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The Incubation Effect: Hatching a Solution?
Abstract
Numerous anecdotal accounts exist of an incubation period promoting creativity and problem solving. This article examines whether incubation is an empirically verifiable phenomenon and the possible role therein of nonconscious processing. An Idea Generation Test was employed to examine (a) whether an incubation effect occurred and (b) the impact of different types of break on this effect. In the Idea Generation Test, two groups of participants were given a distracting break, during which they completed either a similar or an unrelated task, and a third group worked continuously (N = 90). The Idea Generation Test was validated against established measures of cognitive ability and personality, and was found to exhibit variance distinct from those marker tests. Most important, results demonstrated that having a break during which one works on a completely different task is more beneficial for idea production than working on a similar task or generating ideas continuously. The advantage afforded by a break cannot be accounted for in terms of relief from functional fixedness or general fatigue, and, although it may be explicable by relief from task-specific fatigue, explanations of an incubation effect in terms of nonconscious processing should be (re)considered.
... Prior work on IE in the context of classroom tasks (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Fulgosi & Guilford, 1970;Gilhooly et al., 2013;Penaloza & Calvillo, 2012;Sio & Ormerod, 2009) investigated which specific factors lead to successful incubation and suggested that engaging in a different activity may produce a better outcome. On the other hand, (Penney, Godsell, Scott, & Balsom, 2004) claimed that engaging in a task with similar nature would promote priming which allows students to realize the correct solution to the problem but (Segal, 2004) said that the task during incubation has no effect on its outcome. ...
... This discrepancy contributed to the relatively low success rate in clusters C and D which means that taking a break is not as helpful if one was unproductive before and during the incubation period. Previous study (Ellwood et al., 2009;Fulgosi & Guilford, 1970;Gilhooly et al., 2013;Penaloza & Calvillo, 2012;Sio & Ormerod, 2009) said that incubation period with high cognitive demand tasks resulted to smaller incubation effect more so if the learner has not been productive with these tasks. 4. (F9) Total levels played during incubation that are similar to the unsolved problem in terms of the canonical solutions and total levels played during incubation It might seem odd that playing more levels similar to level X during the break was not beneficial. ...
... However, if we take into consideration the total number of all levels played during the break (F8) as well the total number of levels played from start of the session until the post-incubation phase (F16) which were both relatively high, we can infer that the similarity might have been overshadowed by all the other levels that the player attempted to solve. Also, having played many levels can cause fatigue even during the break which prior work (Ellwood et al., 2009;Talandron et al., 2017) considered to be a hindrance to beneficial incubation. ...
This study continues prior work of the investigation and modeling of Incubation Effect, a phenomenon in which a momentary break helps the generation of a solution to a
problem, among students using in a computer-based learning environment called Physics
Playground. This paper attempts to improve the detection of IE-False by identifying notable features among instances of unsuccessful incubation by using a combination of t-SNE dimensionality reduction and x-means clustering techniques. We found that there are overlaps on some characteristics of IE-True and IE-False incidences but discovered features that do not make a break beneficial which are low success rate prior to post-incubation, too many levels played during the incubation phase even if some of these are similar to the unsolved problem, a lengthy incubation duration, and too much attempts on the level which has been previously related to frustration.
... To ensure that all effect sizes are computed on independent groups, in cases where studies assessed the effect of different micro-break interventions against the same control group, we combined those intervention groups into one by using standardized or pooled data [17,49,59,75,[77][78][79][80]. For the study conducted by Rees et al. [81] several steps were taken, namely: (1) for each of the five post-interruption blocks for each outcome variable tested (i.e., correct responses, reaction times, response bias, sensitivity), the average was calculated; (2) from every five experimental groups (i.e., free break, music, music with video, choosing between listening to music or watching a music video, no activity break), because they were tested against the same control group, we created a single intervention group by calculating their weighted mean and pooled standard deviation; and (3) because three outcome measures fell into our accuracy operationalization of performance, we aggregated them into a single accuracy indicator. ...
... Thus, we had another look at all the articles assessed for eligibility in the present meta-analysis, and specifically at those focused on performance outcomes. Whereas some laboratory studies found no effect of taking short breaks between various resource-depleting tasks on subsequent performance [e.g., [110][111][112], others found significant improvements in performance after taking a break [e.g., 57,78,83]. ...
Recovery activities during short breaks taken between work tasks are solutions for preventing the impairing effects of accumulated strain. No wonder then that a growing body of scientific literature from various perspectives emerged on this topic. The present meta-analysis is aimed at estimating the efficacy of micro-breaks in enhancing well-being (vigor and fatigue) and performance, as well as in which conditions and for whom are the micro-breaks most effective. We searched the existent literature on this topic and aggregated the existing data from experimental and quasi-experimental studies. The systematic search revealed 19 records , which resulted in 22 independent study samples (N = 2335). Random-effects meta-analyses shown statistically significant but small effects of micro-breaks in boosting vigor (d = .36, p < .001; k = 9, n = 913), reducing fatigue (d = .35, p < .001; k = 9, n = 803), and a non-significant effect on increasing overall performance (d = .16, p = .116; k = 15, n = 1132). Subgroups analyses on performance types revealed significant effects only for tasks with less cognitive demands. A meta-regression showed that the longer the break, the greater the boost was on performance. Overall, the data support the role of micro-breaks for well-being, while for performance, recovering from highly depleting tasks may need more than 10-minute breaks. Therefore, future studies should focus on this issue.
... The benefits of incubation prompted researchers to incorporate breaks into educational activities which have shown to have positive results (Lynch & Swink, 1967;Medd & Houtz, 2002;Rae, 1997;Webster, Campbell, & Jane, 2006). Earlier work on IE (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Fulgosi & Guilford, 1968;Gilhooly et al., 2013;Penaloza & Calvillo, 2012;Sio & Ormerod, 2015) investigated specific factors that could lead to successful incubation in the context of classroom tasks and suggested that engaging in a different activity may produce a better outcome. On the other hand, Penney, Godsell, Scott, and Balsom (2004) claimed that engaging in a task with similar nature would promote priming which allows students to realize the correct solution to the problem but Segal (2004) said that the task during incubation has no effect on its outcome. ...
... Aside from contributing to what is known about IEs, this work consolidated the first attempt to investigate and model IE in the context of a computer-based learning environment with fine-grained interaction logs like Physics Playground. Most research in IE used standard tests to measure fluency and creativity (Baird et al., 2012;Fulgosi & Guilford, 1968;Gilhooly et al., 2013;Sio & Ormerod, 2015), mathematical adeptness (Fulgosi & Guilford, 1968;Segal, 2004;Tan, Zou, Chen, & Luo, 2015), and even memory (Ellwood et al., 2009). These earlier works manually observed, recorded, and assessed test subjects based on task performance and were scored based on the results produced in the pre-and post-incubation phases. ...
The incubation effect (IE) is a problem-solving phenomenon composed of three phases: pre-incubation where one fails to solve a problem; incubation, a momentary break where time is spent away from the unsolved problem; and post-incubation where the unsolved problem is revisited and solved. Literature on IE was limited to experiments involving traditional classroom activities. This initial investigation showed evidence of IE instances in a computer-based learning environment. This paper consolidates the studies on IE among students playing an educational game called Physics Playground and presents further analysis to examine the incidence of post-incubation or the revisit to a previously unsolved problem. Prior work, which focused on predicting successful outcomes, includes a coarse-grained IE model developed with logistic regression on aggregated data and an improved model which leveraged long short-term memory (LSTM) combined with dimensionality reduction visualization technique and clustering on fine-grained data. The additional analysis which aims to understand factors that may trigger the post-incubation phase also used fine-grained data and LSTM to create a revisit model. Results show that time elapsed relative to the activity period and encountering a problem with a similar solution during incubation were possible factors in revisiting previously unsolved problems.
... Hocevar (1980) demonstrated ideational fluency to be a predictor for creativity. Besides the amount of ideas produces, the creation of new concepts seems to be the result of interplay between explicit and implicit knowledge and learning processes (Dijksterhuis & Meurs, 2005;Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder & Gallate, 2009;Gallate, Wong, Ellwood, Roring, & Snyder, 2012;Nonaka, 1994;Szpunar, 2010;Wallas, 1926) and has in some cases been described as a generative dance (Cook & Brown (1999). The implicit characters of knowledge and learning contains motivation, emotions, and cognitions (nonepisodic information), whereas the explicit characters are symbolic and propositional cognitions (e.g. ...
... The effect of mindfulness on ideational fluency. We hypothesize mindfulness to have an influence on ideational fluency because our inherited human creative ability seems to be activated when our attention changes from one instance to another; like when being surprised or challenged or assigned to perform a task (Dijksterhuis & Meurs, 2005;Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder & Gallate, 2009;Fenker & Schütze, 2008;Gallate, Wong, Ellwood, Roring, & Snyder, 2012;Wallas, 1926). The original practice of mindfulness was applied within the eastern religion among Buddhists. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine how perceptions of music
and body movement respectively influence creative productivity,
compared to a traditional learning situation. The main hypothesis was
that there is a significant difference in creative output (ideational
fluency) for people who listen to music or engage in physical body
movement compared to passive listeners (traditional classroom or
conference setting). The result gave no indication of any effect of
music or physical movement on ideational fluency compared to the
control group. In the aftermath, we realized that we used specialists as
a control, which probably obscured the result.
