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Scourge bloodstains on the Turin Shroud: an evidence for different
instruments used
Barbara Faccini
University of Ferrara, via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
Abstract
Scourging bloodstains on the Shroud of Turin have always been grouped together without
distinction.
Image processing and contrast enhancement of the 2000 Gian Durante photos allowed distinction of
three different types of scourge marks.
The first type is the most evident and it can actually be associated to the use of a Roman flagrum
similar to that usually mentioned by Shroud researchers. It is characterized by two or three brown-to
-reddish circlets (probably where the sheet has been more soaked by the blood) connected by a
lesser evident small bar.
The second type is more evanescent but more numerous. It has a wider shape and it appears to be
formed by parallel pale brown-to-reddish lines fading into the body image colour.
The third type is very faint and it is detectable only on legs (especially on their lower part) and
calves. It is a kind of fan-shaped scratch.
Processing and comparisons between the three types of scourge marks support the hypothesis that
these traces can be attributed to the use of different kinds of torture instruments.
Introduction
The world-wide known and controversial Shroud of Turin (TS) is an ancient linen sheet 4.4 m long
and 1.1 m wide bearing a faint double imprint of a man covered with the signs of numerous wounds,
traditionally referred to crucifixion. Some of the red traces characterising these wounds have been
analysed both in 1978 during the STURP (Shroud of TUrin Research Project) and by the Italian
forensic pathologist Baima Bollone and they resulted human blood (Heller & Adler 1980; Baima
Bollone et al., 1981, 1982; Heller, 1983), transposed on the cloth by fibrinolysis (Adler 1996,
Brillante 1983). The bloodstain characteristics are peculiar and have been coded for every one who
wants to try a laboratory reconstruction of the TS (Brillante et al., 2002).
Among all the bloody traces those which have always been ascribed to scourging are outstanding
but still somehow the less investigated. These marks can be found over the entire body surface but
they are more evident and better shaped on back area, chest and legs. To the naked eye they appear
as small round, single to double imprints; few of them seems to be tailed by a sort of scratch which
is much more evanescent, whereas in the majority of cases the round imprints are not present, and
the whole track is similar to an elongated furrow. They normally cross cut each other, as
brushstrokes on a painting, and are overlapped by other blood marks (for example the “blood belt”
and the outflows from wrists), indicating that they preceded other tortures in the temporal sequence
2
of the execution (Fig. 1). Experimental reproduction of scourge marks on a living being has not
obviously been done and it is still unknown how similar wounds (defined as “laceration-and-bruise
wounds” by Baima Bollone, 1990) can dirty a linen sheet. In addiction, although some marks have
the same colour of blood from other areas (Bedon et al., 2008), the scourge stains have not been
analyzed and whether they are blood or part of the body image is still uncertain (Fanti, 2008).
Connecting these traces to a kind of whipping is easy and immediate even for an observer which is
not a medical expert, and it has been historically “forced” by the traditional interpretation of the TS
as the burial cloth of Jesus. Moreover, the use of whips (sensu latu) as a form of torture during trial
interrogations and/or as a part of capital punishments has always been documented by historian
reports and archaeological finds in the whole ancient Mediterranean and Middle East. For this
reason, still, finding out which kind of instrument/s and among what population it/they has/have
been used in the case of the Turin Shroud man (TSM) is quite complicated. Moreover, the variety of
torture instruments created through centuries is wide and straightforward.
In the first half of 1900 Paul Vignon tried to experimentally prove that the TSM underwent a
Roman scourging. He made up a scourge, on the basis of both direct observations on the TS and
historical chronicles, consisting in a wooden handle with three leather stripes each of them ending
with a dumb-bell-shaped lead weight. This scourge was then hit onto a wooden target covered by
corrugated cardboard, to simulate skin. Marks left in the mannequin had a strict similarity with
those observed on the TS (Vignon, 1939). During the century-lasting TS research history many
others investigators confirmed Vignon’s findings; among them the most important and productive
has been doctor Pierre Barbet, who first reconstructed the lethal sequence of the TSM from trial to
crucifixion (Barbet, 1954). In the 80ies G. Ricci gave another important contribution to scourge
marks understanding. He made a systematic visual study on a 1:1 scale copy of the TS obtained
from the 1931 Enrie photographs, which had been realized with an orthochromatic film in order to
enhance all details. Starting from Barbet’s conclusions that the TSM had been scourged by two
executors, he was able to figure out that they were placed on each side of the body, armed with a
similar instrument, again identified with a Roman “flagrum”, a whip with two or three leather straps
ending in dumb-bell shaped metal spiky spheres or animal bones (Ricci 1989). His work went so
further that he tracked the way and dip of each blow (counting up to 120) and hypothesized that the
TSM had probably been tied by the hands to a low pillar during scourging.
The real limit of these efforts relies on the use of simple naked-eye observations of the TS image.
