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The scientific, philosophical, and pedagogical foundation of the Institute of HeartMath’s education initiative is
based on leading-edge scientific research conducted during the past several decades on how stress and emotions
impact learning and performance. It may be surprising to some to learn the critical role the heart plays in regulat-
ing the autonomic nervous system and in affecting our emotional experience. The following material provides a
brief overview and explanation of these new scientific discoveries and some of their implications for education.
Overview
Throughout history, many cultures and spiritual traditions have shared a regard for the heart as a source of
wisdom and positive emotions. Recent scientific discoveries suggest that these long-surviving associations
may indeed be more than merely metaphorical. In particular, new understanding of the physiology of posi-
tive emotions and the key role played by the heart in the generation of emotional experience have exciting
implications for higher-order thinking skills, learner readiness, decision making, and test-taking, as well as
for social and emotional behavior. Based on this research, practical tools have been developed that enable
students to self-regulate the physiological processes underlying effective learning and performance. Outcome
studies show that use of these tools is associated with both academic and social-emotional improvements in
students ranging from elementary to college level.
A new view of emotion
Research conducted throughout the past decade has challenged several longstanding assumptions about
emotions. For example, psychologists once maintained that emotions were purely mental expressions gener-
ated by the brain alone. However, we now know that emotions have as much to do with the body as they do
with the brain. Research has shown that neurological and hormonal signals flowing to the brain from many
bodily organs and systems not only play a role in regulating physiological functions, but also influence
higher brain centers involved in perception and emotional processing.
1-4
Furthermore, it appears that perti-
nent information is transmitted not only in the amplitude (strength or amount) of these bodily signals, but
also in their rhythm and pattern.
1, 5-7
The role of the heart
Although input originating from many different bodily organs and systems is involved in determining our
emotional experience, recent research provides evidence that input from the heart may play a particularly
important role.
3
As a primary and consistent generator of rhythmic information patterns in the human body, and
possessing a far more extensive communication system with the brain than do other major organs, the heart
exerts a unique and far-reaching influence on the brain and the entire body. It is now well-established that the
The Scientific Role of the Heart
in Learning and Performance
Rollin McCraty, Ph.D.
HeartMath Research Center, Institute of HeartMath, Publication No. 02-030, Boulder Creek, CA, 2002.
Address for correspondence: Rollin McCraty, Ph.D., HeartMath Research Center, Institute of HeartMath, 14700 West Park Avenue, Boulder Creek,
CA 95006. Phone: 831.338.8500, Fax: 831.338.1182, Email: rollin@heartmath.org. Institute of HeartMath web site: www.heartmath.org.
© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
2
heart is far more than a simple pump. It also functions as a hormonal gland, a sensory organ, and an informa-
tion encoding and processing center, with an extensive intrinsic nervous system sufficiently sophisticated to
qualify as a “heart brain.” Its neural circuitry effectively enables it to learn, remember, and make functional
decisions independent of the cranial brain.
8
With every beat, the heart transmits to the brain and throughout the
body complex patterns of neurological, hormonal, pressure, and electromagnetic information, which form a
major component of the physiological backdrop that ultimately determines our emotional experience.
Emotions are reflected in the heart’s rhythms
One research tool that has proven particularly valuable in examining the interactions between the heart and
brain is the analysis of heart rate variability. Contrary to many people’s beliefs, the rhythmic beat of the heart
is not monotonously regular, but rather varies dynamically from moment to moment. The term heart rate
variability (HRV) is used to refer to these naturally-occurring, beat-to-beat changes in heart rate, which are
reflective of heart-brain interactions and autonomic nervous system dynamics. Recent research has revealed
that heart rate variability patterns, or heart rhythms, are remarkably responsive to changes in emotional
states.
9-12
Specifically, during the experience of stress and negative emotions such as anger, frustration, or
anxiety, heart rhythms become more erratic and disordered, indicating desynchonization in the reciprocal
action between the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system (Figure 1). In
simple terms, feeling stressed causes our system to get “out of sync”—not only mentally and emotionally, but
also physiologically. When the two branches of the autonomic nervous system are out of sync with each other,
it is similar to driving a car with one foot on the accelerator (the sympathetic nervous system) and the other on
the brake (the parasympathetic nervous system) at the same time. The result is incoherence, increased energy
consumption, and added wear and tear on the entire system.