... One line of research builds on the finding that an incubation period-a break or interruption from problem solving attempts-can benefit creative problem solving more than continuous work on a problem (e.g., RAT problems; Haarmann, George, Smaliy, & Dien, 2012;Smith & Blankenship, 1991). Several recent studies have now demonstrated that such an incubation period can benefit creative performance on DT tasks as well (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Gilhooly, Georgiou, Garrison, Reston, & Sirota, 2012;Hao, Liu, Ku, Hu, & Runco, 2015;Smith, Gerkens, & Angello, 2017). One explanation for this benefit is that incubation periods provide a "fresh look" on the task-taking a break allows for the dissipation of inappropriate ideas created by an initial mental set. ...
... It can take time and effort to overcome these obvious ideas (Beaty & Silvia, 2012). Manipulations that help reduce the influence of these initial ideas, such as incubation periods or task switches, can help to promote creative thinking (Ellwood et al., 2009;Gilhooly et al., 2012;Haarmann et al., 2012;Hao et al., 2015;Lu et al., 2017;Smith & Blankenship, 1991;Smith et al., 2017). In the present studies, a version of the AUT in which people generated one use for each of multiple objects improved idea novelty compared with the standard AUT task construction in which people generated multiple ideas for one object. ...
Divergent thinking tasks such as the alternate uses task (AUT) require overcoming dominant and common ideas, as well as ideas that are initially generated. The initial generation of familiar uses can create mental fixation, which makes it even more difficult to reach novel ideas. Manipulations that utilize task switching can sometimes help people break free from mental fixation. In the present studies, a new version of the AUT was created involving the generation of one use for each of 10 objects (multi-item), which was contrasted with the traditional construction in which people generated 10 uses for just one object (single-item). Across two experiments, a benefit of the multi-item task construction was observed. People were more flexible in the multi-item condition, the ideas they generated were more novel, and they arrived at novel ideas sooner. Additionally flexibility predicted novelty in the single-item but not the multi-item AUT. Participants were also prompted to recall their first idea following idea generation. Again, it was specifically in the single-item condition in which people who were more flexible were less likely to recall their first idea. This suggests that the multi-item AUT may reduce the difficulty associated with inhibiting old ideas and switching to new perspectives.
... Meta-analytic findings suggest that incubation effects are robust and found for divergent thinking as well as insight problem solving (Sio & Ormerod, 2009). Incubation gains are especially pronounced when participants are confronted with distraction tasks that are cognitively undemanding (Baird et al., 2012;Sio & Ormerod, 2009), conceptually unrelated to the creative problem (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009), or reflect different 11 stimulus modalities (i.e., verbal vs. figural; e.g., Gilhooly, Georgiou, & Devery, 2013). ...
... Despite the passive mechanisms that may promote incubation effects in creative cognition, specific incubation findings suggest an active involvement of spontaneous processes during creative incubation (Ritter & Dijksterhuis, 2014). For example, incubation gains are stronger when distractor tasks are unrelated to the creative task at hand (Ellwood et al., 2009;Gilhooly et al., 2013). These findings indicate that incubation periods benefit from a disengagement of task-relevant cognitive systems (i.e., verbal versus numerical), which might give rise to unconscious processes in this system, but not necessarily facilitate the refreshing of mindset. ...
Creative cognition has long been hypothesized to rely on spontaneous as well as controlled cognitive processes. This chapter gives a brief overview of pertinent dual process models of creative thought, followed by a review of cognitive and neuroscience research supporting the relevance of controlled and spontaneous processes in creative cognition. We conclude by considering potential ways of interaction between goal-directed, controlled and undirected, spontaneous thought in creative problem solving (short-term perspective) and also during more extended creative work (long-term perspective).
... Individuals' creativity relies on specific combinations of knowledge, abilities, and intellectual skills (Watts et al., 2017), but is also influenced by individual motivational characteristics (e.g., personality traits such as the willingness to take risks or be afraid of negative evaluation; Bonetto et al., 2020;Kaufman et al., 2016) and contextual factors (e.g., social norms, cultural values; Bonetto et al., 2022;Haslam et al., 2013). As a consequence, there seem to be several pathways through which individuals' creativity can be acted upon, including physical activity (e.g., squeezing a ball, walking; Kim, 2015;Oppezzo & Schwartz, 2014), organizational changes (e.g., breaks, leadership practices; Ellwood et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2019), modifying consumption habits (e.g., cannabis use; Warnick et al., 2021), using technology-based tools (e.g., Bonnardel & Pichot, 2020;Toumi et al., 2021), or various creativity trainings (Valgeirsdottir & Onarheim, 2017). ...
How can scientific creativity be fostered or encouraged among researchers ? The present contribution proposes a critical and constructive review of programs or methods designed to develop the creative abilities of individuals, the so-called 'creativity trainings'. More specifically, it examines whether these trainings can be used in the specific context of scientific disciplines, and how efficient they are. At first glance, the literature seems to indicate that creativity trainings are effective when it comes to stimulating individual creativity, including scientific creativity. However, these general conclusions should not overshadow the serious limitations of these studies. Some of these theoretical and methodological limitations are common to all creativity trainings (e.g., difficulties in defining creativity itself), while others are specific to scientific creativity trainings (e.g., linked to specificities of scientific work). In a nutshell, all trainings are not made equal and do not look as efficient as they seem to be. This contribution also proposes some recommandations that would allow researchers to produce more valid results and to make it easier to interpret the results of creative training studies in the scientific domain and beyond.
... The second way in which high levels of temporal leadership can hinder the generation of useful new ideas is by constraining team members' abilities to think outside of the box. Literature on creativity also suggests that individuals who have opportunities to maintain a psychological distance from the task are more likely to notice less obviously relevant information and make unexpected cognitive leaps (Baird et al., 2012;Ellwood et al., 2009;Shin & Grant, 2020). However, the strict deadlines and highly synchronizing activities imposed by a high level of temporal leadership might place team members under a series of constraints and thus restrict their capabilities to produce novel ideas (Amabile et al., 2002;Andrews & Smith, 1996;Shin & Grant, 2020 Sheremata, 2000), and openly sharing ideas is a necessary precursor to the integration. ...
Modern organizations increasingly rely on teams to provide creative solutions in a timely manner. Temporal leadership has thus gained substantial interest, based on the assumption that it is conducive to team effectiveness. However, we advance a different view of temporal leadership’s influence on team creativity. Building on temporal leadership literature and the paradox model of creativity, we propose that temporal leadership has a curvilinear (i.e., inverted U‐shaped) relationship with team creativity. Moreover, team knowledge complexity moderates this relationship, while team creative process engagement conditionally mediates it. We conducted two field studies to test our hypotheses. In Study 1, our analyses of multisource data from 68 research and development teams found that temporal leadership has an inverted U‐shaped relationship with team creativity, especially for teams with high knowledge complexity. In Study 2, analyses of multiwave, multisource data from 100 work teams further revealed that team creative process engagement conditionally mediates the curvilinear relationship. Specifically, temporal leadership has a stronger indirect curvilinear relationship with team creativity through team creative process engagement in teams with high (vs. low) levels of knowledge complexity. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
... In learning mathematics, to solve problems, creative ideas are needed. Thus, creativity is an essential component in problem-solving (Ellwood et al., 2009;Plucker et al., 2004). ...
p style="text-align: justify;">This study aims 1) to determine the effectiveness of the Mind-Mapping based Aptitude Treatment Interaction model towards creative thinking and 2) to explain the mathematical creative thinking process based on the creative level. The number of participants was 26 students who took the Multivariable Calculus course in the odd semester of 2020/2021. This research used the mixed-concurrent embedded method. The data collection techniques were validation, observation, creative thinking tests, and interviews. The results showed that 1) the Mind-Mapping based Aptitude Treatment Interaction model was effective in developing creative thinking, as indicated by the average creative thinking score of the experimental class, which was higher than the control class and 2) the characteristics of students mathematical creative thinking process varied following the creative thinking levels. The students mathematical creative thinking level consists of not creative (CTL 0), less creative (CTL 1), quite creative (CTL 2), creative (CTL 3), and very creative (CTL 4). Students at the CTL 2, CTL 3, and CTL 4 can meet the aspects of fluency, flexibility, and originality.</p
... Through training in discriminative thinking in both SPT and CBT, workshop participants are temporarily drawn away from the conscious processing of their work, endowing them with an opportunity to "incubate, " to allow the unconscious processing of work to take place (34). Unconscious work and task switching during the incubation stage is conducive to creative problem-solving and reduced mental fixation (35,36), the latter of which is key to promoting cognitive and response flexibility (37). ...
