that the solar cells were put on a hypothetical Venus orbiter space station. The incoming solar radiation on TJSC was calculated by a blackbody radiation formula, while PC1D program simulated the electrical output performance. The results show that the incoming solar intensity at the geosynchronous orbit of Venus is 3000 W/m2, while the maximum solar cell efficiency achieved is 38.94%. Considering a similar area of the solar panel as the International Space Station (about 2500 m2), the amount of electricity produced by Venus orbiter space station at the geosynchronous orbit of Venus is 2.92 MW, which is plenty of energy to power the space station for long-term exploration and intensive research on Venus.
Conference Paper
Agricultural science has accumulated deep knowledge about plants, animals, and agriculture on this planet over 7 millennia and within our local gravity level (1 g). Researchers have, over the past few decades accumulated on Mir and the ISS a body of factual data about some species of plants and animals, living in micro-gravity (about 1/1000th g). But this knowledge base is insufficient to prepare for the creation of new permanent homes for humanity beyond Earth. Future settlements need accurate data on the growth, development, and interactions in full biomes of plants and animals and their associated microorganisms, in gravity levels between zero and one. The most critical gravity levels for research are sixteen percent (Earth’s Moon), thirty-eight percent (Mars), and ninety-one percent (Venus) since space settlements have been proposed for each of these celestial bodies. This paper proposes a conceptual design for a facility designed to house all three gravity options within one structure in order to conduct such research in the appropriate gravity levels. The goal of this proposal is to minimize the infrastructure cost, and to allow for redundant and parallel experiments in a series of habitats. Risk is always present in such research, and redundancy will be a critical need. Although generally more is learned from the failures than success, it is still important to design the redundancy into to keep the damage from a failure to a minimum. The central facility proposed to house these habitats will also provide a construction jig to facilitate the construction of more such facilities for other purposes.
Article
Proximity to the Sun and long night periods are distinct disadvantages for photovoltaic power generation on Mercury and Venus. However solar panels are providing uninterrupted power for the Messenger space craft (Mercury flyby) and Venus Express space craft (polar orbiter) for the past ten years (Solomon et al. 2001; Dakermanji et al. 2006).
Conference Paper
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Mars free-return trajectories that use a Venus flyby either before or after the Mars encounter are found, and an alternative launch opportunity for the Inspiration Mars mission is identified. Launch dates are searched from 2015 to 2060, and focus is placed on identifying opportunities that have a short total TOF (i.e. that are fast), so that they may be used for a human mission to flyby Mars (similar to that proposed for Inspiration Mars). Constraints on Earth launch V1 and Earth arrival V1 are based on those used for the nominal Inspiration Mars opportunity in 2018. A set of near-term candidate trajectories are found using the gravity-assist path Earth-Venus-Mars-Earth. One such candidate, with launch date on November 22, 2021, has Earth launch and arrival V1 of 4.50 km/s and 6.53 km/s, respectively (both lower than the nominal Inspiration Mars trajectory), and with a total ight time of 582 days. Venus free-return opportunities are also found, with promising application for a human flyby mission to Venus.
Article
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A solar-powered airplane is proposed to explore the atmospheric environment of Venus. Venus has several advantages for a solar airplane. At the top of the cloud level, the solar intensity is comparable to or greater than terrestrial solar intensities. The Earthlike atmospheric pressure means that the power required for flight is lower for Venus than that of Mars, and the slow rotation of Venus allows an airplane to be designed for continuous sunlight, with no energy storage needed for night-time flight. These factors mean that Venus is perhaps the easiest planet in the solar system for flight of a long-duration solar airplane. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.
Article
Full-text available
We propose a solar-powered aircraft system for the exploration of Venus. The atmosphere of Venus provides several advantages for flying a solar-powered aircraft. At the top of the cloud level, the solar intensity is comparable to or greater than terrestrial solar intensities. The atmospheric pressure makes flight much easier than on planets such as Mars. Also, the slow rotation of Venus allows an airplane to be designed for flight within continuous sunlight, eliminating the need for energy storage for nighttime flight. These factors make Venus a prime choice for a long-duration solar-powered aircraft. Fleets of solar-powered aircraft could provide an architecture for efficient and low-cost comprehensive coverage for a variety of scientific missions.
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