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DiVerential Burning, Recrystallization, and Fragmentation of Archaeological Bone
Abstract
This paper presents research on the conditions under which progressive levels of burning may occur to archaeological bone, and how burning damage changes bones' crystal structure and susceptibility to fragmentation (a.k.a. friability). Experiments were conducted to simulate common patterns of high-temperature bone diagenesis and fragmentation previously documented in Paleolithic shelter sites. Bones buried up to 6 cm below the coal beds of the experimentalfires were carbonized, but calcination occurred only with direct exposure to live coals. Analysis by infra-red spectroscopy reveals that marked changes in crystallinity accompany the macroscopic transformations in colour and friability of modern, fire-altered bone; specifically, a monotonic, non-linear decrease in mean fragment length across six colour categories was observed when samples were agitated or trampled, and a concordant decline in bone identifiability, first with respect to skeletal element and ultimately the recognizability of bone tissue itself. These findings help qualify the behavioural and taphonomic implications of fragmented, burned bones in archaeological sites, especially with regard to potential stratigraphic associations between artefacts and hearth features in sites and the intensity of space use by human occupants. The identification of burning damage on archaeological bone is a separate issue, however. It was found that the molecular signatures of recrystallization in modern burned bones partly overlap with recrystallization caused by weathering after only 1 to 2 years of exposure in an arid setting and by partial fossilization of archaeological bones over the long term. While infra-red and X-ray diVraction techniques eVectively describe heat-induced changes in modern bone mineral and are an important aid for modelling diagenetic processes, these techniques did not reliably identify burning damage to archaeological bones. Cross-referencing readily visible colour phases with HCl-insoluble fraction data proves much more eVective and economically feasible for the latter purpose.
... Prior studies on the thermal alteration of buried bone demonstrate that heat transfer from surface combustion features can impact buried materials, but there are significant variations in findings due to differences in experimental designs (including outdoors vs. laboratory), the inclusion of bone of different states (e.g., fresh or dry modern bone and/ or archaeological bone), fire durations, temperatures, and analytical methods (SI Table 1; Bennett, 1999;De Graaff, 1961;Stiner et al., 1995, Tellez et al., 2022. Some studies report calcination (indicating temperature alteration in oxygen atmospheres >~680 • C) in bone buried underneath combustion features (SI Table 1; Bennett, 1999;Tellez et al., 2022). ...
... Spectroscopic analysis is critical for verifying chemical and structural changes in bone mineral, as depigmentation-the removal of organic char-can occur from prolonged exposure to lower temperatures, not just high temperatures (Gallo et al., 2023). Notably, only one prior study (Stiner et al., 1995) includes spectroscopic data. Given the varying results and reported data of prior studies, highly controlled and reproducible experimental conditions are essential for contextualizing the previous research and for establishing robust frameworks applicable to archaeological data. ...
... All bone fragments were blindly assigned a modified Stiner et al. (1995) burning stage subsequent to the heating experiments based only on visual cues of coloration and surface texture for future comparison with the spectroscopic results (Table 1). These stages are determined through macroscopic observations and cover initial carbonization or charring, full carbonization or charring, and partial and full calcination. ...
The impacts of heat exposure directly on bone material are widely acknowledged, yet a comprehensive understanding regarding the degree of thermal alteration experienced by bone buried beneath a combustion feature or fire event remains poorly described. Such potential incidental burning below a surface fire presents challenges for distinguishing between the intentional remains of fire use behaviors from haphazard heat exposure. In this study, we address the extent to which buried bone material can undergo alteration under concentrated high-heat conditions, achieved through using a fire simulator operating at 950 • C for a duration of 6 h simulating a high temperature hearth fire. Here we describe the degree of carbonization and calcination in bone samples buried at three depths (− 2, − 6, and − 10 cm) in gravel and a mixed gravel and fine sand substrate. We find that, at the sustained temperature of 950 • C, plus heating and cooling time, calcination of bone material can occur at shallow depths of − 2 cm under the fire simulator, whereas at − 6 cm only one sample of each experimental condition is recognized to be fully structurally and chemically calcined. Despite only two samples calcining at this depth, several other bones buried at − 6 cm displayed pale and light coloration, experiencing the elimination of organics without undergoing true calcination, likely due to the prolonged exposure to heat removing the organic component. At − 10 cm depth, bone material centered under the heat source became carbonized, while buried bones positioned at the periphery of the heat source are recognized only be partially thermally altered. Notably, neither gravel nor a mixture of gravel and sand substrates create a detectable reduction environment in the spectroscopic analyses of the buried bones. Our findings highlight that not only can post-depositional heating significantly impact buried faunal material, but that in this way humans can act as post-depositional agents.
... For the methodological study presented here, a subsample was selected to include different taxa and different degrees of collagen preservation (based on the previous ZooMS identifications) [31]. This also includes five fragments showing black surface colouration likely induced by half or full carbonisation, which we assigned to Stiner's stage 2-4 [34]. Because of this burnt appearance and the fact that heat negatively affects collagen preservation, these fragments were only analysed with the acid-based protocols (HCl and TFA) using MALDI-MS and LC-MS/MS to optimise collagen extraction. ...
... MALDI ionisation allows the detection of intact peptides, and for this reason, has widely been used in ZooMS studies. This apparatus is usually coupled with a TOF analyser [11,20,[34][35][36][37] in order to cover the spectrum of high mass molecules contained in digested collagen [23,38,39]. We deposited 0.5 μL of peptide solution on 384-well AB Sciex MALDI plates in triplicates, except for the TFA extraction deposited only once for comparison with the MALDI-FTICR. ...
... However, there is uncertainty regarding the threshold temperature that prevents ZooMS analysis [54], and recent studies have shown successful retrieval of collagen peptides from incompletely burnt bones as determined by visual assessment [8,55]. The five samples comprised in this study were visually characterised as burnt according to Stiner et al. [34] one fragment was assigned to Stage 2 (less than half carbonised: PG_003), three to Stage 3 (fully carbonised: PG_001, PG_004, PG_005), and one to Stage 4 (less than half calcined: PG_002). Although the MALDI-TOF analyses failed for all these specimens, we wanted to test whether high-resolution FTICRMS could provide a more productive alternative. ...
Rationale: Recent advances in high-throughput molecular analyses of collagen peptides, especially ZooMS (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry), have permitted breakthroughs in the analysis of archaeological material that is highly fragmented, a factor that hinders morphological identification. Despite these advances, the challenge of successfully analysing archaeological samples with poorer collagen preservation persists. This paper examines the potential of two mass analysers, TOF (Time of Flight) and FTICR (Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance), and addresses how they can be used to optimise the ZooMS workflow. Methods: Type 1 collagen (COL1) was extracted from 89 archaeological bones from the French Palaeolithic site of Le Piage (37-34 ka cal BP). Three ZooMS extraction protocols were applied, an acid-free buffer method (AmBic), offering rapid and less destructive analysis, and two methods of acid demineralisation (HCl and TFA) that provide higher peptide resolution. After analysing the specimens with MALDI-TOF and MALDI-FTICR, we used bottom-up and PRM (Parallel Reaction Monitoring) LC-MS/MS, and MALDI-CASI-FTICR (Continuous Accumulation of Selected Ions) to verify 26 ambiguous identifications. Results: Overall, 99% of the samples could be identified to at least family level, with the rate of identification and precision varying by method. Despite challenges in detecting specific biomarkers with MALDI-FTICR-especially peptide A (COL1ɑ2 978-990), which tends to be unstable and poorly ionised-the high resolution of this method allowed the successful identification of more degraded specimens, including burnt bones. Conclusions: Our work highlights the robustness of traditional MALDI-TOF ZooMS for retrieving collagen and for providing taxonomic identifications with low failure rates, features that are critical when processing large numbers of samples. MALDI-FTICR shows better potential when working with precious samples or degraded collagen. This study advances the analytical This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
... 46 cm length (Table 4). No anthropogenic modifications were observed on the faunal remains, but a small portion of the bone fragments retrieved from wet-sieving show traces of burning: 12% (n = 5) was carbonised and 5% (n = 2) calcined; the latter suggesting anthropogenic combustion activity (Stiner et al., 1995). Charcoal recovered from AH Anna was identified to Picea Fig. 3 Ollersdorf-Heidenberg, Trench 1: stratigraphic log. ...
... No root etching or extensive corrosion of the cortical bone was observed. About 70% of the remains are burned, which contributed substantially to bone fragmentation (see, e.g., Stiner et al., 1995;Clark & Ligouis, 2010). All burning stages after Stiner et al., (1995; see also Reidsma et al., 2016;van Hoesel et al., 2019) were observed with 16% showing various stages of carbonisation while calcination occurs on 53% (Table 8). ...
... About 70% of the remains are burned, which contributed substantially to bone fragmentation (see, e.g., Stiner et al., 1995;Clark & Ligouis, 2010). All burning stages after Stiner et al., (1995; see also Reidsma et al., 2016;van Hoesel et al., 2019) were observed with 16% showing various stages of carbonisation while calcination occurs on 53% (Table 8). This suggests anthropogenic combustion activity nearby. ...
The Middle Danube region is a key area for understanding Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer behaviours in a climatic context due to its long loess–palaeosol sequences and rich archaeological record spanning from the onset of the Upper Palaeolithic to the Last Glacial Maximum and beyond. Recently, new approaches focusing on high-resolution studies of the stratigraphy, geoarchaeological studies at microscopic scale and investigations of organic matter at molecular scale (biomarker analyses) have shown great new insights in human behaviour. Many sites in the Middle Danube region have been excavated a long time ago without opportunity to apply such approaches. The aim of this paper is to introduce Ollersdorf-Heidenberg, a loess open-air site. The site is located ~ 26 km northeast of Vienna close to the Morava River valley and preserves several Upper Palaeolithic archaeological horizons. The site has been known since a pipeline construction in 1998. Here, we report the first results of new research at the site including new excavations in two trenches. We describe and analyse the stratigraphy, present a first radiocarbon date, describe and analyse lithic and faunal collections, and assess potential in situ combustion activity and the preservation of organic matter. Research at the site is ongoing, but our preliminary results let us suggest good preservation of organic matter and, hence, Ollersdorf-Heidenberg has a remarkable potential for providing valuable insights in past hunter-gatherer behaviours at the climatic downturn towards the Last Glacial Maximum.
... The analysis was conducted at the archaeology base at Anrenfang and the lab of Northwest University (Xi'an). Taphonomic processes, including fragmentation, sub-aerial weathering (Behrensmeyer 1978), burning, gnawing (Stiner et al. 1995), and human modifications (Costamagno et al. 2019) were quantified on all fragments. For identified bones, completeness was measured based on the proportion of the whole bone (0.25, 0.25-0-5, 0.5-0.75, ...
... Our skeletal elements exhibited light to moderate weathering (Behrensmeyer 1978). Animal gnawing was a relatively substantial taphonomic factor, evident on over 6% of the fragments (Stiner et al. 1995). Burning traces were identified on approximately 2% of the fragments (Stiner et al. 1995), whereas the frequency of human-derived marks, such as cuts and chops, was more significant, found on almost 16% of the fragments (Costamagno et al. 2019). ...