This study aimed to evaluate a newly developed gamification-based intervention of serious play training (SPT). A randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the efficacy of the new intervention program in comparison with a widely adopted cognitive-behavioral training (CBT) program. Real-life work teams were recruited to enhance the ecological validity of outcome evaluation. The participants comprised 250 Chinese working adults (68% men; median age = 25 years, range: 18–40) who took part voluntarily. They were randomly assigned to the SPT, CBT, and waitlist conditions. For outcome evaluation, team effectiveness was the primary outcome, whereas coping flexibility was the secondary outcome. For explanation of outcome changes, group cohesion and discriminative thinking were tested as the hypothesized learning mechanisms. The results revealed that the SPT group alone reported greater team effectiveness over time, with an increase in group cohesion found to explain the improvement. Both the SPT and CBT groups reported greater coping flexibility over time, with discriminative thinking found to account for the beneficial changes. These findings provide initial evidence indicating the efficacy of utilizing the gamification approach in corporate training for team-building and personal coping.
... 219 An experiment on incubation conducted by Australian psychologist Sophie Ellwood and colleagues concluded that taking a break from work does not uniformly contribute to insight, and the contribution depends on what type of work is accomplished when taking a break from the topic problem. 220 The most significant time-related discovery from the IC analysts' insight experiences was their overall duration, as shown earlier in Figure 7 (Duration in Years of Analyst's Insight Story). The long timelines over which the analysts worked on their novel problems suggest that analysts using a problem-finding approach where high levels of uncertainty prevail-e.g., prediction and mysteries-cannot be expected to produce insightful solutions or observations in short timeframes of minutes, hours, or days, which is consistent with Isaksen and Akkermans' findings. ...
The Intelligence Community (IC) has identified insight as a desirable outcome of its intelligence assessments, but the community does not understand the insight process well enough to consistently achieve such an outcome. This gap of knowledge places intelligence analysts and managers in a double bind and reduces their ability and motivation to comply with policymakers' calls for insightful assessments. Theoretically, insight and creativity have been studied under very specific conditions: in controlled laboratory experiments, interviews, or historical reviews of either individuals who work in full-time creative positions that produce recognized creative outcomes, like Nobel Prize winners, or those who experience critical incidents. Little, if any, research has considered professionals not in full-time creative positions-e.g., intelligence analysts who apply analytical knowledge-who periodically are insightful. To fill these practitioner and theoretical gaps, a qualitative, interview-based study was conducted to understand how insight emerged in 36 intelligence analysts who solved novel problems. The findings identified a four-phase process: a triggering phase consisting of unpredictability, problem finding, problem type, and conflicting representations; an emergence phase consisting of internalized tensions, priming, and dwell time; an insight phase; and an after-insight phase consisting of resistance, mitiga-tion, and solutions. The process produced four archetypes of insight outcomes across the emotion-cognition and individual-social dimensions: understanding of novel problems; effective communication of complexity with others; self-reflection and greater awareness; and navigation of organizational politics and agendas. Individuals who experienced insights developed long-term, compelling emotional and cognitive benefits.
... It has been observed that individuals find it hard and sometimes impossible to let go of a problem and they insist on finding a solution which leads not only to stress but depletion of their energies (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Hélie & Sun, 2010;Ritter & Dijksterhuis, 2014) which is also associated with job satisfaction and enhances the cognitive fitness of an individual (Rajper, Ghumro, & Mangi, 2020). It has been mentioned before that leaving a problem aside helps in finding a solution. ...
Creative thinking is essential for the progress in education, industry and life in general. Incubation is a widely studied phenomenon in creativity research, referring to leaving a problem aside for a period, to accrue performance on a creative problem. This study investigated the effect of incubation on creative problem-solving by means of a pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design, and remote associates tasks (RATs) were used as a measure of creative problem-solving. For this purpose, a sample of 60 students (22 males, 38 females) was recruited from the population of a private university. They were assigned to a control condition and two different experimental conditions based on the time of onset of incubation. The data collected was analyzed for a significant effect across all conditions by means of a chi-squared test and covariates were inferred by means of Spearman's Rho, with a significance level set at ?<.05. The results did not find an incubation effect in creative problem-solving, and several possible explanations may account for this trend, especially the limited cross-cultural application of measurement tools and theoretical paradigms. The disparity is especially prominent with regards to Pakistan, which is predominantly collectivistic, and the educational system stymies creative thinking. Future research must take into account the relevance of culture in creative problem-solving, and propose solutions to circumvent the dearth of creative potential in developing nations such as Pakistan. Keywords: Incubation, Creative Problem-Solving, Creativity, Remote Associate Tasks, Cross-Cultural Psychology
... The second way in which high levels of temporal leadership can hinder the generation of useful new ideas is by constraining team members' abilities to think outside of the box. Literature on creativity also suggests that individuals who have opportunities to maintain a psychological distance from the task are more likely to notice less obviously relevant information and make unexpected cognitive leaps (Baird et al., 2012;Ellwood et al., 2009;Shin & Grant, 2020). However, the strict deadlines and highly synchronizing activities imposed by a high level of temporal leadership might place team members under a series of constraints and thus restrict their capabilities to produce novel ideas (Amabile et al., 2002;Andrews & Smith, 1996;Shin & Grant, 2020 Sheremata, 2000), and openly sharing ideas is a necessary precursor to the integration. ...
... The effect of analogy types [42][43][44][45] or their distance [46] has been studied. Incubation is found to be useful [47,48]. ...
Ideation methods have been extensively studied, and several ideation methods can be beneficial in different contexts, but it is not understood what makes a specific method work. Previous work has shown that all the ideation methods comprise of 25 fundamental ideation mechanisms in two categories: idea implementation and idea promoting mechanisms. In this study, we try to understand how individual mechanisms affect idea generation outcomes. We chose four idea promoting mechanisms: two from the process category (Classification & Combination) and two from the idea sources category (Building on Others and Stimulation). These mechanisms were selected as they are examples of comparable mechanisms that could easily be integrated into any other ideation method. We conducted four experiments and assessed idea quantity, novelty, and originality. Our study showed that the chosen mechanism increased ideation performance. For the most part, the mechanisms are statistically equivalent, but we found evidence that classification outperforms combination in a simple ideation exercise. We also found the building on others can be more useful than the type of stimulation used in engineering concept generation, but the difference was not found in a simple ideation exercise. Overall, we find evidence that all mechanisms improve ideation effectiveness and could be incorporated into any ideation method, but further studies are needed to build more comprehensive understanding
... During incubation, one refrains from consciously thinking about a problem by putting the problem aside and working on something else. Being interrupted and working on an unrelated task helps to find a solution for the problem one has been working on before-as a review of numerous studies showed (Ellwood et al., 2009). Often, the solutions that pop up are unpredictable and surprising. ...
Steps involved in the creative process have been described in previous research, yet the exact nature of the process still remains unclear. In the current study, we take this investigation further, referring to two flying machines developed by Leonardo da Vinci and his other notes. Nine iterative steps are described with a focus on motivation and cognition: (a) vision and curiosity; (b) social recognition; (c) asking questions; (d) analogical thinking; (e) trial and error; (f) abductive reasoning; (g) incubation and forgetting; (h) overinclusive thinking, latent inhibition, and illumination; and (i) schema elaboration. The influence of da Vinci’s socio-historic context is also briefly discussed. The analyses show how general psychological mechanisms can explain extraordinary acts of creativity. The steps discussed can be further formalized in future research to advance the modeling of creativity.
... His notebook, with all its scribbling and bibbling, is part of the creative process. Actions such as doodling, daydreaming, or taking purposeful breaks from the task at hand have all been argued to be integral to creative development, just as much as putting conscious effort toward a project is (e.g., see Christoff et al. 2009;Crosby 2020;Ellwood et al. 2009;Gallate et al. 2012;Snyder et al. 2012;Zedelius and Schooler 2015). The science of creativity is of course varied and there is not much consensus about the processes underlying it or even what counts as "creative" in the first place. ...
I argue that an enactivist framework has more explanatory power than traditional philosophical theories of cognition when it comes to understanding the mechanisms underlying human-animal relationships. In both intraspecies and interspecies exchanges, what we often find are novel forms of cognition emerging from such transactions, but these “co-cognitive” processes cannot be understood apart from the interaction itself. I focus on a specific form of human-animal interaction—play, as it occurs between humans and domestic dogs—and argue that the best theory suited to the task of explaining how these two species create unique thought processes is a “sympoietic enactivism.” Rather than the more common “autopoietic” arguments defended by many enactivists, I argue that what is more accurately occurring during bouts of human–dog play is sympoietic, or “collectively producing.” Drawing on several different disciplines that converge on similar conclusions about creativity and collaboration, I show that human–dog play is a quintessential case of cognition that cannot be readily understood by appealing to the inner workings of either individual among the dyad. Thinking, on this view, is a form of play, and in playful interaction what gets created are wholly intersubjective modes of thought.
... Contemporary cognitive psychologists have observed the interplay of convergent and divergent thinking during the subphase of incubation (Ellwood et al., 2009;Wells, 1996). Even if the former plays an important role in the most externalised phases of creativity, it is also crucial in incubation, as creators can benefit from this subphase only in the context of ongoing conscious processing (Sawyer, 2012, p. 104), that is, only if they have worked hard on the problem beforehand, and then continue to work hard on it afterwards. ...