In contrast, sustained positive emotions, such as appreciation, love, and compassion, are associated with
highly ordered or coherent patterns in the heart rhythms, reflecting greater synchronization between the two
branches of the autonomic nervous system and increased physiological efficiency
9-12
(Figure 1). Thus, sin-
cerely experiencing positive feelings helps us get (and stay) “in sync.”
Figure 1. The heart rate variability pattern shown in the left graph, characterized by its random, jerky form, is typical of feelings of
anger or frustration. This reflects a desynchronization in the activity between the two branches of the autonomic nervous system.
Sincere positive feeling states like appreciation (right) can result in highly ordered and coherent HRV patterns, generally associated
with enhanced cognitive performance and emotional stability. These patterns also reflect increased synchronized activity between the
two branches of the autonomic nervous system.
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SINCERE APPRECIATIONFRUSTRATION / ANGER
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© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
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Different patterns in the heart’s rhythms and nervous system activity also affect the synchronized activity in the
brain, which is the very basis of perception and cognition, including higher-order thinking skills. During emo-
tional stress, when the heart transmits a disordered signal to the brain and activity in the nervous system is
chaotic or desynchronized, higher cognitive functions are inhibited—limiting our ability to think clearly, focus,
remember, learn, and reason. (This can help explain why we often can’t think clearly, make careless mistakes,
and have trouble retrieving information from memory when under stress.) In contrast, during positive feeling
states, when the heart transmits an ordered, coherent signal to the brain and nervous system activity is harmoni-
ous and synchronized, our higher cognitive abilities are facilitated—often resulting in enhanced focus, memory
recall, comprehension, and creativity.
Physiological coherence: Increasing nervous system harmony and emotional stability
Our research on the heart’s rhythms and emotions has led us to identify a distinct mode of physiological
functioning that is associated with the experience of heartfelt positive emotions. We have introduced the
term physiological coherence to describe this mode. Correlates of physiological coherence include a
smooth, sine wave-like pattern in the heart rhythms, decreased sympathetic nervous system activation and
increased parasympathetic activity, increased heart-brain synchronization (the brain’s alpha rhythms become
more synchronized to the heartbeat), increased vascular resonance, and entrainment among diverse physi-
ological oscillatory systems.
5-7, 10
These physiological changes result in a highly efficient state in which the
body, brain, and nervous system function with increased synchronization and harmony—in other words,
creating a state of being highly “in sync.” The practice of techniques that increase physiological coherence
has been associated with favorable health-related outcomes in both healthy and various clinical popula-
tions.
11, 13-16
Moreover, data suggest that the physiological coherence mode is also associated with greater
emotional stability, a reduction in the perception of stress and negative emotions, and an increase in the
experience of sustained positive emotions.
11-13
Physiological coherence improves cognitive performance
Intriguingly, recent experiments conducted at the Institute of HeartMath provide evidence that increasing
physiological coherence also improves cognitive performance.
7, 17
In these investigations, participants’ perfor-
mance on a cognitive task requiring focus and attention, discrimination, and a quick and accurate reaction
was compared before and after they used a positive emotion-refocusing technique to increase physiological
coherence. Results were compared with those of a control group who performed the same cognitive task
before and after a relaxation period. Results showed that participants who increased heart rhythm coherence
demonstrated a significant improvement in cognitive performance. In contrast, the control group showed no
increase in heart rhythm coherence or improvement in performance after they engaged in a relaxation exer-
cise (Figure 2). In addition, a significant correlation was found between the degree of heart rhythm coherence
and performance across all subjects during all tasks—illustrating, in essence, that the more coherent or in
sync we are, the better our cognitive performance. The results of this study suggest that the generation of the
coherent mode may lead to changes in the brain’s information-processing capabilities that can result in
measurable improvements in performance on tasks requiring cognitive abilities such as focus, attention, and
discrimination.