... Animal gnawing was a relatively substantial taphonomic factor, evident on over 6% of the fragments (Stiner et al. 1995). Burning traces were identified on approximately 2% of the fragments (Stiner et al. 1995), whereas the frequency of human-derived marks, such as cuts and chops, was more significant, found on almost 16% of the fragments (Costamagno et al. 2019). The fair fragmentation, old breaks, and gnawing marks, coupled with the presence of cultural features, indicate that our assemblage likely represent consumption waste. ...
Zooarchaeology in China has consistently enhanced our understanding of past environments and human–animal interactions. However, this research has predominantly focused on prehistoric contexts. Our knowledge of animal exploitation strategies in historical periods remains largely reliant on written and iconographic sources, lacking direct and quantifiable faunal evidence. This paper examines the animal remains found in the residential district of Xiajiazhuang to better understand faunal exploitation strategies, dietary habits, and meat procurement patterns in Chang'an (Xi'an, China) during the Tang dynasty period (618–907 ce ). Zooarchaeological evidence identifies caprines as the primary meat source, supplemented by cattle, dogs, pigs, and poultry. Our findings indicate a targeted meat procurement strategy, with animals selected based on their age to secure high‐quality meat, thereby hinting at the potential high status of Xiajiazhuang's residents. Along with other lines of evidence, our results suggest that interactions within the city and between the capital and its surrounding areas could have played a significant role in shaping faunal resource management strategies in Xiajiazhuang during the Tang dynasty.
... Before testing for changes in prey choice and site occupation intensity from the MP to the early UP at Ghar-e Boof, we also evaluate whether or not any temporal trends may be the result of differential burning and bone fragmentation throughout the sequence. Independently of the behavioral implications of burning, such as cooking or waste disposal practices (i.e., Lyman 1994; Asmussen 2009), experimental and archaeological studies have found that thermally altered bones are more susceptible to fragmentation (Johnson 1989;Stiner et al. 1995;Cáceres et al. 2002;Cain 2005;Stiner 2005;Pérez et al. 2017), which decreases rates of identification (Stiner et al. 1995). To examine the effects of burning and fragmentation on our assemblage, we measured the length (cm) of all identified specimens across their longest axis and compared the mean length of burned and unburned bones by layer. ...
... Before testing for changes in prey choice and site occupation intensity from the MP to the early UP at Ghar-e Boof, we also evaluate whether or not any temporal trends may be the result of differential burning and bone fragmentation throughout the sequence. Independently of the behavioral implications of burning, such as cooking or waste disposal practices (i.e., Lyman 1994; Asmussen 2009), experimental and archaeological studies have found that thermally altered bones are more susceptible to fragmentation (Johnson 1989;Stiner et al. 1995;Cáceres et al. 2002;Cain 2005;Stiner 2005;Pérez et al. 2017), which decreases rates of identification (Stiner et al. 1995). To examine the effects of burning and fragmentation on our assemblage, we measured the length (cm) of all identified specimens across their longest axis and compared the mean length of burned and unburned bones by layer. ...
Ghar-e Boof represents an exceptional Paleolithic site in the southern Zagros Mountains. Due to its long Late Pleistocene sequence that spans from ca. 81 ka until the Epipaleolithic, the site offers a unique opportunity to investigate long-term hominin behavioral patterns on a local scale. In this paper, we examine diachronic trends in prey choice and site occupation intensity during the Middle Paleolithic (MP) through early Upper Paleolithic (UP) at Ghar-e Boof as determined from zooarchaeological data, find densities, accumulation rates, and frequencies of retouched tools. To better understand foraging conditions, variation (or the lack thereof) in species representation and relative abundances are analyzed following the prey choice model of optimal foraging theory. Based on energetic return rates and procurement costs, we distinguish between high-ranked (large and small, slow-moving game) and low-ranked (small-bodied or small, fast-moving game) resources. The occupants of Ghar-e Boof preferentially hunted large game during the MP and early UP and relied on caprines as the main source of meat and marrow. However, there is an increase in the exploitation of fast-moving animals, mostly partridges, relative to small, slow-moving tortoises through the sequence. In addition, site occupation intensity also increased with time. A more intense use of Ghar-e Boof during the early UP may reflect larger groups of people living at the site, more frequent visits, longer periods of occupation, or a combination of some, if not all, of these possibilities. The increased economic importance of lower-ranked prey does not appear to track major environmental or climatic changes, and most likely is tied to higher hunting pressures. The archaeological record of Ghar-e Boof is currently the only example in the Zagros that illustrates the complex interactions between demography, site use, and socioeconomic decisions during the Late Pleistocene, a crucial time period in human evolution.
... Bones from the urn burials were inspected for visual indications of the degree of calcination, particularly color and heat cracks. Changes in the FTIR spectra of bone correlate in a well-established manner with bone color and can provide a further indication of heating temperature and calcination (Stiner et al. 1995;Weiner 2010, 292-295). We carried out FTIR measurements on representative bone fragments from the urn burials of Hajdučka Česma and Magura using a Bruker Alpha II ATR-FTIR instrument, with scans between 1500 and 400 cm -1 at a resolution of 4 cm -1 . ...
... 5 are associated with a high degree of recrystallization and temperatures above ca. 650ºC (Stiner et al. 1995;Olsen et al. 2023). C/P was measured as the ratio of absorption lines at 1415 and 1035 cm -1 (i.e. ...
Ever since the first discovery of urn burials in eastern Serbia during the 1980s, their dating has been uncertain and based on distant analogies and typological parallels. In this paper, we present radiocarbon dates from five urn cemeteries and three associated settlement sites, showing that the initial dating (Late Bronze Age; 14th–11th BCE) is highly questionable. Instead, radiocarbon dating and modeling presented here connect the urn cemeteries—characterized by a specific grave architecture and associated with settlements that display evidence of copper production—to a period between the 20th and 16th centuries BC. The fact that many of our dates come from cremated bones requires a discussion with regard to the circumstances of carbon exchange during cremation. The absolute dates thus far available for most urn cemeteries from the neighboring regions of the Balkans are all markedly younger (15th–11th century BC) than the data presented here and fall in the frame of the overall expansion of cremation in Europe during the Urnfield period. The new absolute dates from eastern Serbia provide a possibility to change our understanding of the Bronze Age dynamics of the 2nd millennium in the broader area of southeastern Europe and indicate a much earlier acceptance of cremation among certain groups than previously thought.
... Identifications were made using the University of Haifa Zooarchaeology Laboratory comparative collection, online anatomical collections, and published guides (Schmidt 1972;Cohen and Serjeantson 1996;Hillson 1996;Zeder and Lapham 2010). Taphonomic data were collected from identified and unidentified specimens, including the degree of burning and the number of cut marks (Stiner et al. 1995;Abe et al. 2002). Species abundance analysis was based on the number of identified specimens (NISP). ...
... Most loci yielded burned animal remains, indicating that human activities with fire altered the site's refuse (Table 5). Several faunal carbonized (burned black) or calcined (burned white) remains were detected; they were exposed to low or high degrees of heat (following Stiner et al. 1995). Sometimes, burned remains were found in higher concentrations, including instances of direct exposure to high heat. ...
Of the various chrono-stratigraphic entities of the Chalcolithic period in the southern Levant, the Middle Chalcolithic period (ca. 5300-4700 BCE) is the most poorly defined, with most of the relevant data coming from Tel Tsaf. While excavations at Tel Tsaf in the last two decades provide valuable information concerning the site's upper occupational levels, the earlier strata and their material culture are still unknown. Past excavations focused on the later stage of the site's occupation, leaving unanswered questions concerning the transition from the Early to the Middle Chalcolithic period. In order to shed new light on this topic, the current paper presents the results of the renewed research project, which focuses on the earliest occupational levels at Tel Tsaf, coinciding
... Digestive damage was also evaluated by using Andrews ' (1990) corrosion scale, ranging from no visible alteration (degree 0) to extreme corrosion (degree 4). Other human-related modifications were considered for the analysis, including cut marks (Shipman and Rose, 1983) and burning damage (Stiner et al., 1995), though none were observed. Other post-depositional modifications were documented, following the criteria established in the specialised literature (e.g., Lyman, 1994;Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2016). ...
... Bone surface modifications were analysed to identify both biostratinomic and diagenetic alterations (Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2016). Anthropogenic traces on bones, such as cut marks and the degree of thermoalterations, were recorded (Binford, 1981;Galán and Domínguez-Rodrigo, 2013;Nilssen, 2000;Stiner et al., 1995). Carnivore traces were identified as deep punctures on the cortical bone surface, primarily concentrated at the articular ends of the bones. ...
Cava Muracci, an archaeological and paleontological site in Cisterna di Latina (Latium, central Italy), has yielded significant faunal assemblages from the Late Pleistocene, collected from eight karst fillings. We have gained valuable insights into subsistence patterns, ecosystem dynamics, site chronology and the processes underlying the preservation of mammal remains through comprehensive palaeontological and taphonomic analysis of over three thousand mammal specimens. The evidence of carnivore activity has led to the interpretation of Area 1-2-3 as a hyena den, while Areas 4 and 7 indicate more limited hyena activity. In contrast, Areas 5, 6 and 8 likely experienced water flow events that transported faunal remains and debris. Environmental reconstructions based on faunal and pollen data suggest a mixed landscape featuring steppe or grassland, interspersed with wooded areas and marshlands along the coastal belt. Species diversity in different areas provides insights into the local ecological dynamics and the chronological sequences of the site. Radiometric dating places Areas 1-2-3 and 7
within MIS 3, with the other areas likely corresponding to a later phase of this period. This multidisciplinary research enhances our understanding of paleoenvironmental dynamics in the Pontine Plain and provides a broader perspective on central Italy’s Late Pleistocene landscapes.
... Burned human remains can be found in a variety of situations, from archaeological funerary urns to volcanic eruptions. Let us list the diversity of 3 possible origins for bone combustion: intentional discard of bone waste in hearths (Cain, 2005;Spennemann & Colley, 1989), alimentary cooking (Costamagno & Fano Martínez, 2005;Gifford-Gonzalez, 1989;Pearce & Luff, 1994;Wandsnider, 1997), ritual combustion (Tchesnokov, 1995;Vaté & Beyries, 2007), accidental combustion after burying (Bennett, 1999;Cain, 2005;David, 1990;Stiner et al., 1995), and natural fires (Bellomo, 1993;Bellomo & Harris, 1990). In spite of this range of contexts, the actual effects on the body and the bones (which we refer to as "heat-induced changes") are the same. ...
The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin has been the administrative headquarters of the Armenian Church. During restoration work in June 2019, human remains from an ancient burial were discovered in the Cathedral within an archaeological context of 4th century AD. The gross anatomy of the bones was investigated through macroscopic and microscopic analyses. The reason for the extensive burning on much of the individual's body is unknown. The color of the burns ranged from black to white (calcined). We see white, furry or "bloom" growths, as crystals on the bone surface. Ground water can carry these salts into the pores of the bones during burial leaving them behind when the water evaporates.