According to cognitive psychologists, creativity is a special kind of problem-solving experience, which involves the activation of two opposite but complementary mental processes, convergent thinking and divergent thinking, as well as insight. Creativity as an insight problem experience is a mainly unexplored phenomenon which has attracted increasing scholarly interest in the last two decades ranging from cognitive psychology and sociology to cognitive linguistics and literary studies. This paper aims to enter into the contemporary debate on the topic by analysing a well-known Keatsian sonnet, “When I have fears … ”. The poem stands out for the degree of awareness it shows concerning the mental processing of creative thinking. It artistically models a successful insight problem experience in the domain of poetic writing. This analysis proceeds through an interdisciplinary perspective, which integrates close reading and cognitive psychology.
... With respect to the second stage of the Wallas stage model of creativity, namely incubation, one of the oldest observations in the psychology of creativity is that a creative idea is often preceded by a period of unconscious incubation [17,32]. There is much research studying the incubation effect and its relationship with creative insight [16,[33][34][35]. It is generally agreed upon that there exists an incubation effect, although the exact nature of the associated unconscious processes remains uncertain. ...
... The benefits of incubation prompted researchers to incorporate breaks into educational activities which were shown to have positive results (Lynch & Swink, 1967;Medd & Houtz, 2002;Rae, 1997;Webster, Campbell, & Jane, 2006). Prior studies (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Fulgosi & Guilford, 1968;Gilhooly et al., 2013;Penaloza & Calvillo, 2012;Sio & Ormerod, 2015) investigated specific factors that could lead to successful incubation in the context of classroom tasks and suggested that engaging in a different activity may produce a better outcome. On the other hand, (Penney, Godsell, Scott, & Balsom, 2004) claimed that engaging in a task with similar nature would promote priming which allows students to realize the correct solution to the problem but (Segal, 2004) said that the task during incubation has no effect on its outcome. ...
Incubation Effect (IE) refers to the phenomenon where one gets stuck in a problem-solving activity, decides to take a break, and afterwards revisits the unsolved problem and eventually solves it. While studies on IE were all limited to traditional classroom activities, this research aimed to continue the study of IE in the context of a computer-based learning environment and find features that would predict the incidence of revisiting an unsolved problem and its positive outcome. A prior IE model was developed using a logistic regression but the hand-crafted features used were from aggregated data and do not reflect specific characteristics of students’ actions. Further analysis was conducted in this study and used a deep learning technique which significantly improved the performance of the IE model. In order to interpret the learned features of the neural network, a combination of dimension reduction, visualization technique, and clustering were used. It was found that the coarse-grained features are consistent with the fine-grained features but action level features were also discovered which provided more evidence that there was an improvement on how students tried to solve the problem after incubation.
... [47][48][49][50] Switching off work, especially in the middle of a project, allows the brain to subconsciously consider the problem and arrive at more creative solutions. 32,[51][52] Deliberate professionals realize that coming up with solutions while walking, driving, or showering is not a fluke but an opportunity to be cultivated. ...
... However, this divergent process is often stymied by fixation, where a person continuously falls back on previously thought-of solutions (Runco and Chand, 1995). Recommendations for relieving fixation have focused on taking cognitively engaging breaks from the task at hand in order to foster incubation of new perspectives and ideas (Ellwood et al., 2009;Tan et al., 2015). Here, dual-process theory provides a framework for explaining the link between association, fixation and its amelioration. ...
Design research faces a critical 'impact gap' where the potential for scientific and practical impact is yet to be fully realised. A key means of bridging this gap is the adoption of fundamental theory from other fields to support clarification and synergy in design research. In this paper we examine one of the main candidates for adoption: dual-process theory of cognition. Cognition forms a common element across much of the design literature and leads to fundamental dual-process theories of reasoning. While dual- process theory has started to be recognised in design research, its widespread recognition and potential utility have not been widely explored. Following a conceptual theory development approach we identify and logically describe interactions between dual-process theory and design research. We conclude the paper with a proposition of a design research framework with a core rooted in dual-process theory, and based on this, an agenda for theory-driven design research. This contributes to the debate on how to improve impact, and theoretical and scientific rigour in design research, and provides a concrete agenda for discussion and development within the community.
... These partially activated items may then combine with each other or interact with external cues to yield insightful ideas. The spreading activation hypothesis is supported by the data from studies examining the role of incubation in solving problems involving retrieval of remote associations (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Gilhooly, Georgiou, & Devery, 2013;Gilhooly, Georgiou, Garrison, Reston, & Sirota, 2012;Patrick, 1986;Smith & Blankenship, 1989). ...
... Taken together, the previous research has shown that functional fixedness and creativity are interconnected (Adamson, 1952;Chrysikou et al., 2016;Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Kearsley, 1975). Our previous knowledge clearly impacts the potential uses individuals see for objects, what is unclear is whether this hinders the creative process. ...
This research explored the relationship between mental fatigue and creativity by testing the creative potential of 25 Keene State College students, half of which were subjected to mental fatigue. Little research has been done to look at these 2 variables together, but considerable research has been done on them individually. Using an independent-measures study, it was demonstrated that, although many view mental fatigue as inhibitory and bad for productivity, this inhibitory nature can actually be beneficial to one’s creativity by inhibiting the rigidity of one’s role assignment for objects. Participants (23 female) were primarily recruited from underclass-level psychology courses. Two forms of a working memory task—one difficult (43% correct) to induce mental fatigue, and the other easy (985 correct) as a control condition—and the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT) to measure creativity, revealed that mental fatigue resulted in significantly higher scores across all measurements and forms of creativity within the TTCT.
... An incubation effect occurs when time spent away from a problem (i.e., an incubation period; Wallas, 1926) results in better performance on that problem than what would have occurred without time spent away (Smith & Blankenship, 1989; for a review, see Sio & Ormerod, 2009a). There are many theories regarding how an incubation period benefits problem solving and divergent thinking (e.g., Beeftink, Van Eerde, & Rutte, 2008;Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Lehrer, 2008;Miller & Cohen, 2001;Morrison, McCarthy, & Molony, 2017;Ohlsson, 1984Ohlsson, , 1992Scheerer, 1963;Segal, 2004;Weisberg, 1995Weisberg, , 2006Weisberg, , 2013; according to the forgetting fixation hypothesis, however, incubation effects can occur because taking time away from a problem allows fixating information to become inaccessible and thus less likely to limit or constrain creative thinking (Kohn & Smith, 2009;Smith, 1995;Smith & Blankenship, 1989;Smith & Linsey, 2011). In the remote associates test, for example, participants are presented with three seemingly unrelated words and asked to find a new word that forms a relationship with each of the words (e.g. ...
Schacter’s (2001) work on The Seven Sins of Memory conceptualized and communicated many of the failures of memory and their critical role in cognition. At the heart of the framework is the idea that memory often fails not because it is dysfunctional or maladaptive, but because it prioritizes flexibility and the ability to think and behave adaptively over the ability to retain and remember veraciously. This article adapts the 7 sins framework to a new domain—that of creative cognition. Each of the 7 sins are discussed in relation to how they might play a role in allowing people to generate new ideas, solve problems, and overcome the various barriers that hinder creative thought. Expanding upon the creative cognition approach, it is argued that memory and creativity are intrinsically interconnected and that one’s ability to think and behave creatively relies in part on the ability to forget and misremember.
... Thus, interrupting deliberate work on a difficult task improved performance and provided evidence for a productive incubation period. Additional work on the impact of different types of break on incubation has revealed that engaging in a completely different task during the interruption period improves idea generation significantly more so than engaging in a similar task or continuing to work without a break (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009). Similarly, a series of studies has shown that unconscious thought may promote remote associations due to the lack of deliberate attention on a problem: by temporarily diverting attention away from creative generation tasks (e.g., generating names for new products), participants engaged in broader semantic searches and produced responses that were less constrained by conventional associations (Dijksterhuis & Meurs, 2006;Dijksterhuis & Nordgren, 2006). ...
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of some key background issues and recent trends in the experimental and cognitive neuroscience study of creativity. Despite its status as a hallmark of higher order thinking, research on creativity has not progressed with the same rigor as the study of other aspects of human cognition. Among the challenges for creativity researchers are concerns with the operational definition and measurement of this seemingly elusive ability. Research on the neurocognitive bases of creative thinking suggests that creativity is highly multifaceted and requires intricate interhemispheric interactions among a widely distributed network of brain regions. Recent theoretical and methodological perspectives highlight the importance of moving away from approaching creativity as a unitary construct, synonymous to the abstract concept of divergent thinking. Instead, they focus on specific cognitive and neural processes underlying creative thought, which may rely on trade‐offs between spontaneous and regulatory brain networks.