7
© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
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Tools to increase physiological coherence
Based on the research described above, the Institute of HeartMath has developed new, positive emotion-
focused tools and technologies that enable students to systematically increase physiological coherence and
emotional stability, thereby improving both academic and social-emotional outcomes.
18-20
Collectively known
as the HeartMath
system, these techniques utilize the heart as a point of entry into the psychophysiological
networks that underlie emotional experience.
19, 21
As discussed, because the heart is a primary generator of
rhythmic patterns in the body—influencing brain processes that control the autonomic nervous system,
cognitive function and emotion—it provides an access point from which system-wide dynamics can be
quickly and profoundly affected.
7
In brief, HeartMath techniques combine a shift in the focus of attention to the area around the heart (where
many people subjectively feel positive emotions) with the intentional self-induction of a sincere positive
emotional state, such as appreciation. Such a shift in focus and feeling serves to increase heart rhythm coher-
ence and nervous system harmony, which results in a change in the pattern of neurological signals sent to the
cognitive and emotional centers in the brain. This, in turn, facilitates higher cognitive faculties and emotion
regulation abilities that are normally compromised during stress or negative emotional states, thus sharpen-
ing one’s discernment abilities, increasing resourcefulness, and often enabling problematic issues, interac-
tions, or decisions to be assessed and dealt with from a broader, more emotionally balanced perspective.
Positive emotion-focused, coherence-building techniques are effective in helping to stabilize nervous system
dynamics in real time—for example, when used in the midst of a potentially stressful situation that otherwise
might have drained both physical and mental resources. However, the use of such techniques is also associ-
ated with benefits that extend well beyond the present moment. Research studies have shown that people of
all ages who regularly use HeartMath techniques experience enduring improvements in many aspects of their
lives, including health, emotional well-being, attitudes, behaviors and relationships.
11-13, 16
Research suggests
that these enduring benefits stem from the fact that as people learn to generate physiological coherence with
increasing consistency, a system-wide repatterning process occurs, whereby the associated synchronized,
Experimental Group Control Group
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320
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360
380
400
Before Intervention ADT After Intervention ADT
Mean Reaction Times
*
37
0.4
Mean Reaction Time (ms)
Figure 2. Mean reaction times for the experimental
versus control group during the first (pre-
intervention) and second (post-intervention) auditory
discrimination tasks (ADT). Auditory discrimination
tasks are well-established tests of cognitive
performance that measure the participants' ability
to focus and pay attention, discriminate subtle
differences, and quickly and accurately react. By
using HeartMath techniques to generate a state of
increased heart rhythm coherence, the experimental
group achieved a significant reduction in mean
reaction time, indicative of improved cognitive
performance. Note that control group participants,
who simply relaxed during the interval between tests,
showed no change in mean reaction time from the
first to the second discrimination task.
Increased Heart Rhythm Coherence
Improves Cognitive Performance
© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
5
harmonious patterns of activity become ever more familiar to the brain and nervous system. These patterns
thus become established in the neural architecture as a new, stable baseline or norm, which the system then
strives to maintain. The result is that unhealthy or maladaptive patterns are progressively replaced with ones
that foster increased physiological efficiency, mental acuity, and emotional stability. Moreover, even when
one experiences stress, challenge, or emotional instability, the familiar, coherent, stable state is more quickly
and easily accessible.
At the physiological level, the occurrence of such a repatterning process is supported by data showing that
individuals well-practiced in coherence-building techniques often enter and sustain this mode spontaneously
during their day-to-day activities, without conscious application of the techniques. We propose that the
progressive establishment of new, healthier patterns in the neural architecture is what permits the practice of
coherence-building techniques to produce the long-term improvements in emotion regulation abilities,
behaviors, and health that have been documented by research studies in diverse populations.