... First, bones showing no alteration are considered to have not been exposed to heat or, if they were, to a temperature below 100°C; charred remains are considered to have been exposed to temperatures ranging 100°C to 700°C; and calcined remains are considered to have been exposed to temperatures above 700ºC. However, white-coloured bones (types 5-6 following Stiner et al. 1995) may have been exposed to a larger burning process at temperatures slightly lower than 700ºC (as proposed by Gallo et al. 2023). The analysis of the structures C9-12 shows a space clearly dedicated to metallurgical production, with rooms specialised in the processes of iron smelting and forging (and also in bronze production, which we have not analysed) (structures C10-11). ...
This paper analyses a metalworking area from the fortified site of A Cidá de Borneiro (Cabana de Bergantiños, Galicia, Spain). It is focused on a bronze and iron workshop (C9-12) where, in addition to abundant metallurgical evidence and production remains, a large number of thermally altered bone fragments have been documented. The present work proposes a multifactorial analysis to understand together these bones within the context of metalworking activities. For this purpose, an archaeological and functional analysis of the workshop is combined with a morphological study of the bone remains. First, a contextual analysis is defined, examining the archaeological evidence in order to define what kind of activities were developed in the area. Concurrently, a macroscopic analysis of the characteristics and conditions of the bones is carried out, with the aim of identifying thermal alteration processes. As will be demonstrated, this research will confirm that the bones were used as part of the operational production sequence, particularly during the hardening process of objects that require a strong and sharp edge. Finally, we will define and examine the characteristics of this technique from a point of view that encompasses both the technical and symbolic dimensions of metalworking.
... As the M1 is also the first permanent tooth to erupt, it also reflects physiological and nutritional stress in early stages of development (Dobney and Ervynck 2000). Recording of taphonomic modifications included butchery marks (Seetah 2006), burning (Stiner et al. 1995) and gnawing marks (Lyman 2008:277-279). Diagenetic and environmental damage was assessed according to the methods devised by Fernandez-Jalvo and Andrews (2016) and Behrensmeyer (1978). ...
... Anthropogenic alterations (i.e., cut marks and percussion marks) were identified (Potts and Shipman 1981;Blumenschine and Selvaggio 1988;Blumenschine 1995;Galán and Domínguez-Rodrigo 2013). Thermal alterations were classified according to the degree of coloration, distinguishing between unburnt (grade 0), brown (grade 1), black (grade 2), grey (grade 3) and white (grade 4) remains, following the classification system proposed by (Stiner et al. 1995;Cáceres 2002modified by Moclán 2023. ...
Understanding taphonomic processes is essential for reconstructing past environmental dynamics and interpreting mixed sites, where successive occupations by different biological agents have occurred and, in many cases, have been modified by post-depositional processes. Such is the case in the western part of Buena Pinta Cave (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid). In this study, three Units with different taphonomic histories were analysed. Unit 32 A contains fossil remains that were incorporated by low-energy water currents during the cave's opening. Unit 23 shows an accumulation of bone remains that were resedimented and reworked by a high-energy current, which illustrates how post-depositional processes can create an assemblage with asynchronous taphocoenoses embedded in the same geological event. Finally, Unit 2/3 contains a bone assemblage that was primarily produced by hyenas, although it may also have been used sporadically by Neanderthals and other small carnivores. These findings provide a reference for comparison and evaluation of other archaeo-palaeontological sites with similar problems in caves and mixed sites.
... There was only one fragment of partially calcined bone visible in an isolated domain of the MB, shown in Figure 11E. Most of the bone fragments found within the BL and MB of CF1 are only partially carbonized (below~600°C), suggesting the bone fragments were not directly exposed to high temperatures associated with a flaming fire (Stiner et al. 1995) (See also : Bosch et al. 2024;Bosch et al. 2012;Gallo et al. 2021;Théry-Parisot 2002;Théry-Parisot et al. 2005). However, it is possible that the presence of unidentified burned organic remains (potentially char or burned animal fats) within the MB and mixed within the BL of CF1 is due to subsistence practices (Bosch et al. 2024). ...
The Last Glacial maximum (LGM), spanning from 26.5 to 19 thousand years before present (ka BP), is a period of extreme climatic degradation associated with reduced biomass production and resource stress throughout Eurasia. Arguably, one of the most fundamental tools for human survival during this cold and arid period was the ability to create, maintain and use fire. While fire is widely considered a ubiquitous tool in modern human behaviour, there are surprisingly few well-described combustion features during the LGM in Europe. In this paper, we provide high-resolution geoarchaeological research into three combustion features associated with Epigravettian occupations at the site of Korman' 9 (Ukraine) with ages falling in the LGM. Our results show distinct variations in the size and structure of the combustion features, potentially indicating multiple occupations within the same layer or reflect differences in site organization or function during a single occupation. Additionally , our analysis shows clear evidence of the effect of solifluction and the lack of preservation of the ash layer(s) of the combustion features, as well as the development of bioturbation features enhanced by anthropogenic input. To better estimate heating temperatures of the combustion events, we employed a novel approach using colour analysis showing temperatures reaching 600°C in the substrate underlying the combustion features. In all, the combustion features at Korman' 9 provide invaluable new insights as well as high resolution description of pyrotechnological behaviours during the LGM, which has been lacking during this critical period in our evolutionary history.
... (iii) The state of surface preservation was scored (Behrensmeyer, 1978). (iv) The presence of burning (based on visual assessment of colour Stiner et al., 1995) was scored for 76% of the assemblage (N = 618), i.e. for all bones that had 3D coordinates and could be plotted. A computerized catalogue was created of all the 1976-1978 fauna including their species and skeletal element identifications, provenance in the site (square and sub-quadrant, XYZ coordinates, heights) as well as metric data and information on burning. ...
Revisiting collections from old excavations with new research objectives and analytical tools brings them to life and integrates them into evolving models of human-landscape interactions. This paper examines hominin behaviour and adaptations at the late Middle Palaeolithic open air camp site Far’ah II, dated to ~ 49 ka by analyzing the spatial patterning of assemblages from the 1976–1978 excavation seasons. This was facilitated by the large area excavated and the fact that all lithics and most bones larger than 2.5 mm were recorded using three dimensional coordinates. Examining the refitted flint sequences highlights the use of variable technological systems, including the Levallois unidirectional convergent method. Use wear on the ground stone tools suggests they were used for knapping as well as food processing, and the faunal assemblage reflects a wide range of species that were consumed on-site. By combining lithic refitting studies and spatial mapping of artefact and bone distribution using GIS, we have dissected the occupation history and demonstrate that the living floor defined during the excavations actually consists of at least two different occupation events, that partially overlap in the central area of the site. This analysis demonstrates that Far’ah II was probably a favoured locality, revisited by Middle Palaeolithic hominins due to its proximity to a rich mosaic of habitats.
... Natural processes such as concretions, manganese deposits, weathering, and rooting were used to assess the post-depositional environment (Behrensmeyer 1978;Lyman 1994;Behrensmeyer et al. 2003;López-González et al. 2006;Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews 2016;Bocheński et al. 2018b;Lev et al. 2020). Manducation and digestion traces indicated the accumulation effects of predatory mammalian (Laroulandie 2000;Lloveras et al. 2018;Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. 2013; Marin-Monfort 2019; Arilla et al. 2019Arilla et al. , 2020a and avian species (Andrews 1990;Bocheński et al. 1993Bocheński et al. , 1998Bocheński et al. , 2018aBocheński 2005;Bocheński and Tomek 1997;Laroulandie 2000Lloveras et al. 2008Lloveras et al. , 2009Rufà and Laroulandie 2019;Alonso et al. 2020), while specific breakage patterns (Laroulandie 2000;Laroulandie and Lefèvre 2014), peeling (White 1992;Laroulandie 2005a, b), cutmarks (Binford 1981;Potts and Shipman 1981) and thermal modifications (Stiner et al. 1995;Blasco and Peris 2009;Lefèvre 2014, Fernández-Jalvo andAndrews 2016) were used to indicate human agency. In the taphonomic analysis we chose to combine the identified bed samples under the respective MSUs (Jelinek et al. 1973;Jelinek 1982a, b), including the four subdivisions of MSU II following Friesem et al. (2021). ...
The long Middle Palaeolithic sequence of Tabun Cave covers a vital time of human dispersal across the Levant, both from Africa and from Europe. The sequence contains two of the human morphotypes found in the Levant during this period, most usually assigned to Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, providing a unique opportunity to investigate whether there are behavioural differences between the two human groups. We approach this through the bird remains that offer a novel proxy to examine changes in the palaeoenvironment and potentially, human subsistence at Mount Carmel during the Middle Palaeolithic. We present the first systematic account of avian remains from Tabun layers C and B, along with a detailed taphonomic study. We identified 47 avian species from 27 stratified samples at Tabun Cave, including game birds, diurnal and nocturnal raptors, waterbirds, pigeons, and small songbirds. All constitute part of the present, or historically documented, avifauna of Israel, though not necessarily in the vicinity of the cave. Raptors seem to be a major depositional agent of birds in the cave, especially in the upper sedimentary unit (Tabun B). In contrast, some human contribution to the avian deposition is suggested in the lower part (Tabun C), based on the taxonomic dominance of rock doves and some evidence for cooking. Humans likely collected and exploited birds from the adjacent coastal plain, too. The identified avian taxa represent a full annual cycle of sedentary and migratory species, indicating largely similar conditions to the present day in Tabun B. Conversely, fluctuations in humidity and temperature in Tabun C were in conjunction to the most substantial human occupation of the examined sequence.
... Evidence of anthropogenic modifications on the faunal remains includes cut marks (Binford, 1981;Lyman, 2008;Potts and Shipman, 1981;Shipman and Rose, 1983), intentional bone breakage (differentiating among fresh, dry or indeterminate fractures) and percussion marks (Galán et al., 2009;Sala et al., 2015;Vettese et al., 2020Vettese et al., , 2017Villa and Mahieu, 1991). Burnt damages were recorded following a modification of the criteria described by Stiner et al. (1995), and burnt bones were divided into different categories: charred (200-500 • C, black/brown) and calcined (> 700 • C, greycreamy yellowbright ivory white). ...
Grotta della Lea, discovered in the 1970s, is located in the Municipality of Nardò (LE), southern Italy, and has been systematically investigated only in recent years. This cave remains an untouched environment, ideal for the application of modern analytical methodologies from the beginning of its excavation. Its unexplored status, combined with its proximity to other significant Palaeolithic sites such as Grotta del Cavallo and Grotta-Riparo di Uluzzo C, renders it a promising site for our understanding of the Palaeolithic in Italy. Earliest results from the initial four years of investigations at Grotta della Lea brought to light both Upper Palaeolithic and Copper-Bronze Age human occupations. This paper is aimed at presenting Grotta della Lea for the first time, focusing on preliminary information about the site formation processes, the characteristics of the stratigraphic succession, and the establishment of both relative and absolute chronologies according to the initial results of a comprehensive AMS radiocarbon dating programme. Central to this research is also the analysis of pottery and lithic artefacts as well as the taphonomic and taxonomic assessment of macro mammal remains. The study of the lithic industry from the Palaeolithic deposit highlighted the production of shouldered backed bladelets and points on high-quality chert, which are typologically and technologically indicative of an advanced phase of the Early Epigravettian. This attribution is corroborated by radiocarbon dating between 21,821-18,281 cal. BP, aligning with the timeline for the Early Epigravettian in Italy. In the Palaeolithic occupation, the large mammal association revealed an abundance of equids and large bovids, along with several carnivore, leporid, turtle and bird remains. Taphonomic analysis highlighted the occurrence of butchery marks, but also some carnivore activity.