... 人们在日常工作学习解决问题时，大多有过这样的经历：当持续思考、尽力解决一个困难的或创造 性的问题，又百思不得其解时，起身做点其他事儿，把这个没有解决的问题搁置一旁而将注意转移到与 此无关的活动上，当再次面对该问题时，突然想到答案或促进了问题的解决，这种现象在心理学中被称 为酝酿效应 (Smith & Blankenship, 1989;Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009;Gilhooly, 2016) (Wallas, 1926; 司继伟，2000)，包含两个步骤：一是将注意力转移不断尝试解决的难 题，二是做一些与该难题无关的事情，这可能涉及到一些特殊加工，例如无意识加工的参与，为顿悟提 供更多的可能。或使这个困难问题的答案突然想到。酝酿效应在名家轶事中也非常常见，例如阿基米德 被皇冠是否是纯金的问题困扰了两天之久， 决定洗澡放松一下， 他刚走进浴缸便从水的浮力中获得灵感， 顿悟发现著名的阿基米德原理；再如凯库勒的苯环、门捷列夫的元素周期表 (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996;Ghiselin, 1952)等。 创造性，又称创造力，产生新颖又实用产品的能力，是现存研究领域较为认可的概念。新颖是指原 创的，出乎意料的，对于创造者来说是前所未闻的，而实用性要求产品是有用的，有适应性的，合适的 好产品 (Runco & Jaeger, 2012;Sternberg & Lubart, 1996) ...
... It has also been argued that humor strongly promotes associative thinking, in particular stimulating remoteness of association and the creation of non-obvious connections (Koestler, 1964;Goodchilds, 1972;Besemer and Treffinger, 1981;Sitton and Pierce, 2004). These are all related to creativity (Mednick, 1962;Koestler, 1964;Ellwood et al., 2009;Gilhooly et al., 2012Gilhooly et al., , 2013 and have a facilitatory effect in insight problem solving where the solution cannot be reached by simply reproducing familiar procedures. Creative or divergent processes are required (Dominowski and Dallob, 1995;Öllinger and Knoblich, 2009). ...
In this paper, a parallel analysis of the enjoyment derived from humor and insight problem solving is presented with reference to a “general” Theory of the Pleasures of the Mind (TPM) (Kubovy, 1999) rather than to “local” theories regarding what makes humor and insight problem solving enjoyable. The similarity of these two cognitive activities has already been discussed in previous literature in terms of the cognitive mechanisms which underpin getting a joke or having an insight experience in a problem solving task. The paper explores whether we can learn something new about the similarities and differences between humor and problem solving by means of an investigation of what makes them pleasurable. In the first part of the paper, the framework for this joint analysis is set. Two descriptive studies are then presented in which the participants were asked to report on their experiences relating to solving visuo-spatial insight problems (Study 1) or understanding cartoons (Study 2) in terms of whether they were enjoyable or otherwise. In both studies, the responses were analyzed with reference to a set of categories inspired by the TPM. The results of Study 1 demonstrate that finding the solution to a problem is associated with a positive evaluation, and the most frequent explanations for this were reported as being Curiosity, Virtuosity and Violation of expectations. The results of Study 2 suggest that understanding a joke (Joy of verification) and being surprised by it (Feeling of surprise) were two essential conditions: when they were not present, the cartoons were perceived as not enjoyable. However, this was not enough to explain the motivations for the choice of the most enjoyable cartoons. Recognizing a Violation of expectations and experiencing a Diminishment in the cleverness or awareness initially attributed to the characters in the cartoon were the aspects which were most frequently indicated by the participants to explain why they enjoyed the joke. These findings are evaluated in the final discussion, together with their limitations and potential future developments.
... De Dreu et al. (2012) Higher working memory capacity, manipulated with cognitive load, predicted greater originality, fluency, and persistence (interpreted as maintaining attention). Ellwood et al. (2009) Participants who had opportunities for incubation demonstrated greater creative fluency compared to those who worked continuously on a creative task. Lebuda et al. (2016) A meta-analysis suggested that the awareness, or attention-based component of mindfulness, was weakly related to creativity overall when compared to other elements of mindfulness. ...
Creativity supports the advancement of all disciplines, providing both individual and societal benefits. Most individuals can demonstrate and improve their creativity; therefore, understanding the creative process is of particular interest to facilitate deliberate development of creative thinkers. Despite copious research of the creative process, the work tends to be fragmented without a unified, general theoretical foundation. Historically, creative process research has examined the steps that creative people use, while overlooking how people learn these steps and the mechanisms behind the process. This paper proposes to situate the creative process within broader theoretical framework of self-regulated learning (SRL). This merger emphasizes that the creative process can be learned and that creative process strategies may inspire general learning strategies. Further, the SRL framework provides an organizational structure that illuminates gaps in current research and provides inspiration for new measurement techniques. Current assessment methods are often unable to determine how people regulate themselves throughout the creative process, specifically how internal psychological processes, external behaviors, and explicit strategies influence the creative process; however, SRL measurement techniques, like SRL microanalysis interviews, may provide an opportunity to identify intervention casual mechanisms, extend experimental studies, provide consistent variables to compare across disciplines and studies, and help practitioners assess students’ creative process.
... Monitoring process awareness takes place during a process and/or workshop when an individual expresses awareness of aspects such as being 'too primed' or needing a 'break to incubate' and the consequences of those aspects. Being 'too primed' might have a negative influence on the ability to generate new ideas (Friis-Olivarius, 2015), and incubation breaks can be used as a method in creative processes (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009). We see planning-and monitoring process awareness having strong references to metacognition as discussed below. ...
... walking (Oppezzo & Schwartz, 2014), squeezing a ball (Kim, 2015), strategic use of breaks (Ellwood, Pallier, Snyder, & Gallate, 2009), or mindfulness (Colzato, Ozturk, & Hommel, 2012) were excluded. The output from the search is shown in Table 2. ...
Throughout decades of creativity research, a range of creativity training programs have been developed, tested, and analyzed. In 2004 Scott and colleagues published a meta-analysis of all creativity training programs to date, and the review presented here sat out to identify and analyze studies published since the seminal 2004 review. Focusing on quantitative studies of creativity training programs for adults, our systematic review resulted in 22 publications. All studies were analyzed, but comparing the reported effectiveness of training across studies proved difficult due to methodological inconsistencies, variations in reporting of results as well as types of measures used. Thus a consensus for future studies is called for to answer the question: Which elements make one creativity training program more effective than another? This is a question of equal relevance to academia and industry, as creativity training is a tool that can contribute to enhancement of organizational creativity and subsequently innovation. However, to answer the question, future studies of creativity training programs need to be carefully designed to contribute to a more transparent landscape. Thus this paper proposes a methodological research standard consisting of three criteria, to which researchers can look when designing future studies of the effectiveness of creativity training.
... Incubation means "a stage of creative problem solving in which a problem is temporarily put aside after a period of initial work on the problem" (Smith & Dodds, 1999, p. 39). There is empirical evidence supporting an incubation effect, that is, being interrupted and forced to work on an unrelated task increases solution rates for creativity-related problems (for review, see Ellwood et al., 2009). Illumination is also known as insight. ...
The Handbook of the Management of Creativity and Innovation: Theory and Practice is a collection of theories and practices for the effective management of creativity and innovation, contributed by a group of European experts from the fields of psychology, education, business, engineering, and law. Adopting an interdisciplinary and intercultural approach, this book offers rich perspectives — both theoretical and practical — on how to manage creativity and innovation effectively in different domains and across cultures.
This book appeals to students, teachers, researchers, and managers who are interested in creative and innovative behavior, and its management. Although the authors are from the fields of psychology education, business, engineering, and law, readers from all disciplines will find the coverage of this book beneficial in deepening their understanding of creativity and innovation, and helping them to identify the right approaches for managing creativity and innovation in an intercultural context.
... Incubation means "a stage of creative problem solving in which a problem is temporarily put aside after a period of initial work on the problem" (Smith & Dodds, 1999, p. 39). There is empirical evidence supporting an incubation effect, that is, being interrupted and forced to work on an unrelated task increases solution rates for creativity-related problems (for review, see Ellwood et al., 2009). Illumination is also known as insight. ...
In spite of the increasing awareness of the importance of creativity and innovation, scientific research into creativity and innovation is still non-mainstream due to the relatively short history of this field. In most cases, laypersons and scholars alike tend to use the words “creativity”, “innovation”, “creative” or “innovative” interchangeably. Indeed, creativity and innovation are two conceptually closely related concepts, but they are by no means identical. Particularly for scholars, it is necessary to differentiate these two concepts, partition their integral elements, and get to know the approaches of how these two complex phenomena are usually measured. To demonstrate this, this chapter combines the leading theories from the fields of educational psychology, organizational psychology, and engineering and present the definitions of and research approaches to creativity and innovation.
The prime objective of this research was to investigate procrastination as a prospectively constructive element of the creative process among employees working at different hierarchical levels in a Chinese organization. Building on self-determination theory, this research postulates a connection between procrastination and creativity through the incubation of knowledge absorption, autonomous motivation and task engagement as boundary conditions. Data was collected from 213 individuals from the workforce and their immediate managers belonging to a Chinese furniture company; then analyzed with Mplus for simple regression analysis, mediated moderated analyses, and coefficient estimates of all the study variables. The outcomes of this investigation showed an inverse relationship between procrastination with creativity, while creativity being strongest in the medium levels of procrastination; however, when autonomous motivation and/or task engagement are strong, procrastination depicts an inverted-U-shaped association; however, in scenarios where both autonomous motivation and the task engagement are low, procrastination has a negative linear relationship. With the results of this research, we have shown that moderate procrastination has a causal effect on the generation of creative ideas. This research demonstrated that as long as employees had strong autonomous drive or high task engagement, their supervisors awarded them better ratings when they procrastinated moderately on their assignments. Limitations and future research directions were also discussed.