HeartMath tools include positive emotion-refocusing techniques such as Freeze-Frame,
22
which enable individu-
als to modify their responses to stress in real time, and emotional restructuring techniques such as Attitude
Breathing and Heart Lock-In,
20,
23
which build the capacity to sustain positive emotions and physiological
coherence for longer periods. These tools are designed as simple, easy-to-use, low-cost interventions that can be
adapted to virtually any culture or sub-culture, age group, or educational context. In addition, these and other
HeartMath tools have recently been incorporated in an educational curriculum known as TestEdge,
18
which
focuses specifically on reducing test anxiety and improving test performance in order to empower students to
survive and even thrive in the stress-ridden environments of standards-based education and violent communities.
Heart rhythm coherence feedback training
Heart rhythm feedback training is a powerful tool to assist students in using positive emotion-focused tech-
niques effectively and learning to self-generate increased physiological coherence.
24
Physiological coherence
can be noninvasively monitored, quantified, and facilitated using practical technologies adaptable for class-
room and counseling settings. One such device is the Freeze-Framer
®
heart rhythm-monitoring and coher-
ence-building system (HeartMath LLC, Boulder Creek, CA). This interactive hardware/software system
monitors and displays individuals’ heart rate variability patterns in real time as they practice the positive
emotion-focused techniques taught in an included tutorial program. Using a fingertip sensor to record the
pulse wave, the Freeze-Framer plots changes in heart rate on a beat-to-beat basis. As students practice the
techniques, they can readily see and experience the changes in their heart rhythm patterns, which generally
become more ordered, smoother, and more sine wave-like as they feel appreciation and other positive emo-
tions (see Figure 1). This process reinforces the natural association between the physiological coherence
mode and positive feelings. The real-time physiological feedback also essentially takes the guesswork and
randomness out of the process of self-inducing a positive emotional state, resulting in greater consistency,
focus, and effectiveness in practicing emotional shifts.
The software also analyzes the heart rhythm patterns for coherence, which data is fed back to the user as an
accumulated score or success in playing one of three enjoyable on-screen games designed to reinforce the
emotion-refocusing skills. Finally, the software includes a multi-user database to store results and track users’
progress.
6
Motivated & Supported
Work Management/Focused
Energized vs. Defeated
Peer Influence
Leadership Skills
Risky Behavior
0
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100
Pre HeartMath
Post HeartMath
Rank Percentile
Achievement Aptitude
Teacher Comfort
Anger Management
Assertive vs. Shy
Peer Support/Satisfaction
Peer Empathy/Outgoing
Family Support/Satisfaction
Family Compliance/Participation
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School Attitude
Self-Satisfaction
Locus of Control
Self-Reliance
Stress Management
Idealistic vs. Realistic
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Interpersonal Skills Mental Attitudes
**
***
***
*
*
*
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*
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*
*
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**
***
Figure 3. Psychological and behavioral improvements in at-risk seventh grade students after learning HeartMath tools and techniques.
Educational outcomes
Programs incorporating HeartMath tools and the Freeze-Framer coherence-building technology have been
introduced at the elementary, middle school, high school, and college levels across the U.S. and have been
demonstrated to improve emotional well-being, classroom behaviors, learning, and academic performance.
13
One collaborative research study by the Institute of HeartMath and the Miami Heart Research Institute was
conducted in a Miami area middle school with sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students. In this study, a
HeartMath program was incorporated in the middle school curriculum, first as a two-week in-class program
and subsequently as a full-year elective course. The program was designed to reinforce resiliency skills and
positive citizenship among students, while counteracting the negative effects of mental and emotional stress
on learning. Application of the HeartMath tools was reinforced through a variety of fun, experiential games
and activities, including participation in a cross-age mentoring program with elementary school students. The
course also included an emotional physiology education component, using HeartMath’s interactive Freeze-
Framer system, in which students were given the opportunity to see changes in their heart rhythm patterns in
real time as they practiced the Freeze-Frame and Heart Lock-In techniques. The Achievement Inventory
Measure (AIM) was used to assess changes in psychosocial functioning, including measures of students’
achievement aptitude, mental attitudes, and interpersonal skills.