... Phytoliths and wood ash pseudomorphs were sought to obtain information on plant use and combustion activities by hominins. Small (<5 mm) fragments of bones (n = 141) found in sediment samples were assigned to burn colour codes, which were verified using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy following the guidelines outlined in Stiner et al. 119 . ...
The south Levantine mid-Middle Palaeolithic (mid-MP; ~130–80 thousand years ago (ka)) is remarkable for its exceptional evidence of human morphological variability, with contemporaneous fossils of Homo sapiens and Neanderthal-like hominins. Yet, it remains unclear whether these hominins adhered to discrete behavioural sets or whether regional-scale intergroup interactions could have homogenized mid-MP behaviour. Here we report on our discoveries at Tinshemet Cave, Israel. The site yielded articulated Homo remains in association with rich assemblages of ochre, fauna and stone tools dated to ~100 ka. Viewed from the perspective of other key regional sites of this period, our findings indicate consolidation of a uniform behavioural set in the Levantine mid-MP, consisting of similar lithic technology, an increased reliance on large-game hunting and a range of socially elaborated behaviours, comprising intentional human burial and the use of ochre in burial contexts. We suggest that the development of this behavioural uniformity is due to intensified inter-population interactions and admixture between Homo groups ~130–80 ka.
... Weathering, burning, gnawing, and other surface modifications were assessed using published literature (e.g., Behrensmeyer 1978;Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews 2016;Outram 2001;Stiner et al. 1995) or reference material in UQ's zooarchaeology laboratory. Microscopic analyses were performed using portable low-magnification hand lenses (10-20X) and, when necessary, an Olympus SZ61 stereo microscope with 0.67-4.5X ...
... Bones undergo physicochemical and structural changes (Reiche 2010:131) when exposed to heat due to the degradation of collagen and transformation of mineral components. Color changes help in determining heat damage and its intensity , Stiner et al. 1995, while warping suggests high-temperature contact with (Pearce andLuff 1994, Correia 1997). Bones may also show cracking from thermal shock (Ibid.), ...
This thesis examines the contribution of animal subsistence patterns at Middle Bronze Age Toprakhisar Höyük and Tell Atchana to understanding socio-economic dynamics and key historical events of the period: the abandonment of Toprakhisar Höyük and the destruction of Alalakh by the Hittites. By analyzing species diversity, skeletal representation, and demographic profiles, central dietary species are identified alongside evidence of variation in animal use and consumption practices across chronological phases, which may reflect both local adaptations and broader inter-site interactions. Comparisons between the two sites reveal a mixed subsistence strategy at Toprakhisar Höyük, involving domesticates (caprines, pigs, cattle) and wild animals, and a more specialized caprine-focused exploitation approach at Tell Atchana, potentially confirming their center-periphery roles within the Syro-Anatolian region.
... This specimen had a carbonized surface associated with direct exposure to fire. Based on the categories established by Stiner et al., 19 , this specimen exhibits stage one characteristics as it is slightly burned, localized and carbonized on less than half of the surface. ...
The manipulation of human corpses started to become commonplace during the Upper Paleolithic. This well-documented behavior among Magdalenian peoples consists of perimortem manipulation and the removal of soft tissues and has been understood as forming part of the cultural repertoire of mortuary actions. The study of these practices has given rise to several interpretations with the consumption of human flesh (cannibalism) occupying a central position. The human assemblage of Maszycka Cave (18,000 cal. BP) is part of this ongoing debate. Although initial research in the 1990s suggested cannibalism, more recent studies challenge this interpretation arguing that the low incidence of human activity rule out the likelihood of processing for the purpose of consumption and proposing skull selection as a funerary practice. This study reviews the assemblage and presents previously unpublished postcranial skeletal specimens along with evidence of whole-body manipulation for consumption. This behavior is also observed in other chronologically and culturally similar assemblages throughout continental Europe, suggesting that cannibalism was integral practice within the cultural systems of these Magdalenian groups.
... Finalmente, en algunos restos de la colección se han hallado alteraciones por calor. La principal alteración producida en el hueso por una fuente de calor es el cambio cromático, que correlaciona con la temperatura alcanzada y otras variables de la combustión (Shipman et al., 1984;Gilchrist y Mytum, 1986;Etxeberria, 1994;Stiner et al., 1995;Mayne Correia, 1997;Holck, 1997;Botella et al., 2000;Sergant et al., 2006;Fairgrieve, 2008;Schmidt, 2008;Symes et al., 2008;Walker et al., 2008;Ubelaker, 2009). Por otra parte, el calor produce en el hueso otras alteraciones macroscópicas como deformación, contracción y fracturación (Shipman et al., 1984;Gilchrist y Mytum, 1986;Etxeberria, 1994;Mayne Correia, 1997;Botella et al., 2000;Fairgrieve, 2008), relacionadas con el proceso de deshidratación, y que constituyen el principal criterio para distinguir si el hueso estaba fresco o no cuando fue quemado (Botella et al., 2000;Fairgrieve, 2008;Gonçalvez et al., 2011). ...
Resumen: En este trabajo se presentan los resultados preliminares de las campañas arqueológicas del 2019 al 2021, llevadas a cabo en la Cueva del Nacimiento del Río Cuadros de Bedmar (Jaén). Hasta el momento se ha documentado una ocupación humana de la cavidad desde el Calcolítico hasta la actualidad. Palabras claves: Cueva del Nacimiento del Río Cuadros, Calcolítico, Restos Humanos, Pintura Rupestre. Abstract: This paper presents the preliminary results of the archaeological campaigns from 2019 to 2021, carried out in the Cueva del Nacimiento del Río Cuadros de Bedmar (Jaén). Until now, a human occupation of the cavity has been documented from the Chalcolithic to the present.
... Butchery marks were coded following Binford (1981) and classified into three categories reflecting three stages in the butchery sequence: removal of the skin, dismemberment of the carcass, and cut marks and meat filleting from the bones. Burning was recorded for each identified element; four categories of burned bones were found: brown, black, gray and calcined (Stiner et al. 1995). ...
... Le cause della fratturazione delle ossa sono state riconosciute seguendo i criteri definiti da Bunn (1981) e Blumenschine (1995). Infine, le alterazioni da esposizione al fuoco sono state registrate in termini di presenza/ assenza (ad occhio nudo) e distinte in accordo con i criteri usati da Stiner et al. (1995), ma semplificati adottando un'unica categoria per distinguere le ossa combuste, anche se con stadi di colorazione differenti (marrone, nero o grigio/bianco), da quelle non combuste. ...
La Grotta della Ghiacciaia (Comune di Fumane, VR), situata a 250 metri di quota in una valle orientata E-W, è uno dei siti musteriani dei Monti Lessini. Indagato in via preliminare negli anni 1979-1980, il giacimento conserva una stratigrafia potente oltre 3,5 m e costituita da quattro macro-unità stratigrafiche, di cui le più recenti hanno restituito evidenze di alcune fasi di occupazione antropica. La campagna di ricerca del 2021, che si inserisce in un più ampio progetto di approfondimento della frequentazione neandertaliana dell'arco alpino, ha portato alla bonifica del deposito rimaneggiato e allo scavo stratigrafico di parte del deposito archeologico nell'area occidentale della cavità. Le ricerche si sono concentrate sulla porzione superiore della stratigrafia, caratterizzata da limi e brecce di origine sia esterna (eolica e colluviale) che autogena (crioclastica). Le unità indagate, dall'alto, comprendono le UUSS 20÷24, composte da livelli brecciosi pressoché sterili (21-24) ed archeologici (20) riferibili al Paleolitico superiore antico, e le UUSS 31÷36, riferibili a livelli limo-argillosi con brecce sterili (32) e lievemente (31) o fortemente (33-36) antropizzati nel corso del Paleolitico medio. Le ricerche hanno permesso di recuperare migliaia tra manufatti e reperti faunistici, dei quali si presentano in questa sede i risultati delle analisi preliminari. La ripresa delle ricerche ha permesso di ampliare lo spettro di occupazioni umane attestate nella cavità, con la registrazione di materiali riferibili a una fase antica del Paleolitico superiore e concorrerà a intraprendere un'indagine più estesa dei livelli antropici da concretizzare nelle prossime campagne.
The Ghiacciaia cave (Fumane, VR) opens at 250 metres a.s.l in the Southern Lessini Mounts, along a E-W oriented narrow valley. Preliminarily investigated in 1979-1980, the cave preserves a stratified deposit more than 3.5 m thick made up of four stratigraphic macro-units; among the others, the most recent units yielded evidence of anthropic occupations. During the research campaign of 2021, part of a wider project on the Neanderthal settlements in the Alps, we carried out the stratigraphic excavation of the western area of the cavity after the removal of the reworked deposit. Our research focused on the upper layers, characterized by loamy sediments and breccias accumulated by both external (aeolian and slope-washed sediments) and autogenic (cryogenic) processes. The investigated units, from the top, are UUSS 20 to 24, composed of almost sterile (21-24) breccia and an archaeological (20) layer referable to the early Upper Palaeolithic, and UUSS 31 to 36, silt-clay sequence with sterile (32) and slightly (31) or strongly (33-36) anthropized layers framed in the Middle Palaeolithic. During fieldwork we recovered thousands of lithic artefacts, bones and charcoal fragments, which allow to broaden the spectrum of human frequentations attested in the cavity to an early phase of the Upper Palaeolithic, besides the already known Ne-anderthal occupations. More extensive investigations of the anthropogenic levels are planned for the next campaigns.
... Furthermore, bone fracture angles, morphology, diaphysis length, and circumference were recorded following the methodology established by Villa and Mahieu (1991). The identification of burning considered the presence of colour changes, cracking, and shrinking (Nicholson, 1993;Stiner et al., 1995). ...
The examination of faunal assemblages through zooarchaeological analyses constitutes a fundamental approach for gaining insight into the intricate behaviours of Neanderthals. Previous investigations have primarily focused on periods of relative environmental stability, and this has provided a wealth of relevant archaeological data. However, our understanding of Neanderthal resilience during the MIS 4, a period presumably characterised by harsh environmental conditions, remains limited. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of the faunal assemblages from Levels M and P at Abric Pizarro. The geographic location of Abric Pizarro in the southeast Pre-Pyrenees, combined with chronometric dating, offers a unique opportunity to explore Neanderthal behaviours during a poorly known chronological period. The detailed zooarchaeological analysis comprised taxonomic identification, taphonomic analysis and age-at-death profiling to explore the adaptability and flexibility in the Neanderthal diet. The findings indicate that Neanderthal groups incorporated a diverse range of protein resources from small herbivores (e.g., caprids) to very large herbivores (e.g., Bos/Bison). These results not only demonstrate an adaptability to changing environments in an area traditionally deemed unsuitable for long-term occupation, but also contributes significantly to our understanding of the complex behaviours exhibited by Neanderthals.
... The bone fragments were divided into four size groups, A-D: (A) < 0.5 cm, (B) 0.5-1 cm, (C) 1-2 cm, and (D) > 2 cm. The level of burning was assessed based on the method presented by Stiner et al. (1995). In order to assess the minimum number of individuals, we used a scale presented by Lyman (2012). ...