Based on the Conservation of Resources theory, we develop dual mechanisms by which lunchtime recovery activities predict creativity. Specifically, by conceptualizing the quality of lunchtime naps and meals as examples of recovery activities, we expect these recovery activities help individuals replenish their psychological resources in the form of more work engagement (affective process) and less cognitive depletion (cognitive process). Further, individuals are expected to utilize these available psychological resources to generate creative ideas. To test our model, we used a group‐mean centering approach to focus on within‐person effects by recruiting 230 employees working at construction sites in South Korea. Overall, after removing 242 invalid observations (omitting at least two items and not reporting the duration of a nap), we finalized a total of two‐wave 1598 daily questionnaires. A high quality of lunchtime naps and meals helps individuals recover their emotional resources (more work engagement) and cognitive resources (less cognitive depletion), which predict individuals' creativity. Finally, although indirect effects of the two recovery activities on creativity via affective and cognitive processes were generally supported, the indirect effect of lunch nap quality on creativity via work engagement was not significant, suggesting most of the effect is due to meal quality rather than nap quality.
Experiments in psychology suggest that an incubation phase during idea generation can be beneficial. The incubation phase involves taking a break from thinking about the creative problem, usually by performing a distraction task. However, no studies test the influence of incubation phases in advertising tasks. In-depth interviews among 12 advertising creatives emphasize the practical relevance of this topic but also reveal a lack of knowledge regarding how to design effective breaks. Creating advertisements differs notably from tasks typically investigated in psychology (e.g., Unusual Uses Task). Whereas advertising idea generation requires a complex process of configuring individual elements into a coherent story, the latter requires selecting solutions from a pool of possible options. This research tests this new classification (configuration versus selection) and its implications. In two experiments, participants who engage in an incubation task that occupies brain areas similar to those used in the creative tasks do not exhibit enhanced creative performance compared with no incubation. However, those who engage in an incubation task that involves brain areas different from the creative task perform better. These outcomes reflect task-specific neural fatigue, suggesting that to gain the benefits of incubation phases, advertising creatives must engage specifically in break activities that are dissimilar from the creative task.
This paper explores the effect of different types of incubation task (visual, numerical and verbal) with various levels of attentional focus and cognitive effort (non-demanding, low-demanding and high-demanding) on the resolution of insight problems. The most effective was found to be the low-demanding task (regardless of its nature), which although requiring attentional focus, leaves resources available for the unconscious analytical restructuring process, obtaining a high percentage of success in solving the problem shortly after completion of the incubation task. Overall findings support the hypothesis of Unconscious Analytic Thought (UAT), according to which the restructuring required in insight problem solving implies a covert thinking process that includes a relevant, analytic and goal-oriented search. The findings are discussed in the light of UAT and are compared with the main theories of insight in problem solving.
The aim of this study is to find out the level of achievement of non-routine problem in Geometry and level of mathematical creativity among primary school students. In the study, quantitative and qualitative data were collected through tests and interviews with teachers. This study is a part of research design to develop a learning strategy that can enhance mathematical creativity in non-routine mathematical problem solving among primary school students. A sample of 15 students of Year Five participated in this study. The researcher of this study developed a mathematical creativity test and non-routine problem solving test. Apart from this, an interview was conducted on three experienced mathematics teachers. A descriptive analysis of data reveals that the level of mathematical creativity and non-routine problem solving are below the average level. From the teacher's perspective, students can't perform well when solving non-routine problem solving due to lack of creative thinking in mathematics.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is used to produce load bearing, safety-critical components in industries like aerospace, automotive, and medical devices. Designers can create AM components with complex internal features, organic topologies, and lattice structures to reduce part mass or part count. However, such complex features can make designs difficult or impossible to inspect using mature non-destructive testing (NDT) methods. Professional organizations suggest designers keep quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) in mind early in the design process. The Design for Inspectability (DfI) framework is suggested as a way of meeting the need for early-stage QA/QC considerations. This work presents a case study, where a group of designers considered one type of NDT, known as Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic (PEU) testing. Using heuristics derived from relevant literature, designers were able to create designs with increased inspectability. This improved inspectability came at the cost of other design objectives, however, such as strength and mass. This implies that certain design objectives may be inversely related to increased inspectability, raising significant concerns for the field. This work marks the first step towards mapping out the trade-offs between inspection and performance objectives.
In recent years, calls to nurture and teach creativity from an early age in schools has intensified. Creativity is something regular in the teaching of arts subjects but is not a common feature in teaching science, technology, engineering and mathematics subjects. However, what really matters, is how the subject is being taught. This research aimed to foster creativity through the teaching of mathematics via problem solving that challenges the solving of problems in a creative manner, which is defined as creative problem solving. This quasi-experimental study investigates changes in students learning of mathematics via creative problem solving. Altogether, 172 Form 1 students forming treatment and comparison groups from four schools in Gombak District area, Malaysia were involved. A mixed qualitative and quantitative data were collected to investigate the effect of the 3 cycles of creative problem solving lessons implemented. Instruments used were Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, a mathematics problem solving test and creativity checklist. This paper will only present the quantitative data obtained. Results show statistically significant increases in scores for most categories of creativity and problem solving tests. This research brought together teachers and researchers in trialling creative problem solving to teach mathematics, to achieve the enhancement of students’ creative thinking and problem solving skills. This coincided with the introduction of Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah with new emphasis to strengthen the quality of science, technology, engineering and mathematics education in general, where higher-order thinking reforms are emphasized.
Santrauka
Pastaraisiais metais suaktyvėjo raginimai ugdyti kūrybiškumą ir jo mokyti nuo pat mažumės. Kūrybiškumas yra įprastas mokant meninių dalykų, tačiau nėra pastebimas bruožas mokant mokslinių, technologinių, inžinerinių ir matematinių disciplinų. Tačiau iš tiesų svarbu tai, kaip mokoma tam tikro dalyko. Šio tyrimo tikslas – skatinti kūrybiškumą matematikos mokymo pavyzdžiu, kai kūrybiškai sprendžiamos problemos, ir tai atitinkamai apibrėžiama. Šiame kvazieksperimentiniame tyrime nagrinėjami pokyčiai, susiję su tuo, kaip moksleiviai mokosi matematikos, kūrybiškai spręsdami problemas. Iš viso tyrime dalyvavo 172 pirmosios formos moksleiviai, priklausantys stebėjimo ir lyginimo grupėms iš keturių mokyklų, esančių Gombako rajono teritorijoje (Malaizija). Buvo surinkti mišrūs kokybiniai ir kiekybiniai duomenys, siekiant ištirti realizuotus tris ciklus pamokų, skirtų kūrybiniams problemų sprendimams. Buvo naudojamasi šiomis priemonėmis: Torrance’o kūrybinio mąstymo testu, matematinių problemų sprendimo testu ir kūrybiškumo rezultatų vertinimo kontroliniu sąrašu. Straipsnyje pristatomi tik kiekybiniai duomenys. Rezultatai atskleidžia statistiškai reikšmingą padidėjimą vertinant kūrybiškumą daugelyje kategorijų ir pasitelkiant problemų sprendimo testus. Šiame tyrime dalyvavo mokytojai ir tyrėjai, atlikti kūrybinio problemų sprendimo bandymai mokant matematikos ir stengiantis ugdyti moksleivių kūrybinį mąstymą bei problemų sprendimo gebėjimus. Tai atitinka Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah įvadinę dalį, iš naujo pabrėžiant mokslinį, technologinį, inžinerinį ir matematinį ugdymą apskritai, šiose srityse akcentuojant aukštesnio lygio pertvarkytą mąstyseną.
Reikšminiai žodžiai: kūrybiškumo testas, kūrybiškumas matematikoje, gebėjimo spręsti problemas ugdymas, matematikos mokymasis sprendžiant problemas, pamokos tyrimas, Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah naujas planas.
Product dissection is a popular educational tool in engineering design due to its ability to help students understand a product, provide inspiration for new design ideas, and aid in product redesign. While prior research has investigated how dissecting a product before idea generation impacts the creative output of the ideation session, these studies failed to look at the types of ideas generated before dissection or how the type of product dissected impacts this. Thus, the goal of the current study was to examine how product dissection impacts the solution space explored by students. Fifty-five undergraduate engineering students participated in the experiment; 40 participants virtually dissected a product, while the remaining 15 completed a personality test. The results of the study highlight that students explored new types of ideas during the second ideation session for all conditions and at all levels, with students having the biggest increase in embodiment variety when they dissected analogically far products. Overall, there were no differences in design variety between students in the dissection condition and the incubation condition. This study highlights how incubation can impact design variety and calls for further investigation of the interaction between product dissection and incubation.
As well as physical technology in society and digital technology in society, there is also technology in society within the non-conscious human mind. In particular, unconscious preference for least cognitive effort and subconscious preference for least social resistance can coincide in groupthink about technology in society, which include fads, hype, lock-ins, path dependencies and success traps. Ideation concerned with new applications of technology in society is often constrained by groupthink. In this paper, an exploratory study addressing the influence of these constraints on ideation is reported. The study involved use of nine science-based techniques across the “preparation-incubation-illumination-verification” model of ideation. Findings indicate that the constraining influence of groupthink can be reduced, but much work may be required to do so. Hence, it can be anticipated that technology in society within the non-conscious human mind will continue to exert influence over new applications of physical and virtual technology in society.
