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The Tactical Topography of Stalking Victimization and Management

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Brian Spitzberg at San Diego State University
Brian Spitzberg
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Abstract

A meta-analysis of 108 samples across 103 studies of stalking related phenomena, representing more than 70,000 participants, reveals an average prevalence across studies of 23.5% for women and 10.5% for men, with an average duration of al- most 2 years. The average proportion of female victims across studies was 75%, and 77% of stalking emerged from some form of prior acquaintance, with 49% originating from romantic relationships. New typologies of stalking behavior, cop- ing responses to stalking, and symptomology due to stalking victimization are re- ported. Across 42 studies, the average physical violence incidence was 33%, and 17 studies produced an average sexual violence incidence of slightly greater than 10%. A summary of 32 studies of restraining orders indicated that they are vio- lated an average of 40% of the time and are perceived as followed by worse events almost 21% of the time.
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... The most frequent perpetrators of stalking are ex-partners (45%, Dreßing et al., 2020), though other reports suggest a relatively similar proportion of stalkers are acquaintances or strangers (Budd et al., 2000). Ex-partner stalking also carries the highest risk of violence (Spitzberg, 2002), with this stalking often perpetrated as a continuation of domestic violence and an attempt to maintain control after a relationship has ended (Spitzberg, 2002). ...
... The most frequent perpetrators of stalking are ex-partners (45%, Dreßing et al., 2020), though other reports suggest a relatively similar proportion of stalkers are acquaintances or strangers (Budd et al., 2000). Ex-partner stalking also carries the highest risk of violence (Spitzberg, 2002), with this stalking often perpetrated as a continuation of domestic violence and an attempt to maintain control after a relationship has ended (Spitzberg, 2002). ...
Impact of Perpetrator and Victim Gender on Perceptions of Stalking Severity
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2025
Many individuals will dismiss the seriousness of ex-partner stalking offences, often as a result of inaccurate and problematic beliefs about the offence (stalking myths). However, to date, stalking myth acceptance measurements have only considered attitudes about stereotypical stalking (male stalking a female). The current research considered whether inaccurate and problematic perceptions of stalking were dependent on the gender and sexuality of the perpetrator, victim, and participant. Additionally, it examined whether existing stalking myth acceptance scales measuring stereotypical stalking attitudes would predict perceptions of stalking incidents that involved female stalkers and/or male victims. Participants (N = 336) completed the stalking myth acceptance scale and then responded to a series of questions measuring their perceptions towards a stalking vignette. An independent groups design was used to manipulate the gender of the stalker and victim. The need for police intervention was greatest for incidents involving a male stalker and a female victim. Female victims of male stalking were predicted as being the most fearful, whilst male victims of female stalking were rated as least likely to be fearful. Heterosexual males and participants with minority sexual orientations were also more likely to identify the perpetrator’s actions as stalking. Finally, the SMA scales predicted participants’ attitudes for stereotypical stalking cases but not for the other scenarios. The findings demonstrate that gender plays a significant role in stalking perceptions and highlights the need for more inclusive SMA measurements to consider problematic attitudes towards non-stereotypical stalking. Keywords: stalking; victim; myths; victim blaming; sexual orientation
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... This last study also revealed associations between violent violation and prior records of serious psychological violence, physical violence, sexual violence, and serious threats. Here, harassment stood out as one of the factors most frequently associated with a breach of the PO and with a greater number of infringements (Cordier et al., 2021;Logan & Cole, 2007;Logan & Walker, 2009;Spitzberg, 2002). ...
... This is where the comparison between the studies that examine the difference between violators and nonviolators and the present study (OTV vs. MV) becomes clear. Physical violence is associated with violation (Caballé- Pérez et al., 2020;Herrera & Amor, 2020), as are jealousy, harassment, and control (Caballé-Pérez et al., 2020;Cordier et al., 2021;Logan et al., 2006;Spitzberg, 2002), in comparison with the aggressors who do not breach the PO. In this investigation, these variables of the dynamics of violence were more associated with MV as compared with OTV. ...
Risk Factors for Multiple Violations of Protective Orders in Intimate Partner Violence Against Women
Article
  • Mar 2024
  • Violence Vict
This study examined 1,134 cases of violence against women in intimate partner relationships with violations of protective orders in a monitoring period of up to 15 months. The dynamics of time and violence were analyzed in the cases of multiple violation versus one-time violation, with the objective of identifying and thus neutralizing the risk factors for this type of recidivism. The results showed that early violation, serious physical violence, death threats, as well as jealousy, harassment, and control are related to multiple violation. This article discusses the results in comparison with other research and proposes measures to avoid revictimizations.
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... Beyond the characteristics of the victims themselves, the victim-offender relationship impacts both the likelihood of victimization and the likelihood of help-seeking and reporting to the police. Most stalking offenders are known to the victim (Smith et al., 2017), and stalking a current or former intimate partner is the most common type of stalking (Spitzberg, 2002). Stalkers who have an intimate partner relationship with their victim are more likely to engage in more severe behaviors, such as the use of weapons, the use of drugs or alcohol, and being more violent (Mohandie et al., 2006). ...