A small Mesolithic camp site near Sammakko in northernmost Sweden has been identified through its abundance of burnt bone and quartz refuse from stone tool manufacturing/maintenance. Radiocarbon dating places hunter-gatherer activity here around 8900 years ago, 1800 years later than the oldest known settlement in Norrbotten, the Aareavaara site. Sediment stratigraphy in nearby lake basins suggests that the final melting of stagnant ice, trapped in the undulating Veiki-moraine landscape, occurred around 9200 years ago. Initially, after deglaciation, the area was covered with arctic heath, transitioning to an open birch forest by 9100 years ago. At the time of the Sammakko settlers, it was an open birch forest with elements of pine, and various dwarf shrubs, including dwarf birch, willow, and juniper. Grasses, sedges, and various herbs in the semi-open grounds were also common. The settlers primarily relied on reindeer, as indicated by burnt bones, with supplementary food sources such as pike and birds. Stalking was likely the main hunting method, possibly aided by dogs. Potential dog gnaw marks on bones suggest early domestication. The site functioned as a temporary hunting station, probably used only during snow-free months. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
... Questo lavoro preliminare si concentra sull'analisi di un sottile lembo attribuito all'Olocene antico, individuato nella Sala Inferiore e nei Saggi B1-3 e D, denominato Livello 4. Lo studio archeozoologico dei reperti faunistici ha evidenziato come la deposizione dello strato nelle diverse aree della grotta sia di diversa origine: essenzialmente naturale nella Sala Inferiore, sia naturale che antropica nei Saggi B1-3 e D. Inoltre, l'analisi delle caratteristiche ecologiche delle specie presenti contribuisce alla ricostruzione dell'ambiente nei Monti Simbruini e nell'alta valle dell'Aniene nell'Olocene antico. Successivamente sono state osservate le superfici ossee con una lente 10X alla ricerca di tracce di cut-marks e di esposizione al fuoco, di origine antropica (Stiner et al. 1995;Cilli et al. 2000), oltre a quelle di gnawing e di digestione, di origine animale (Fernández-Jalvo, Andrews 2016). ...
The level 4 faunal remains from Grotta Mora Cavorso (Latium). Preliminary report -
Grotta Mora Cavorso is located at 715 m a.s.l. on the right side of the Upper Aniene River Valley, a few km from the village of Jenne (Latium). Archaeological investigations between 2006 and 2016 have revealed the presence of a complex stratigraphy, distributed unevenly between the Entrance Room, Intermediate Room and Internal Rooms. This preliminary work focuses on the analysis of a thin layer attributed to the Early Holocene, identified in the Lower Room and in Digs B1-3 and D, and defined as Level 4. The archaeozoological study of the faunal finds has highlighted different depositional origins for the layer in different areas of the cave: essentially natural in the Lower Room, and both natural and anthropic in Digs B1-3 and D. Furthermore, an analysis of the ecological features of the species identified aids in reconstructing the environment of the Simbruini Mountains and Upper Aniene
Valley during the Early Holocene. - RIASSUNTO - Grotta Mora Cavorso si trova a 715 m s.l.m. sul versante destro dell’alto corso del fiume Aniene, a pochi km di distanza dal
centro abitato di Jenne (Lazio). Indagini archeologiche tra il 2006 e il 2016 hanno evidenziato la presenza di una stratigrafia complessa, distribuita in modo disomogeneo tra la Sala d’Ingresso, la Sala Intermedia e le Sale Interne. Questo lavoro preliminare si concentra sull’analisi di un sottile lembo attribuito all’Olocene antico, individuato nella Sala Inferiore e nei Saggi B1-3 e D, denominato Livello 4. Lo studio archeozoologico dei reperti faunistici ha evidenziato come la deposizione
dello strato nelle diverse aree della grotta sia di diversa origine: essenzialmente naturale nella Sala Inferiore, sia naturale che antropica nei Saggi B1-3 e D. Inoltre, l’analisi delle caratteristiche ecologiche delle specie presenti contribuisce alla
ricostruzione dell’ambiente nei Monti Simbruini e nell’alta valle dell’Aniene nell’Olocene antico.
... The heavily burnt nature of the remains suggests that bones were disposed directly into the fire. Experimental research has demonstrated that bone becomes first blackened and then grey, when exposed to temperatures between 300-500 °C and finally calcined above 600 °C (Stiner et al. 1995;Etok et al. 2007;Munro et al. 2007). Ethnographic fire-pit assemblages collected by Aplin in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea indicate that in these modern assemblages, 70% of bones by weight are calcined (Aplin and Manne in press). ...
This paper presents archaeological evidence for the initial occupation and use of a large clan ossuary on the upper Kikori River at Baina in Papua New Guinea. Drawing extensively on clan oral accounts of its use and function, it is posited that the timing and use of the site as an ossuary effectively dates the establishment of a sub clan entity known as Kesele and the fragmentation of larger clan based land owning units into smaller sub-clan entities dating from around 200 years ago in the region. It is further posited that evidence of the more intensive use of the site from around 600 years ago and its subsequent use as an ossuary at 200 years ago may be linked to its proximity to an important lithic raw material source used in the manufacture of sago pounders, a major trade item linked to the hiri pottery trade.
... In this study, it was found that the relative abundances of burned micro-bones are often similar to or lower than the abundance of unburned or burned macro-bones, except for Layer A4, where burned micro-bones are more common than unburned or burned macro-bones (Supporting Information S1: Table 2). It is postulated that this may serve as evidence for trampling in this layer, as burned bones are more fragile than unburned bones (Stiner et al. 1995). Further evidence for hominin trampling is inferred from the general compactness of the deposits. ...
Recent excavations at the Middle Paleolithic site of Tinshemet Cave, Israel, showcase hominin burials and associated material culture that uniquely provide new information on hominin behavior in the south Levant around 120–100 ky ago. This study presents the site's stratigraphy in association with findings from sediment micromorphological analyses, shedding light on natural and anthropogenic site formation processes as well as human activities. Results indicate that two main types of sediment have been deposited—wood ash and reworked Terra Rossa soil—mixed to various degrees across the stratigraphic units. Hominin occupation started shortly after a partial roof collapse, intermittent with carnivore presence (Unit C). Hominin occupation increased and included the use of fire, flint knapping, cooking, and burial (Unit B), and increased even more (Unit A, Layer III) with more burials, intensive use of fire, cooking, knapping, trampling, and dumping. Anthropogenic sediments are largely cemented by secondary calcite that originates from recrystallized ash; however, intact hearths are absent due to syn‐ and postdepositional processes such as extensive bioturbation, cementation of the deposits, and trampling. Other postdepositional processes include fissuring and surface erosion. This study presents the importance of micromorphology to disentangle natural, anthropogenic, depositional, and postdepositional processes to better understand hominin behavior.
... Non-anthropogenic modifications were classified as tooth marks (scores, punctures, pits, and furrowing), fracture marks (notches, bone loss, and crenulated edges), and digestions, following classic criteria (Andrews, 1990;Binford, 1981;Domínguez-Rodrigo & Piqueras, 2003;Sala et al., 2012;Yravedra, 2006). Percussion marks (Vettese et al., 2020), cut-marks (Binford, 1981;Pérez Ripoll, 1992;Shipman & Rose, 1983;Soulier & Costamagno, 2017), and burnt bones (Stiner et al., 1995;Théry-Parisot et al., 2004) were registered as anthropogenic modifications. Specific references were considered for the modifications on leporid bones (Cochard et al., 2012;Hockett & Haws 2002;Lloveras et al., 2009Lloveras et al., , 2011Pérez Ripoll, 1993, 2005Rosado-Méndez et al., 2016;Sanchis et al., 2011), as Leporidae are the bestrepresented family. ...
In this article, we present the results of the research carried out at the Gravettian occupation level of Cueva del Arco (Spain). For this purpose, a multidisciplinary investigation has been carried out in which all the elements recovered in the excavations carried out since 2015 at this site have been studied. The results are contextualised alongside all of the existing Gravettian sites in Mediterranean Iberia. The study of the material culture, the fauna, the landscape, and the dating has allowed us to approach the occupations of the site from many perspectives and has permitted us to conclude that Cueva del Arco was occupied sporadically at the beginning of the Gravettian period by a small human group in what would be the beginning of the consolidation of the anatomically modern humans (AMH) in this territory. Furthermore, these occupations were preceded by others belonging to the Aurignacian, which left hardly any remains in the cave. The data presented in this article lead us to believe that Cueva del Arco is a site of great importance for the knowledge of the beginning of the AMH settlement in the Iberian Mediterranean, both in its expansion towards the south and in its definitive consolidation in this territory.
... Surface analysis of the bones was performed to identify indications such as bite marks, rodent gnaw marks or traces of human butchering and exploitation, thereby yielding preliminary archeozoological insights. The methodology reported by Stiner et al. (1995) was used to assess the degree of combustion. ...
... En el análisis de huesos las principales investigaciones realizadas con la técnica ayudan a identificar la diagénesis y temperaturas de cocción (Monnier, 2018). En los trabajos pioneros, Stiner et al. (1995) y Weiner y Bar-Yosef (1990), relacionaron el grado de cristalinidad de los huesos con el splitting factor (Ecuación 8) del modo de vibración dentro del plano antisimétrico (ν 4 ) del grupo fosfato (PO 4 ) (Figura 3), mostrando que son directamente proporcionales. El proceso térmico aplicado a los huesos hace que, la estructura cristalina de los mismos se ordene, teniendo tamaños de grano relativos y una cristalinidad mayor conforme la temperatura del proceso aumenta. ...
La espectroscopía Infrarroja por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR) es una técnica ampliamente utilizada que provee información molecular de la muestra analizada, que es sensible al ambiente de análisis y cambios en este. Por ello cuando se adquiere el espectro de un material, es necesario considerar también el espectro de fondo, dado que es común que los parámetros experimentales se modifiquen, la línea base puede variar. Por ese motivo se propone un algoritmo semiautomático de corrección de la línea base para espectros obtenidos por la espectroscopía Infrarroja por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR). En el cual, se ajustan polinomios de Chebyshev de cuarto orden a puntos seleccionados por un criterio umbral. El algoritmo fue aplicado al análisis de mezclas de CaCO3 y SiO2 de concentraciones conocidas, mostrando que la información del espectro se preserva. Posteriormente se aplicó el método en la verificación de la cristalinidad de huesos calcinados obteniendo que el algoritmo considere la forma de las bandas. Preservando la información física de los espectros, y eliminando errores causados por el usuario. Además de considerar desplazamientos de las bandas.
New radiocarbon, lithic, faunal, and documentary analyses of two sites, Buca della Iena and Grotta del Capriolo, located in Tuscany (Central Italy) and excavated in the late 1960s’, are presented. The new analyses significance will be evaluated within the late Neanderthal occupation in the northwestern Italian peninsula and provide insights into their demise. Reassessment of stratigraphical and fieldwork documentation identified areas of stratigraphic reliability, supporting robust interpretations. Radiocarbon dating reveals broadly contemporaneous occupations at both sites between 50–40 ka cal BP, with Buca della Iena showing occupation from approximately 47 to 42.5 ka cal BP. Lithic analyses demonstrate the consistent application of the same chaîne opératoire across both sites. Faunal analyses indicate that carnivores, particularly Crocuta spelaea, were the dominant accumulating agents in Buca della Iena, while limited preservation at Grotta del Capriolo prevents detailed taxonomic determination. However, hominin presence at both sites is evidenced by cut-marked bones. This study provides new perspectives on the Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition in the northwestern Italian peninsula.