Results showed that students who learned and practiced the HeartMath tools exhibited significant improve-
ments in nearly all areas of psychosocial functioning assessed, including stress and anger management, self-
reliance, risky behavior, work management and focus, and relationships with teachers, family and peers
(Figure 3). Further, a follow-up analysis indicated that many of these improvements were sustained over the
following six months.
12
© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
7
A second phase of the study examined the impact of the
HeartMath techniques on children’s physiological responses to
stress. Students’ heart rate variability, as a measure of cardio-
vascular and nervous system dynamics, was assessed immedi-
ately prior to, during, and following a structured interview
designed to elicit emotional responses to real-life stressful
issues. Results showed that children who used the Freeze-
Frame technique to recover from acute emotional stress were
able to favorably modulate their physiological stress responses
in real time, thus demonstrating increased stress resiliency in
relation to a control group that did not learn the technique.
12
Another study conducted by clinical psychologist Dr. Pam
Aasen, reading curriculum specialist Stephanie Thurik, and the
Minneapolis Public School District examined the impact of
HeartMath tools and technology on reducing test-taking anxi-
ety and improving test scores in high school students. Twenty
high school seniors, all of whom had previously failed their
state-required exit exams and who needed to re-take the tests in order to graduate, participated in a three-week
intensive test preparation program. In addition to academic material in reading and math, the course included
approximately eight hours of instruction in HeartMath tools, with an emphasis on reducing test-related anxiety
and instilling greater emotional stability and self-confidence. Students received heart rhythm feedback train-
ing with the Freeze-Framer to help them learn how to
self-generate physiological coherence and increase
nervous system harmony.
After the program, the students showed improve-
ments in test-taking performance that greatly ex-
ceeded those achieved through standard academic
preparation alone. The HeartMath group demon-
strated a mean increase of 35% in math scores and a
14% increase in reading scores on the Minnesota
Basic Standards Tests—gains that represented one to
two years’ growth in academic skills. Students’
passing rates on the exams also improved substan-
tially after the three-week program. Of the trained
students re-taking the math test, 64% passed, as
compared to the district average of 42% for all
seniors re-taking the test at that time. For reading, the
trained group’s passing rate was 55%, as compared
to the district average of 31% (Figure 4). As
com-
pared to a control group, the HeartMath-trained
students also demonstrated significant improve-
0%
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50%
60%
70%
% achieving passing grade
64%
42%
HeartMath Group
District Average
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70%
0%
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20%
30%
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50%
60%
70%
% achieving passing grade
55%
31%
Math Proficiency Reading Proficiency
Passing Rates for High School Seniors:
HeartMath Group vs. District Average
(Minnesota Basic Standards Tests)
Figure 4. Percentage of HeartMath-trained students
passing the Minnesota Basic Standards Tests in math
and reading, as compared to the district average
passing rate for all seniors re-taking the tests at that
same time.
Somatization
Paranoid Ideation
Interpersonal Sensitivity
Depression
Hostility
Global Severity Index
Symptom Total
S
ymptom Distress Index
-80% -60% -40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
% Change in BSI Scores
Control Group
HeartMath Group
***
*
**
**
**
**
*
*
Psychological Improvements in High School
Seniors Following HeartMath Training
Figure 5. Significant reductions in symptoms of psychological
distress (Brief Symptom Inventory) experienced by HeartMath-
trained students from pre to post-training, as compared to students
in an untrained control group. Asterisks denote significant
differences between the two groups in raw score means from time
one to time two. *p< .05, **p< .01, ***p< .001.
© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
8
ments in emotional well-being following the program, as measured
by the Brief Symptom Inventory. These included reductions in
hostility, depression, interpersonal sensitivity (feelings of personal
inadequacy, inferiority and self-doubt), paranoid ideation (fearful-
ness, suspiciousness and mistrust), somatization (physical symp-
toms due to stress), and global indices of distress
25
(Figure 5).