Help-Seeking from Victim Services, Personal Networks, and Reporting to Police: Stalking Victim Behaviors from the 2019 NCVS Supplemental Victimization Survey
Article
  • Aug 2024
Understanding the predictors of stalking victimization, help-seeking behaviors of stalking victims, and their reporting to police can help law enforcement and advocates improve systems and ensure they are accessible and useful to victims. Existing stalking research focuses heavily on campus-based stalking, non-nationally representative populations, and/or dated data collection methods, such as the 2006 National Crime Victimization Survey, Supplemental Victimization Survey (NCVS-SVS), an instrument that has been updated according to current stalking definitions. This study employs the latest 2019 NCVS-SVS to analyze its new stalking screening questions and additional variables. We identified predictors of (a) stalking victimization, (b) help-seeking from victim-serving agencies, (c) help-seeking from personal networks, and (d) reporting to police. Predictors of stalking victimization included younger age, identifying as female, identifying as not heterosexual, household incomes below $50,000, and any college attendance. Victims who knew their offenders (intimate or non-intimate) were more likely than victims of stranger stalking to seek help from victim-serving agencies and personal networks. Younger victims were more likely to seek help from personal networks. None of the variables we examined predicted reporting to police. This study shows the characteristics of stalking victims have stayed consistent over time but highlights an ongoing need for resources for victims of stranger stalking, who may not know about or be able to access stalking services that are offered by intimate partner violence agencies. Future research around stalking victim characteristics should focus on populations that are newly included in national stalking data, such as those who identify as transgender and sexual identity minorities.
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STOPPING THE STALKER: VICTIM RESPONSES TO STALKING An Examination of Victim Responses to Determine Factors Affecting the Intensity and Duration of Stalking
Article
  • Oct 2014
Victims of stalking are exposed to threatening behaviours over prolonged periods of time and their experiences have been described by them as “emotional or psychological rape”, “psychological terrorism”, and “rape without sex”. Research has shown that the more victimisation a person experiences, the more he or she resorts to a variety of attempts to manage the stalking behaviour. Many methods have attracted criticism, specifically the use of civil injunctions to reduce the risk of violence and continued stalking. This article discusses the phenomenon of stalking, victim responses, and factors that may escalate stalking behaviour. It is posited that duration and intensity of stalking, in addition to the risk and harm to victims, can be reduced by researching the effectiveness of a myriad of proposed responses. This article looks to inform the best practices in the strategic intervention of stalking by distinguishing maladaptive and adaptive victim initiated responses.
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Personality Attributions in the Context of Stalking of Ex-Intimates or Others: A Victim’s Perspective
Article
  • Mar 2024
  • INT J OFFENDER THER
Stalking perpetrators may suffer from maladaptive personality traits, particularly if they stalk in the context of an (ex-)intimate relationship. To date, no study has examined how different personality attributions may relate to stalker motivation, or the behaviors they engage in, and how this differs across victim-perpetrator relationships. Further, the perspective of the victim is often not taken into consideration, even though most stalking victims know their stalker intimately and a majority are stalked by a former or current partner. The present study employed a correlational design to assess the relationship between stalking behaviors, motivation to stalk, and personality attributions, as perceived by the victim across an ex-intimate or other victim-perpetrator relationship. The study sample consisted of 100 victims of stalking (63% ex-intimate; 85% female) who were recruited through a National Stalking Helpline. Results align with and extend the results of previous researchers, most notably the high proportion of reported Cluster B-aligned personality attributions among stalkers, as well as the proportion of more under-researched personality attributions, and their associated risks. Victims of an ex-intimate partner were more likely to report their stalker was motivated by intimacy, and personality attributions aligned with both borderline and paranoid PD were more often reported than in other relationship contexts. Results and clinical implications are discussed.
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CSAOs’ Perceptions of the Changing Incidence of Problematic College Student Behavior
Article
  • Oct 1994
The authors present results of a survey mailed to chief student affairs officers concerning the changing incidence of certain student problems.
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Stalkers and their Victims
Book
  • Apr 2000
Stalking is now a major social and legal issue, as well as a clinical problem for mental health professionals. This absorbing and informative book draws on the authors' extensive experience of working with stalkers and their victims in the clinical setting. Topics covered include: • The growing recognition of stalking as an issue of public, legal and scientific concern • The definition, classification and epidemiology of stalking • The impact on victims, and how this may be reduced • Same-gender stalking, stalking by proxy, workplace stalking, and the stalking of professionals, such as doctors and teachers • The association of stalking with physical and sexual assault • Anti-stalking laws internationally • Support and practical advice for victims • Assessing and managing the stalker With many case histories, and an approach that is at once scholarly and highly practical, this will be the definitive guide and reference for anyone with a professional or academic interest in this complex behaviour.
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