This study assesses cremation conditions in the Roman period using a multi-proxy analysis (FTIR-ATR and carbon and oxygen isotope analysis) on 332 burned bones from five Belgian Gallo-Roman cemeteries. The results suggest similar pyre structure, size, temperature, and body positioning across Gallo-Roman cremations. However, high variability in δ13C and δ18O values indicates differences in fuel selection and environmental factors. The wide δ13C range likely reflects the use of multiple wood types (e.g., Quercus sp./oak, F. sylvatica/beech) and different tree parts (e.g., trunk, branch, stump) in pyre construction. In contrast, δ18O variation may relate to quenching methods and/or seasonal and weather conditions during combustion. Differences were also observed in cremation conditions between the Metal Ages and the Gallo-Roman cremations from Belgium, with Roman cremations presenting better oxygen availability during combustion. Finally, the Gallo-Roman cemetery of Fouches is particularly interesting, as it dates to the Early Roman period and presents similarities in ventilation conditions with the cemeteries from the Metal Ages instead of the other Gallo-Roman cemeteries. The evidence from Fouches suggests a gradual transition from the Metal Ages to Roman cremation practices. The dating of Fouches to the Early Roman period could potentially explain that Roman cremation expertise was not immediately widespread but rather transferred gradually to the edges of the Roman Empire.
The integration of biomolecular studies of past organisms with geoarchaeological studies can significantly improve our understanding of the relative chronology and context of archaeologically (in)visible behaviours. However, the complexity and sedimentological heterogeneity of archaeological deposits at a microscopic scale is often not taken into consideration in biomolecular studies. Here, we investigate the preservation and retrieval of palaeoproteomic data from bone fragments embedded in Pleistocene resin-impregnated sediment blocks. We show that resin impregnation has minimal effect on skeletal protein taxonomic identifications in modern skeletal material, but observe an increase in oxidation-related post-translational modifications. We then successfully retrieve proteins from resin-impregnated blocks from the Palaeolithic sites of Bacho Kiro Cave, La Ferrassie and Quinçay. The taxonomic identifications of minute bones encased in resin are in line with previous analyses of the faunal communities of these sites, with a diversity of taxa ( Bos sp./ Bison sp., Equus sp., Ursus sp., and Caprinae) observed at a microscale in Bacho Kiro. This differs from results from La Ferrassie where most of the samples are identified as a single taxon ( Bos sp./ Bison sp.) across different areas of the site. The block from Quinçay only provided taxonomic identification of two out of eleven bone-derived samples, likely due to diagenesis. Our work indicates that palaeoproteomes can be retrieved from bone fragments at a microstratigraphic resolution, enabling the detailed study of faunal community composition at a scale that more closely matches that of past human occupations.
Significance Statement
Resin-embedded sediment blocks are widely used in archaeology and soil sciences to reconstruct past environments and human behavior, but their potential for biomolecular analysis is underexplored. Here, we demonstrate that ancient proteins can be successfully retrieved from bone fragments embedded in resin-impregnated sediment blocks from Pleistocene archaeological sites. Our findings show that resin impregnation has a minimal impact on protein recovery and that palaeoproteomics enables taxonomic identification of Pleistocene bone fragments at a microstratigraphic scale. This approach allows for reconstructing past faunal communities with unprecedented detail, improving our understanding of ancient ecosystems and the environmental contexts of early hominin occupations.
This study focuses on the Neanderthal subsistence strategies at Cueva del Ángel, a site in southern Spain with a stratigraphic sequence from the Late Middle Pleistocene. Using zooarchaeological and taphonomic methodologies, we conducted a diachronic analysis of over 3,500 faunal remains to explore the exploitation patterns of medium- and large-sized ungulates. Results reveal a systematic and intensive exploitation of large mammals, particularly horses, red deer, and large bovids, with an emphasis on high-energy resources, such as meat and marrow. The anatomical representation and fragmentation patterns suggest selective hunting strategies and an intensive use of animal resources. Complementary resources, such as small game, were also exploited, potentially reflecting adaptive responses to increase predictability and minimize risks. The results align with other Eurasian sites from this period, emphasizing the persistence of large-game hunting as a core subsistence strategy, supplemented by diversified resources to mitigate risk. These findings underscore a consistent and flexible approach to resource management over time, highlighting the adaptability of Neanderthal subsistence strategies in Mediterranean ecosystems.
The 2978 faunal bone remains recovered from the Bronze Age levels at the Castillejo del Bonete site between 2005 and 2019 were analyzed in this study. In the main structure (Great Tumulus 1, Tumulus 2, and Tomb 5), the faunal bone remains were identified and interpreted as offerings in a funerary context. In Enclosure 4, a large building possibly dedicated to the celebration of wakes and rituals—including the eating of food and drinking—in honor of the deceased, the anthropic modifications on the bone surfaces indicate their possible consumption. The cave is constituted by four galleries with inhumations (in Galleries 2, 3, and 4) and pithoi (in Gallery 4). Wild and domestic animals were identified in the cavity, and the caprine (likely sheep) is the best represented taxa in the entire cave. The almost complete skeletal representation; the predominance of fetal, neonate, and juvenile individuals; the absence of anthropic modifications related to consumption, in addition to the bone industry made of caprine bones (such as an eye idol and anthropomorphic artefacts), suggest that caprines were used as offerings to the deceased that accompany them. Postdepositional taphonomic alterations, the animals not having been found in anatomical connection, and the refits of the bones between different stratigraphical units indicate the repeated use of the cave during the Bronze Age.
This research explores the modes of exploitation of marine molluscs at Riparo Bombrini (Ventimiglia, north-west Italy) during the Protoaurignacian and the Early Aurignacian. Our results prove that Early Modern Humans who inhabited the rockshelter extensively exploited marine malacofauna for both dietary purposes and ornament production, offering new insights into human adaptation to coastal environments during the early phases of the Upper Palaeolithic along the Mediterranean coast. Combining taxonomy and taphonomy, we identified five main categories of shell remains within the assemblage: edible specimens, shell beads, non-worked ornamental shells, accidental introductions, and potential ornamental shells. A total of 91 perforated gastropods were recovered during the excavations of the Early Upper Palaeolithic layers. The ornament assemblage shows a certain richness in mollusc species, whose shells were collected dead from the beach. However, a preference for spherical and semi-spherical shells can be observed, highlighting the existence of trends in the selection of shell species for bead production. Use wear analysis demonstrates that some of the shell beads exhibit rounding and polishing around the rim of the perforation, implying that most of them arrived at the site as worn components, possibly forming part of more complex decorative combinations. Finally, the presence of both perforated and unperforated shells interpretable as raw material suggests that the rockshelter served as a “manufacturing site”, where shell ornaments were fabricated, discarded and replaced in new beadworks. This hypothesis is further supported by the presence of broken shell beads, interpretable as manufacturing errors or worn beads ready for replacement.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-024-02148-5.
En els darrers anys, el coneixement sobre les pràctiques ramaderes en època romana al nord-est de la península Ibèrica ha augmentat considerablement gràcies a un creixent nombre d’estudis arqueozoològics aplicats a les vil·les. Això no obstant, aquests estudis difícilment han centrat el seu interès en les escasses restes de fauna salvatge d’aquest tipus de jaciment. A les excavacions dutes a terme a la vil·la romana del Pla de Palol (Platja d’Aro, NE de la península Ibèrica) durant el bienni 1998-99 es va recuperar un conjunt considerable de restes de cèrvid. L’estudi d’aquest conjunt pot ajudar a comprendre millor la captura i gestió de la fauna salvatge en aquest tipus d’establiment rural. Els resultats indiquen que l’activitat cinegètica es focalitzà fonamentalment en cérvols mascles adults. De fet, l’explotació del cérvol resultà una font de diversos tipus de matèries primeres, com la pell, els tendons, la carn, l’os i la banya. Malgrat tot, la banya també s’obtingué a través de la recol·lecció. Les carcasses foren completament processades, tal i com assenyalen les marques d’escorxament, desmembrament, desarticulació i descarnament. A més, el treball de la banya i l’elaboració de suports en banya es realitzava també a la vil·la. Les parts rebutjades durant el procés de carnisseria i després del consum humà es donaven als gossos. En termes generals, la caça fou una pràctica subsidiària quan es compara amb el volum de productes procedents de la ramaderia. Contràriament, l’activitat cinegètica mostrà un caràcter lúdic que imbuí als propietaris (o als seus villici) de la vil·la d’un estatus preeminent.
New radiocarbon, lithic, faunal, and documentary analyses of two sites, Buca della Iena and Grotta del Capriolo, excavated in the 1970s, enhance our understanding of late Neanderthal settlement in the northwestern Italian peninsula and provide insights into their demise.
Reassessment of stratigraphical and fieldwork documentation identified areas of stratigraphic reliability, supporting robust interpretations. Radiocarbon dating reveals broadly contemporaneous occupations at both sites between 50–40 ka cal BP, with Buca della Iena showing occupation from approximately 47 to 42.5 ka cal BP. Lithic analyses demonstrate the consistent application of the same chaîne opératoire across both sites. Faunal analyses indicate that carnivores, particularly Crocuta spelaea , were the dominant accumulating agents in Buca della Iena, while limited preservation at Grotta del Capriolo prevents detailed taxonomic determination. However, hominin presence at both sites is evidenced by cut-marked bones. This study provides new perspectives on the Middle-to- Upper Palaeolithic transition in the northwestern Italian peninsula.
In this report we summarize the findings of our fieldwalking sur-
vey conducted around the well-known Mid-Upper Palaeolithic
(Gravettian) open-air site Grub-Kranawetberg I in Lower Austria,
about 40 kilometres northeast of Vienna. In September 2021, we
surveyed around 126,000 square metres using GNSS (Global Nav-
igation Satellite System) to piece-plot each find. In total, we recov-
ered 359 finds comprising lithic artefacts and faunal remains. In our
analysis we show that the state of the fields did not drive how many
finds per cadastral parcel were recovered during our survey and did
not bias the find density per cadastral parcel. The majority of finds
hint at a Gravettian dating and occur in two concentrations on top
of the hill west of the known site Grub-Kranawetberg I.
Analytical spectroscopic techniques and associated calculated indices have frequently been applied to assess diagenesis as a proxy for the reliability of biogeochemical analyses. This review explores a selection of the most popular spectroscopic techniques including FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction and fluorescence and presents calculated indices, assessing their reliability. This article presents the basics of each methodology and the calculation of each commonly applied index and its interpretive values. These methods taken in conjunction are considered complimentary, but limitations of funding and access often limit researchers to the use of one or two methods. The current evidence suggests that, in such situations, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy are the most easily applied, most reliable, and least destructive of all current approaches.
L'articolo offre una panoramica dell'area dell'alto Sebino (bassa Valle Camonica, valle Borlezza, alta Valseriana, BG) nella preistoria e protostoria, con particolare attenzione al ruolo del centro pluristratificato di Lovere (BG) nel più ampio contesto territoriale.