The success of the Minneapolis pilot program led to a subsequent
study in Houston, which substantiated the positive impact of the
HeartMath program on test-taking. As part of their preparation for
the Exit Level Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS) test, a
group of high school juniors and seniors practiced the HeartMath
coherence-building skills while studying the TAAS preparation
materials to help raise their test scores. The students began their
actual testing session with the Heart Lock-In technique to assist
them in reaching a state of physiological coherence before begin-
ning the TAAS Test, and they were also encouraged to use the
Freeze-Frame technique while answering test questions to facilitate the retrieval of information. One hundred
percent of the seniors in the program passed the TAAS Test, compared with 71% of seniors in a control
group that received standard test preparation alone. Of the junior program participants, 63% passed the test
as compared to 50% of the junior control group participants (Figure 6). After completion of the program, the
trained students’ scores on the Brief Symptom Inventory also indicated significant reductions in anxiety,
hostility, and general psychological distress, as compared to the control group.
HeartMath tools and technology have also been success-
fully implemented in many elementary school classrooms
across the nation. One independent study conducted at an
inner city Phoenix elementary school examined the impact
of the HeartMath tools on a small group of fifth and sixth
grade Special Education students with learning disabilities.
Most of the students suffered from a high level of emo-
tional stress and had significant behavior and academic
problems. In their regular classes, the students had already
practiced a variety of learning methodologies for years,
with very minimal improvement, and their self-esteem was
extremely low. The students took part in a three-week
summer course designed to improve reading skills and
thereby allow the children to be promoted to the next grade.
The class met for 1.25 hours each day for a total of 14 days
within a three-week period. Given the short time period
available and the instructor’s perception of the children’s
true needs, the course focused primarily on teaching the
students the HeartMath tools and provided very little
12th Grade 11th Grade
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
100%
71%
63%
50%
HeartMath Group
Control Group
% of students passing
Figure 6. Percentage of HeartMath-trained
students passing the Texas Assessment of
Academic Skills Test, as compared to a control
group.
Passing Rates for High School Students:
HeartMath vs. Control Group
(Texas Assessment of Academic Skills)
Figure 7. Average improvement in reading skills in fifth
and sixth grade students with learning disabilities after
the children practiced HeartMath techniques for three
weeks. Reading skills were measured by the Wide Range
Achievement Test test before and after the program, and
scores shown represent average reading grade level.
These Special Education students demonstrated an
average improvement of 1.5 years’ growth in reading
proficiency over the three-week period.
Improvement in Reading Skills in Special
Education Students After HeartMath Program
Baseline 3 Weeks
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Reading skills (grade level)
4.6
6.1
1.5
Grade
Levels
Average Reading Skills
© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
9
traditional reading instruction. Pre- and post-intervention evaluations of students’ reading proficiency were
conducted using the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT). Additionally, changes in classroom behaviors
were assessed by observational methods.
By the end of the three weeks, tremendous improvements in children’s attitudes and behavior were readily
apparent. Moreover, all of the students’ reading scores improved dramatically, ranging from a two-month
jump in reading proficiency for a bilingual student to over three years’ growth for the highest performers
(average growth of 1.5 years in grade level)
13
(Figure 7). The instructor’s conclusion: “When techniques are
presented that children are able to internalize and use to reduce stress, reduce the emotional pain of per-
ceived failure, develop more sensitive communication, and relax, they are able to access what they have
already learned.”
Summary and Conclusions
In summary, research suggests that by learning to increase physiological coherence, students can increase
nervous system harmony, thereby improving emotional stability, cognitive functioning, and academic
performance. Physiological coherence can be noninvasively measured and facilitated in school settings
using heart-based, positive emotion-focused techniques in combination with heart rhythm feedback tech-
nologies. Such approaches have been associated with improvements in standardized test scores, classroom
behaviors, and social-emotional outcomes within a relatively brief time frame in studies conducted in
diverse student populations. Collectively, results suggest that the integration of heart-based tools and tech-
nologies in educational curricula may be an efficient and effective means to facilitate both the academic and
emotional development of our students.
HeartMath, Freeze-Frame, and Heart Lock-In are registered trademarks of the Institute of HeartMath. TestEdge is a trademark of the Institute of
HeartMath. Freeze-Framer is a registered trademark of Quantum Intech, Inc.
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© Copyright 2003 Institute of HeartMath