The objective of this research is to analyze the relationship between academic performance in mathematics and students' creativity levels and coping styles. To this aim, a sample of 91 fourth-graders from Madrid, Spain, took the CREA test to evaluate creativity and the EAN to evaluate coping styles in mathematics; their average grade in mathematics was used as an indicator of academic performance. The results reveal the existence of significant correlation between performance and creativity, as well as between performance and coping style, while creativity and coping style predict academic performance in mathematics. These findings have educational implications for enhancing academic performance in mathematics. © 2018 Consejo Mexicano de Investigacion Educativa. All rights reserved.
One of the main issues of teaching talented students is challenging them. The research literature suggests that digital educational games have many potential benefits for mathematics and statistics teaching and learning. One of their foremost qualities is the capacity to motivate, engage, and immerse players. It has been shown that educational games captivate students’ attention, contributing to their increased motivation and engagement with mathematics and statistics (Ke, 2008). The current article contributes to the emerging literature on game-enhanced statistics learning by exploring the capabilities of a learning environment that uses programming logic in a game setting. Based on challenging students to create their own games, we attempted to enhance students’ (aged between 8 to 13 years old) reasoning about probability by asking them to design a computer game for modeling probabilistic ideas. Students were introduced to the block-based programming language Scratch 2.0, and used it to create their own games. In this article we present the case of a talented 13 year-old boy who expressed many probabilistic ideas while he was designing and playing his game.
We attempted to model the Incubation Effect, a phenomenon in which a momentary break helps the generation of a solution to a problem, among students playing Physics Playground. We performed a logistic regression analysis to predict the outcome of the incubation using a genetic algorithm for feature selection. Out of 14 candidate features, those that significantly predicted the outcome were total badges earned prior to post-incubation, the problem’s level of difficulty, total attempts made prior to post-incubation, and time interval of post-incubation. We found evidence that incubation in the earlier part of the game is more beneficial than breaks at the later part where students may already be mentally exhausted.
Could creative problem solving be the object of work in preschool education? This study followed the work of fifteen, four and five year old children and their teacher during a two month process of solving combinatorial problems with a large number of solutions. Findings show that all children responded positively to the problems, were successful in solving them and developed sophisticated strategies during the process.
Статья содержит материалы библиографического поиска среди исследований иностранных специалистов в области обучения одаренных учеников и студентов. Рассмотрены особенности сущности и структуры творческого процесса в разных областях деятельности человека.
Creativity refers to the potential to produce novel ideas that are 'task-appropriate and high in quality. Creativity in a societal context is best understood in terms of a dialectical relation to intelligence and wisdom. In particular, intelligence forms the thesis of such a dialectic. Intelligence largely is used to advance existing societal agendas. Creativity forms the antithesis of the dialectic, questioning and often opposing societal agendas, as well as proposing new ones. Wisdom forms the synthesis of the dialectic, balancing the old with the new. Wise people recognize the need to balance intelligence with creativity to achieve both stability and change within a societal context.
This book describes the fascinating learning, memory, and performance processes that take place without the subject's ‘explicit’ awareness. A well-known example is patients under anaesthetic who, without being able to verbally recall the surgeons' conversation, show some retention of the conversation. How much of what we ‘know’ has been learned implicitly? How much of our problem-solving abilities are founded on unconscious processes? Researchers disagree widely over the importance, and even the existence, of implicit cognition as an issue in human psychology. This book brings together several internationally known authors with conflicting views on the subject, providing a lively and informative overview of this controversial area.
A classical test for accessing the potential creativity of an individual is based on ideational fluency, where a person is asked to generate all possible uses for a familiar item like apiece of paper. In scoring the results, it is intuitive that the suggested uses should not be weighted equally. Those suggested in radically different categories are "worth more" than those suggested within the same category only. We used information theory to derive a simple mathematical expression for a more objective measure of ideational fluency. We call this the creativity quotient (CQ). This innovative measure was examined using a small sample of participants, and is illustrated by the responses of two typical individuals from an ideational fluency task. The CQ accounts for the number of ideas (fluency), plus the number of categories (flexibility). Ongoing research will examine the independence of CQ from established measures of intelligence and personality.
For any taxonomic model of cognitive abilities to be complete, lower-order sensory processes must be incorporated within its scope. The current study sought to address the role of olfactory processes within the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, as this sensory modality appears to have remained uninvestigated. Evidence from within experimental cognitive psychology suggests that olfactory memory is distinct from memory in other sensory modalities. Thus, this issue was also explored from an individual differences perspective. Participants (N=107) were tested on a battery of 12 psychometric tests, 4 putative cognitive olfactory tasks, and 1 olfactory discrimination measure. The resultant data set was subjected to exploratory factor analysis. Results indicate the likely existence of an olfactory memory ability that is structurally independent of established higher-order abilities and not related to simple olfactory sensitivity. The implication of this finding to models of human cognitive abilities is discussed.
Two studies were carried out to investigate the relationship between performances on two experimental tasks—Triplet Numbers and Swaps—and measures of fluid intelligence (Gf) and short-term memory (SAR). For each of these tasks four different versions of increasing complexity were constructed by varying the number of rules or mental steps required for their solution. Both tasks in the first study, and Swaps in the second study, were given twice with the instruction to work as quickly and as accurately as possible. Changes in speed/accuracy emphasis produced reliable differences in performance on the Triplet Numbers test in the first study only. As expected, increasing task complexity resulted in lower accuracy and slower responding. Regarding the relationship between the experimental tasks and intelligence factors, Gf and SAR, the most consistent and strongest association was between the accuracy measures of these tasks and Gf, although in all cases the relationship between both factors and speed scores were statistically significant. Importantly, the most consistent and strongest interaction between task complexity and Gf was obtained using accuracy measures from the experimental tasks. Other interactions with task complexity were weak. In general, as the task becomes more complex, its correlation with measures of intelligence tends to increase.
One possible reason for the continued neglect of statistical power analysis in research in the behavioral sciences is the inaccessibility of or difficulty with the standard material. A convenient, although not comprehensive, presentation of required sample sizes is provided. Effect-size indexes and conventional values for these are given for operationally defined small, medium, and large effects. The sample sizes necessary for .80 power to detect effects at these levels are tabled for 8 standard statistical tests: (1) the difference between independent means, (2) the significance of a product-moment correlation, (3) the difference between independent rs, (4) the sign test, (5) the difference between independent proportions, (6) chi-square tests for goodness of fit and contingency tables, (7) 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and (8) the significance of a multiple or multiple partial correlation.
This paper proposes an explanation of the cognitive change that occurs as the creative process proceeds. During the initial, intuitive phase, each thought activates, and potentially retrieves information from, a large region containing many memory locations. Because of the distributed, content-addressable structure of memory, the diverse contents of these many locations merge to generate the next thought. Novel associations often result. As one focuses on an idea, the region searched and retrieved from narrows, such that the next thought is the product of fewer memory locations. This enables a shift from association-based to causation-based thinking, which facilitates the fine-tuning and manifestation of the creative work.
This article reports an investigation into the empirical status of a little understood cognitive factor—tactile-kinesthetic
ability. To this end, a variety of haptic tasks, including three subtests of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery
(HRB), were administered to 108 participants, along with established markers commonly employed in contemporary psychometric
investigations. The results suggest that these subtests of the HRB measure cognitive abilities conceptually equivalent to
fluid intelligence. Since these tests reflect efforts to operationalize Halstead's (1947) concept of “biological intelligence,”
the results reported herein allow evaluation of this concept in relation to current models of human intelligence. Previous
studies investigating the nature of abilities assessed by the HRB have reached contradictory conclusions. Present findings
clarify the source of these anomalies.
The recognition of the correct solution to a problem after a period when one is not actively searching for an answer is well documented. However, previous research has focused on problems an individual has not yet resolved. We presented a scenario in which 125 participants believed that they had completed a task and so had no reason to seek further solutions. To their surprise, after a period of distraction, we resumed the testing session. This novel method was combined with accurate recording of both response content and timing. The results from the second session a remarkable similarity n initial burst to those from the first, including a ideas, allowing the inference that, even in the absence of a reason to seek solutions, a process of nonconscious idea generation might be operating.
The creative process, one of the key topics discussed in Guilford's (1950) address to the American Psychological Association and his subsequent work, refers to the sequence of thoughts and actions that leads to novel, adaptive productions. This article examines conceptions of the creative process that have been advocated during the past century. In particular, stage-based models of the creative process are discussed and the evolution of these models is traced. Empirical research suggests that the basic 4-stage model of the creative process may need to be revised or replaced. Several key questions about the creative process are raised, such as how the creative process differs from the noncreative process and how process-related differences may lead to different levels of creative performance. New directions for future research are identified.