Stratum D at Hayonim Cave represents temporary Upper Palaeolithic occupations in three successive
sub-layers. Although the occupation area was quite small (15 m2), two of the sub-layers contained
hearths (D 3 and D 4). Sub-layers D 1-2 and D 4 also had some architectural remains. The lithic
assemblage of Stratum D is related to other middle Upper Palaeolithic assemblages in northern Levant
with a high Aurignacian index. Yet it displays a number of specific traits such as the near absence of El-
Wad points and the high percentage of microliths. The bone tool assemblage from Stratum D is unique
among other known Upper Palaeolithic assemblages in its number of tools and their variety. These
bone tools differ from the Natufian ones found in Stratum B. Among the stone tools and modified stones,
art objects were found, a rare phenomenon in the Levantine Upper Palaeolithic, as well as ochrestained
artifacts, ochre lumps and adornments of bone and teeth. It seems that the Aurignacian
occupation in Hayonim Cave though small in size, represents a variety of activities, which are evidenced
through the different flint, bone and stone tool assemblages, and special activities areas such as the
"kitchen midden" in D 3 and the large hearths in D 4.
This paper summarizes the results of recent excavations (1982-90) at the Middle Paleolithic site of Kebara Cave. Work at the cave by earlier excavators is also discussed. Although analysis of the Kebara materials is still far from completed, an overview of the current stage of the investigations includes (1) a synthesis of the site's complex stratigraphy and dating; (2) a description of the spatial patterning of hearths, ash lenses, and bone and artifact concentrations; (3) results of in situ mineralogical studies of cave sediments to determine whether the observed spatial distribution of fossil animal bones is an accurate reflection of past human and/or scavenger activities in the cave or an artifact of differential postdepositional bone loss through groundwater dissolution; (4) a synthesis of the Mousterian stone tool assemblages focusing on.the technology of tool production as reflected in chaines operatoires (a brief summary of the site's Upper Paleolithic assemblages is also provided); (5) an in-depth taphonomic
This important paper offers a fresh and stimulating approach to the interpretation of a large faunal assemblage from an excavated site. There are interesting implications in regard to present-day land use—an aspect of archaeology to which too little attention has been paid. The principal author, Dr Gifford is Assistant Professor in The Board of Studies in Anthropology, University of California.SummaryThis paper reports in detail on the largest faunal assemblage yet analysed from a Pastoral Neolithic site. Prolonged Drift, located south of Lake Nakuru, Kenya, yielded over 160,000 pieces of bone, reflecting a mixture of wild and domestic species in one midden deposit. A substantial part of our discussion centres on the possible economic systems and practices that may have existed in the Central Rift during the first and second millennia B.C.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Berkeley, 1977. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 310-325). Microfiche. s
Bones of recent mammals in the Amboseli Basin, southern Kenya, exhibit distinctive weathering characteristics that can be related to the time since death and to the local conditions of temperature, humidity and soil chemistry. A categorization of weathering characteristics into six stages, recognizable on descriptive criteria, provides a basis for investigation of weathering rates and processes. The time necessary to achieve each successive weathering stage has been calibrated using known-age carcasses. Most bones decompose beyond recognition in 10 to 15 yr. Bones of animals under 100 kg and juveniles appear to weather more rapidly than bones of large animals or adults. Small-scale rather than widespread environmental factors seem to have greatest influence on weathering characteristics and rates. Bone weathering is potentially valuable as evidence for the period of time represented in recent or fossil bone assemblages, including those on archeological sites, and may also be an important tool in censusing populations of animals in modern ecosystems.
Archaeological studies concerned with reconstructing activity areas, room functions, and site-formation processes can benefit greatly from analyses of the microartifacts found on and within occupation surfaces. These remains are often primary refuse directly related to activities, and can be used to identify such locations as food-preparation areas, flint-knapping stations, and storage facilities. In addition, certain microartifacts are informative about site-formation processes. For example, the grain-size distribution of charcoal may be indicative of primary vs. secondary refuse, high percentages of corroded and crushed bone from scavenger feces may indicate locations of secondary refuse, and many small sherds could point to heavily trampled areas. A case study from the Iron Age city site of Tel Miqne-Ekron in central Israel demonstrates the use of microarchaeology at a complex sedentary site.
This book relates the mechanical and structural properties of bone to its function in man and other vertebrates. John Currey, one of the pioneers of modern bone research, reviews existing information in the field and particularly emphasizes the correlation of the structure of bone with its various uses. Originally published in 1984. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These paperback editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.
Mary Stiner uses ecological niche theory to analyze and interpret several Middle Paleolithic archaeological and paleontological sites in southern Europe. Her concern is with how the hunting, scavenging, and foraging behavior of Neandertals compared and contrasted with the subsistence behavior of other large predators living in the region at the time - lions, hyenas, and wolves, for example - and with how Neandertal subsistence behavior related to the behavior of the anatomically modern humans who subsequently came to dominate the area in the Upper Paleolithic. Her conclusion, very broadly stated, is that Neandertals entered the Middle Paleolithic in direct and successful competition with lions, hyenas, and wolves, but ended the period in direct and ultimately unsuccessful competition for the ecological niche that we came to occupy with our slightly more advanced technology and slightly more sophisticated ambush hunting strategies and techniques
The distribution of bones in Kebara Cave, Israel, is very heterogeneous. In order to address the question of whether the bone concentrations were created secondarily by differential dissolution, or represent the original burial distributions, a portable Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) was operated on-site. It was used to map the distribution of the minerals in the sediments, in order to delineate the zone in which original ash-derived calcite was preserved, as well as the zone in which carbonate apatite (dahllite) was still preserved. The bone distribution in the former zone must be primary, as calcite is less stable than dahllite, the mineral phase of bone. The boundary between the zone containing dahllite in the sediments and the zone in which it was absent, also essentially mapped the southernmost distribution of bones in the cave. The distribution of bones in the dahllite zone is thus also likely to be original. Supporting this notion was the observation that the bones at the periphery of the concentrations were not less well-preserved than those in the centre, except at one location which coincided with the boundary of the dahllite zone. In the third zone, the bones appear to have been lost by dissolution. The operation of an FTIR on-site proved to be an efficient and useful method for resolving this important archaeological problem.
Significant differences have been shown to exist in the trace-element composition of Hayonim Natufian and Aurignacian bones.
The studies reported here were designed to further characterize these bones in order to more fully understand the degree and
nature of post-depositional forces acting upon them.
Natufian and Aurignacian faunal bones from Hayonim were found to differ in the preservation of histology, and density
configurations, but not in calcium/phosphate ratios. Taken together, the results indicate that post-depositional changes in these
bones are not the result of simple uptake of carbonate from ground-water, but of a complex process of dissolution and
recrystallization on a microscopic scale.
Zhoukoudian is often cited as yielding some of the earliest evidence for the use of fire and as documenting "man the hunter" living in caves during the Middle Pleistocene. In addition, it is commonly believed that this important Chinese site documents cannibalism on the part of Middle Pleistocene hominids. We examine the data from Zhoukoudian with several questions in mind: (1) What are the agents responsible for the bone accumulations inside the cave? (2) What materials within the cave reflect early hominid behavior? (3) What was the nature of that behavior? Our conclusions are at variance with traditional interpretations.
In 1984 Shipman and colleagues proposed a series of stages by which temperature of burning could be recognized from bone colour, mineral crystal size and surface morphology using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). This study investigates whether the changes in colour and surface morphology recognized for large mammal bone can be observed on other vertebrate bone, and if so whether at the same temperatures. Diagenesis is also considered in terms of its effects on crystal structure, and the relevance of the temperature-induced diagnostic changes assessed for archaeological bone. The results indicate that mammal and non-mammal bones undergo a similar range of colour and morphological changes with heating, but the temperature at which each stage is reached may vary. A wider range of surface morphologies was observed on bone exposed to temperatures above 700°C than has been documented before. Similar surface modifications have been recognized on some archaeological bones, but diagenetically-induced surface erosion and recrystallization may complicate interpretation. Inspection using a low power optical microscope is a valuable precursor to SEM investigation, and may sometimes provide sufficient proof of heating.
The portion of organic matrix in bones that is present within fused aggregates of hydroxyapatite crystals was isolated by oxidizing the rest of the bone organic matter with sodium hypochlorite. The aggregate organic matter from a variety of modern and prehistoric bones was subjected to elemental and stable C and N isotopic analysis. For comparison, collagen from modern bones and the fraction from prehistoric bones with the same solubility characteristics as collagen (referred to herein as "collagen") were subjected to the same analytical procedures. Collagen and aggregate organic matter in modern bones have similar 15 N values but dissimilar 13 C values. The difference may be caused by the presence of non-collagenous proteins (NCPs) in the aggregate organic matter, because the NCPs have 13 C values different from those of collagen from the same bone. The organic matter in aggregates is not subject to the same diagenetic processes that can alter the isotope ratios of collagen, and appears to retain an in vivo isotope signal even in cases in which that of "collagen" has been altered. These conclusions apply to samples that were burned prehistorically as well as to those that suffered postmortem alteration only in the depositional environment. The organic matter in aggregates represents a new substrate that should prove useful for stable isotopic studies and possibly for radiocarbon and other biogeochemical analyses of bone.
Discovery of the uses and later the invention of fire-making are fundamental to humanity. Following reports over the last decade of traces of fire found on Lower Pleistocene archaeological sites in eastern Africa, the dating of the control of fire by hominids has become a controversial issue. In this paper we critically review the contexts and, in the light of a battery of archaeometric techniques, the nature of reported instances of fire from Koobi Fora and Chesowanja in Kenya, and from Gadeb and the Middle Awash in Ethiopia. We conclude with a discussion of the roles fire may have played in the lifeways of early Pleistocene savanna-living hominids.
Human beings depend more on technology than any other animal-the use of tools and weapons is vital to the survival of our species. What processes of biocultural evolution led to this unique dependence? Steven Kuhn turns to the Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) and to artifacts associated with Neandertals, the most recent human predecessors. His study examines the ecological, economic, and strategic factors that shaped the behaviour of Mousterian tool makers, revealing how these hominids brought technological knowledge to bear on the basic problems of survival. Kuhn's main database consists of assemblages of stone artifacts from four caves and a series of open-air localities situated on the western coast of the Italian peninsula. Variations in the ways stone tools were produced, maintained, and discarded demonstrate how Mousterian hominids coped with the problems of keeping mobile groups supplied with the artifacts and raw materials they used on a daily basis. Changes through time in lithic technology were closely tied to shifting strategies for hunting and collecting food. Some of the most provocative findings of this study stem from observations about the behavioural flexibility of Mousterian populations and the role of planning in foraging and technology.
Examen critique des donnees de 30 sites du Pleistocene inferieur et moyen d'Afrique, Asie et Europe, concernant l'utilisation du feu chez les premiers hominides. Les donnees anterieures aux neandertaliens sont equivoques. Discussion du role des processus naturels dans la production du feu. Presentation d'une methode d'evaluation des donnees
Three organic fractions from 9 modern bones were prepared: collagen, the HCl insoluble fraction, and the HCl soluble fraction. The fraction that has the same solubility characteristics as collagen (referred to herein as collagen) and the HCl soluble and insoluble fractions from 44 prehistoric bones were also prepared. Of these 44, 17 had collagen with δ¹³C and δ¹âµN values and C/N ratios within the ranges displayed by collagen from modern animals that ate the same types of food, whereas collagen in the remaining samples displayed clear evidence of diagenetic isotopic and/or elemental alteration based on comparisons with modern collagen. The bones were characterized in terms of the amino acid compositions and infrared spectra of the three organic fractions, and the amino acid compositions of the low molecular weight products of the reaction between collagenase and collagen. Application of the chemical, enzymatic and spectroscopic methods presented here should permit unequivocable identification of prehistoric samples that have suffered postmortem alteration of their collagen isotopic compositions, including those that have undergone more subtle isotopic shifts than can be identified by changes in the collagen C/N ratio, the only criterion applied to data for identifying altered samples. Some of the techniques the authors used to identify altered samples can be applied to fractions more readily prepared than collagen, thereby facilitating screening of large numbers of samples in order to eliminate those unsuitable for isotopic paleodietary analysis. The same criteria the authors have established to identify collagen samples that have not suffered postmortem stable isotopic alteration could be applied to characterize samples prepared for radiocarbon analysis, leading to more accurate dating of bone.
Since its introduction in 19771, stable isotope analysis of bone collagen has been widely used to reconstruct aspects of prehistoric human and animal diets2–11. This method of dietary analysis is based on two well-established observations, and on an assumption that has never been tested. The first observation is that bone collagen 13C/12C and 15N/14N ratios reflect the corresponding isotope ratio of an animal's diet1–5,12. The second is that groups of foods have characteristically different 13C/12C and/or 15N/14N ratios13,14. Taken together, the two observations indicate that the isotope ratios of collagen in the bones of a living animal reflect the amounts of these groups of foods that the animal ate. Thus, it has been possible to use fresh bone collagen 13C/12C ratios to determine the relative consumption of C3 and C4 plants15–17, while 13C/12C and 15N/14N ratios have been used to distinguish between the use of marine and terrestrial foods14. The 15N/14N ratios of fresh bone collagen probably also reflect the use of leguminous and non-leguminous plants as food5, but this has not yet been demonstrated. Prehistoric consumption of these same groups of foods has been reconstructed from isotope ratios of collagen extracted from fossil bone1–11. Implicit in the application of the isotopic method to prehistoric material is the assumption that bone collagen isotope ratios have not been modified by postmortem processes. Here I present the first examination of the validity of this assumption. The results show that postmortem alteration of bone collagen isotope ratios does occur, but that it is possible to identify prehistoric bones whose collagen has not undergone such alteration.
During recent excavations of hominid-bearing breccias in the Swartkrans cave altered bones were recovered from Member 3 (about 1.0–1.5 Myr BP) which seemed to have been burnt. We examined the histology and chemistry of these specimens and found that they had been heated to a range of temperatures consistent with that occurring in campfires. The presence of these burnt bones, together with their distribution in the cave, is the earliest direct evidence for use of fire by hominids in the fossil record. Although abundant remains of Australopithecus robustus and Homo cf. erectus are found in the older Members 1 and 2 at Swartkrans, there is no evidence of fire, suggesting that the discovery of fire was made in the interval between Members 2 and 3 and before A. robustus became extinct.
Burnt osteological materials are one focus of interest in forensic, archaeological, and palaeontological studies. We document the effects of experimental, controlled heating on a sample of modern bones and teeth from sheep and goats. Four aspects of heating specimens to between 20 and 940°C were considered: color, microscopic morphology, crystalline structure and shrinkage. Our results show that changes in both color and microscopic morphology of burnt bones and teeth can be divided into five stages each of which is typical of a particular temperature range, although the stages based on color do not correlate exactly with those based on micromorphology. These stages can be used to determine (1) if specimens of unknown taphonomic history were burnt, and (2) the maximum temperature reached by those specimens. In addition, powder X-ray diffraction studies show that heating causes an increase in the crystal size of hydroxyapatite, the major inorganic component of bones and teeth. This fact in conjunction with the microscopic morphology can be used to confirm deduced heating to 645°C or more. The data on shrinkage are analyzed to yield a polynomial expression that summarizes percentage shrinkage as a function of the maximum temperature reached by bones. Thus, the original size of specimens can be reconstructed within limits since the maximum temperature reached by the bones can be deduced on the basis of color, microscopic morphology and/or powder X-ray diffraction patterns. Finally, because there is a discrepancy between the maximum heating device temperature and the maximum specimen temperature, caution must be exercised in distinguishing between the effects of man made and natural fires.
Preferential preservation of noncollagenous proteins (NCP) in diagenetically altered bone will affect amino acid compositions, inflate aspartic acid ratios, and increase ratios. Human skeletal remains representing both well preserved (collagenous) and diagenetically altered (noncollagenous) bones were selected from several southern California coastal archaeological sites that date from 8400 to 4100 years B.P. Amino acid compositions of the poorly preserved samples resembled NCP, which are probably retained by adsorption to the hydroxyapatite mineral phase of bone whereas collagen is degraded and lost to the environment over time. Since the racemization rate of aspartic acid in NCP is an order of magnitude faster than in collagen, the conservation of NCP in diagenetically altered bone can explain the high aspartic acid ratios, and the erroneous Upper Pleistocene racemization ages calculated from these ratios, for several California Indian burials. Amino acid compositional analyses also indicated a non-amino acid source of nitrogen in the poorly preserved samples, which may account for their lower ratios despite the acidic amino acid profiles typical of NCP. Preservation of NCP rather than collagen also precludes the extraction of a gelatin residue for radiocarbon dating and stable isotope analyses, but remnant NCP can yield apparently accurate radiocarbon dates. As collagen and phosphoprotein purified from a sample of modern human dentin have the same δ13C and δ15N values, remnant NCP may also be useful for paleodiet reconstructions based on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope compositions. Dentin collagen appears to be more resistant to diagenetic changes than does bone collagen. Consequently, dentin promises to be a more reliable material than bone for chronometric and stable isotope measurements.
A survey of the states of preservation of organic material in 30 fossil bones from 16 different prehistoric sites in the Near East shows that whereas almost all the bones have little or no collagen preserved, they do, with few exceptions, contain non-collagenous proteins. These macromolecules, therefore, represent an important reservoir of indigenous fossil bone constituents.
The low molecular weight hydrolysis products of the reaction between collagenase and the HCl insoluble organic fraction from modern and well-preserved prehistoric bones have the same stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions and amino acid composition as “collagen” extracted by dissolution in warm dilute acid. The hydrolysis products produced using the collagenase method from some poorly preserved fossil bones have the same amino acid composition as the products produced from modern bones, even though the “collagen” extracted from these bones by the conventional solubility method bears no similarity to modern collagen either in terms of amino acid or isotopic composition. These observations suggest that collagenase can possibly be used to purify a fraction from such poorly preserved prehistoric bones that retains its in vivo isotope ratios, thereby permitting isotopic paleodietary reconstruction for bones that cannot be studied with currently available techniques.
Incluye bibliografía e índice
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of New Mexico, 1992. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 577-607).
Quantitative infrared spectrophotometric analysis of whole femurs from male rats demonstrates that anorphous calcium phosphate is a major component of bone mineral. The amount of amorphous calcium phosphate in whole bone decreases while the crystalline bone apatite increases during early stages of bone formation. Mature rat bone contains constant levels of both amorphous and crystalline calcium phosphate.
Carbonated apatites of known carbonate content were used to develop a method which uses infrared (IR) spectroscopy for quantitative estimation of carbonate. The ratio of the extinction of the IR carbonate band at about 1,415 cm––1 to the extinction of the phosphate band at about 575 cm––1 is linearly related to the carbonate content of the carbonated apatite. Mixtures of BaCO3 and commercially available hydroxyapatite or tricalcium phosphate are used to standardize the apparatus. The method allows carbonate estimation to better than ± 10% in the range 1–12% wt/wt.Copyright © 1984 S. Karger AG, Basel
Bone crystals are particularly small and hence estimating their sizes have proved to be difficult and values obtained inconsistent. Here we use rat bone crystals of different ages, as well as different synthetic carbonate apatite crystals, to compare two methods commonly used for determining bone crystal sizes. One method involves direct measurement of crystal lengths and widths, but not thicknesses, from transmission electron microscope (TEM) photographs of dispersed crystals. The second method utilizes X-ray diffraction line width broadening to estimate the average length of crystals. We conclude that line width broadening values tend to reflect crystal coherence lengths rather than the physical dimensions of the whole crystal. TEM measurements provide reliable estimates of average crystal lengths and widths and their ranges. Sample preparation procedures, however, cause breakage of the fragile crystals, which probably results in underestimates of in vivo crystal sizes.
The Ecology of Choice: Procurement and Transport of Animal Resources by Upper Pleistocene Hominids in West-central Italy
- M C Stiner
Stiner, M. C. (1990). The Ecology of Choice: Procurement and Transport of Animal Resources by Upper Pleistocene Hominids in West-central Italy. Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Cultural patterning in faunal remains: Evidence from the Experimental Archaeology
- J E Yellen
Yellen, J. E. (1977). Cultural patterning in faunal remains: Evidence from the !Kung Bushmen. In (D. Ingersoll, J. E. Yellen & W. Macdonald, Eds) Experimental Archaeology. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 271–331.
Alonga bush'': a Tiwi hunt
- J C Goodale
Goodale, J. C. (1957). ''Alonga bush'': a Tiwi hunt. University Museum Bulletin (University of Pennsylvania) 21, 3–38.
Differential preservation of calcined bone at the Hirundo Site
- J A Knight
Knight, J. A. (1985). Differential preservation of calcined bone at the Hirundo Site, Alton, Maine. Masters Thesis in Quaternary Studies, University of Maine, Orono.
Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology Taphonomy at a distance: Zhoukoudian, ''the cave home of Beijing Man''? Current Anthro-pology 26
- L R Binford
- L R Binford
- C K Ho
Binford, L. R. (1978). Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. New York: Academic Press. Binford, L. R. & Ho, C. K. (1985). Taphonomy at a distance: Zhoukoudian, ''the cave home of Beijing Man''? Current Anthro-pology 26, 413–442.
Les modèles de la subsistance et de l'habitat de l'Épigravettien Italien: l'example de Riparo Salvini
- A Bietti
- M C Stiner
Bietti, A. & Stiner, M. C. (1992). Les modèles de la subsistance et de l'habitat de l'Épigravettien Italien: l'example de Riparo Salvini (Terracina, Latium). In (H. Laville, J.-F. Rigaud & B. Vandermeersch, Eds) Colioque International, Le Peuplement Magdalenien. Paris: Edition C.T.H.S., pp. 137–152.
Primi risultati dello scavo nel giacimento Epigravet-tiano finale di Riparo Salvini Atti XXIV Riunione Scientifica Istituto Italiano Preistoria e Protostoria
- A Bietti
Bietti, A. (1984). Primi risultati dello scavo nel giacimento Epigravet-tiano finale di Riparo Salvini (Terracina, Latina). Atti XXIV Riunione Scientifica Istituto Italiano Preistoria e Protostoria, pp. 195–205.