Because creativity has to do with the production of new ideas, one might think that its study rightly falls within the domain of cognitive psychology. Of course, creativity involves cognition, but it involves a type of cognition that seems only to occur within a matrix of associated motivational, attitudinal, and personalogical traits. Thus, to understand creativity, the person as a whole must be considered. Because of this, theories about the creative process have traditionally been personality theories rather than purely cognitive theories. In 1949, Guilford (1950) pointed out that we did not know enough about creativity. We can never know too much about the creative personality, but we certainly know more than I could hope to cover in this chapter. For more information, the reader may consult the reviews of the literature by Dellas and Gaier (1970), Wallach (1970), Stein (1974), Taylor and Getzels (1975), and Barron and Harrington (1981).
Stfinn?ary.-Performance on a functional fixedness problem was investigated under conditions of continuous work on the problem vs interpolation of unrelated activity, and in Ss of low vs high problem-solving ability. The performance of low-ability Ss was most proficient under the interpolated-activiry condition, whereas for high-ability Ss performance was best under continuous work. It was suggested that different types of problem-solving processes occurred in low- and high-ability Ss, and that interpolated activity influenced these processes in opposite ways.
Subjects worked on a problem, engaged in an intervening activity, and then resumed work on the problem. Different intervening activities represented various mechanisms that might produce incubation (e.g., set breaking, facilitation by analogy, review of the problem's elements). These various treatment groups were compared to a control group that worked on the problem continuously. None of them showed evidence of incubation, despite previously reported incubation with the same problem. Since these systematically negative findings are consistent with those of several recent studies, the status of incubation as an objectively demonstrated phenomenon is questioned and directions for further research are suggested.
The creative process, one of the key topics discussed in Guilford's (1950) address to the American Psychological Association and his subsequent work, refers to the sequence of thoughts and actions that leads to novel, adaptive productions. This article examines conceptions of the creative process that have been advocated during the past century. In particular, stage-based models of the creative process are discussed and the evolution of these models is traced. Empirical research suggests that the basic 4-stage model of the creative process may need to be revised or replaced. Several key questions about the creative process are raised, such as how the creative process differs from the noncreative process and how process-related differences may lead to different levels of creative performance. New directions for future research are identified.
Three aspects of creative thinking and production were examined: (a) metacognitive processing, (b) the knowledge base, and (c) personality variables. It was concluded that all three are essential elements, that they operate interactively, and that the results of creative thinking and problem solving are best assessed through evaluation of the products.
Three studies sought to determine whether incubation effects could be reliably generated in a problem-solving task. Experimental variables manipulated were the duration of the interval between two problem-solving opportunities and the activity performed by the problem solvers during the interval. A multi-solution anagram task was used which required problem solvers to generate five-letter words from the letters in a ten-letter “starter” word until they could produce no more words. After a break (the incubation period) the problem solvers returned to the anagram task anew. Some participants also engaged in an activity related to the anagram task during the break which was expected to prime potential solutions that would emerge during the second problem-solving attempt. In all conditions problem solvers were able to generate new responses after the break, thus demonstrating a reliable incubation effect. The optimal incubation period was between 15 and 30 min long. The priming task increased the number of solutions to the anagram task on the second attempt, suggesting that exposure to solution ideas during the incubation period may facilitate an incubation effect during problem solving.
This article reports an investigation into the empirical status of a little understood cognitive factor—tactile-kinesthetic ability. To this end, a variety of haptic tasks, including three subtests of the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRB), were administered to 108 participants, along with established markers commonly employed in contemporary psychometric investigations. The results suggest that these subtests of the HRB measure cognitive abilities conceptually equivalent to fluid intelligence. Since these tests reflect efforts to operationalize Halstead's (1947) concept of “biological intelligence,” the results reported herein allow evaluation of this concept in relation to current models of human intelligence. Previous studies investigating the nature of abilities assessed by the HRB have reached contradictory conclusions. Present findings clarify the source of these anomalies.Keywords: theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Gf/Gc), Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS), Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRB)
Incubation is defined as a facilitation of thinking (not simply recall) that is evident after an interval during which no conscious work is done on a problem-solving task, assuming that there has been an earlier period of substantial conscious work. Incubation is differentiated from "creative worrying" and from the "tip of the tongue" phenomenon. An experimental paradigm is presented for the study of incubation, in which the experimental group has a period of time intervening between a 1st and a 2nd period of work on a problem, while the control group does not have the intervening period. Review of a number of studies, however, leads to the conclusion that no convincing evidence has been formed of the facilitating effect of the interval. Methods of demonstrating the phenomenon are suggested. If proven, guidance might be offered toward maximizing its effects. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
80 undergraduates were given the farm problem or the tree planting problem to solve. For each problem there were control Ss who just worked on the problem, incubation Ss who put the problem aside temporarily and later continued to work on it, pictorial analogy Ss who had pictorial analogies of the problem in front of them while they worked on the problem, and combined pictorial analogy and incubation Ss who had the pictorial analogies in front of them and also had an incubation phase in which they put the problem aside temporarily. It was found that pictorial analogies significantly aided Ss in solving the 2 problems, and that the interaction effect of analogies and incubation significantly aided Ss in solving the farm problem. Results are discussed and explained from a unifying viewpoint involving several theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 2 experiments with undergraduates (N = 141) to determine the effects of hints and interpolated activity on Ss' behavior in trying to solve the hatrack problem. Results indicate that the "ceiling hint" was more effective in facilitating solution than the "clamp hint" but that interpolated activity alone was ineffective. In both experiments, Ss achieving low scores on problem solving responded to a hint more rapidly when it was given during continuous work compared to giving the hint after a period of interpolated activity; in contrast, high scorers responded more rapidly to a hint given after interpolated activity. The conditions under which positive effects of interpolated activity might be expected are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a comprehensive review of cognitive psychology which includes sections on representation in memory, abstraction and iconic concepts, symbolic concepts and mental structures, mental operations, consciousness, and search strategies and problem solving. (18 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relationship between measures of creativity and aesthetic preference and established personality scales in 3 studies involving 308 college students. Study 1 derived indices of fluency, originality, and preference for complexity and Meaningfulness using random polygons varying in complexity; the scales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Revised), a schizotypal personality scale, and the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (see record 64:08099) were the personality measures. Study 2 added Openness to Experience from the NEO Personality Inventory (Revised) to the personality measures; factors derived from a music preference Scale were added to the creativity/preference set. Study 3 replaced the polygons used in Study 2 with 2 creativity tests, and added a word association task. Results suggest a substantial relationship between sensation-seeking, openness, and psychoticism, and a creativity/preference set particularly represented by preference for complexity, dislike of soft popular music, and originality or number of divergent thinking responses. Subscale analyses implicate willingness to question conventional values as a major component of the creative personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A factor analysis of word fluency was based on the interrelationships of 17 scores derived from the 6 tests: First and Last Letters, Synonyms, Suffixes, Letterstar, Adjectives, and Things Round. 8 factors were isolated and these are described. Partial corroboration was found for the 3 factors of word fluency previously identified by Taylor in an analysis for which he used only one score from each of these 6 tests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Potential creativity as measured by the Alternate Uses Test, remoteness of word associations, and rated creativity of fantasy stories was found to be related to primary process content in written fantasy stories. Psychoticism and openness to experience have been found to be related to creativity. There are theoretical reasons to think that they might also be related to use of primary process cognition. However, neither potential creativity nor primary process content were significantly correlated with either psychoticism or openness to experience. An exploratory factor analysis, though, suggests that creativity, primary process cognition, extraversion, and psychoticism are interrelated. The common train linking them together may be disinhibition.
This 1993 work surveys and summarizes the results of more than seventy years of investigation, by factor analysis, of a variety of cognitive abilities, with particular attention to language, thinking, memory, visual and auditory perception, creativity and the production of ideas, and the speed and accuracy of mental processing. The author describes his detailed findings resulting from reanalysis of more than 460 data sets from the factor-analytic literature, followed by a presentation of a hierarchical, three-stratum theory of cognitive ability and its implications for further research. A set of three computer disks (IBM 3-1/2" 1.4 megabytes, ASCII format) containing the numerical data sets and Dr. Carroll's statistical results is also available. Representing over 4 megabytes of data or roughly 2000 printed pages the disks are major resources for the interested researcher.
Creativity refers to the potential to produce novel ideas that are task-appropriate and high in quality. Creativity in a societal context is best understood in terms of a dialectical relation to intelligence and wisdom. In particular, intelligence forms the thesis of such a dialectic. Intelligence largely is used to advance existing societal agendas. Creativity forms the antithesis of the dialectic, questioning and often opposing societal agendas, as well as proposing new ones. Wisdom forms the synthesis of the dialectic, balancing the old with the new. Wise people recognize the need to balance intelligence with creativity to achieve both stability and change within a societal context.
Presently available criteria of creativity are reviewed and classified into ten categories: tests of divergent thinking, attitude and interest inventories, personality inventories, biographical inventories, teacher nominations, peer nominations, supervisor ratings, judgments of products, eminence and self-reported creative activities and achievements. These techniques for measuring creativity are then criticized in terms of their reliability, discriminant validity, dimensionality and convergent validity. It is concluded that an inventory of self-reported creative activities and accomplishments is the most defensible technique for selecting creative individuals.
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