Not all scourge marks are well featured, they are faint and often overlapping and have a colour so
similar to that of the body imprint, that it is very difficult to achieve an objective discrimination
between scourging traces and what can be considered as “blank” noise.
The total amount of lashes and the specification of the full mark of the torture instrument(s), are
very difficult to identify and the various reconstructions of TSM scourging performed until now are
probably based more on personal interpretation than by the use of true, accurate data from the TS,
as also stated by Baima Bollone (1997).
3
Many other forensic experts tried more recently to improve the understanding of the TSM whipping,
but they focused mainly on its medical aspects (among them Baima Bollone 1992; Coppini 1992;
Zugibe 2005) and on its consequences in the context of the lethal sequence of execution (Larato,
1984; Foddai, 1989; Baima Bollone, 1999), instead of extracting more and more information from
the TS image.
This preliminary work is based on the study of scourge marks using a computerized processing of
the TS image, in order to enhance these particular traces and obtain a better and objective
visualization, thus allowing an accurate reconstruction of the impacting tool/s. This information will
be useful both for scourging reconstruction and for its spatial-temporal placing in history.
Scourging in Roman times
The punishment of flagellation was much in vogue in ancient times and especially among the
Romans; and it was the common chastisement which judges inflicted upon offenders, especially
upon those of a servile condition. Surrounded by an apparatus of whips, scourges, and leather straps,
they terrified offenders, and brought them to a sense of their duty.
Judges among the Romans used a great variety of instruments for inflicting the punishment of
whipping. Some consisted of a flat strap of leather, and were called Ferulæ; and to be lashed with
these Ferulæ, was considered as the mildest degree of punishment. Others were made of a number
of cords of twisted parchment, and were called Scuticæ. These Scuticæ were considered as being a
degree higher in point of severity than the Ferulæ, but were much inferior in that respect, to that
kind of scourge which was called Flagellum, and sometimes the Terrible Flagellum, which was
Fig. 1: Turin Shroud man dorsal and frontal images. Violet frames show the areas
where image processing has been performed.
4
made of thongs of ox-leather, the same as carmen used for their horses. We find in the third satire of
the first book of Horace, a clear and pretty singular account of the gradation in point of severity that
obtained between the above-mentioned instruments of whipping. In this satire, Horace lays down 11
the rules which he thinks a judge ought to follow in the discharge of his office; and he addresses
himself, somewhat ironically, to certain persons who, adopting the principles of the Stoics, affected
much severity in their opinions, and pretended that all crimes whatever being equal, ought to be
punished in the same manner. “Make such a rule of conduct to yourself (says Horace) that you may
always proportion the chastisement you inflict to the magnitude of the offence; and when the
offender only deserves to be chastised with the whip of twisted parchment, do not expose him to the
lash of the horrid leather scourge, for that you should only inflict the punishment of the flat strap on
him who deserves a more severe lashing, is what I am by no means afraid of.” The choice between
those different kinds of instruments, was, as we may conclude from the above passage, left to the
judge, who ordered what instrument should be used; and the number of blows was likewise left to
his discretion; which sometimes were as many as the executioner could give. “He (says Horace in
one of his Odes) who has been lashed by order of the Triumvirs, till the executioner was spent.”
Besides this extensive power of whipping exercised by judges among the Romans, over persons of a
servile condition over aliens, and those who were the subjects of the republic, masters were
possessed of an unbounded one with regard to their slaves, over whose life and death they had an
absolute power. Hence a great umber of instruments of flagellation, besides those above mentioned,
were successively brought into use for punishing slaves. Among those were particular kinds of
cords manufactured in Spain, as we learn again from a passage in an Ode of Horace. A number of
other instances of this practice of whipping slaves, as well as other different names of instruments
used for that purpose, may be found in the ancient Latin writers, such as Plautus, Terence, Horace,
Martial, & co. So prevalent had the above practice become, that slaves were frequently
denominated from that particular kind of flagellation which they were most commonly made to
undergo. Some were called Restiones, because they were used to be lashed with cords; others were
called Bucædæ, because they were usually lashed with thongs of ox-leather; and it is in
consequence of this custom, that a man is made to say in one of Plautus’ plays, “they shall be
Bucædæ (that is to say, scourged with leather thongs) whether they will or no, before I content to be
Restio,” or so much as beaten with cords. And Tertullian, meaning in one of his writings to express
slaves in general, uses words which simply signify “those who are used to be beaten, or to be
discoloured with blows.” But, besides all those instruments of flagellation used for punishing slaves,
which have been mentioned above, and as if the terrible flagellum had not been of itself sufficiently
so, new contrivances were used to make the latter a still more cruel weapon; and the thongs with
which that kind of scourge was made, were frequently armed with nails, or small hard bones. They
also would sometimes fasten to those thongs small leaden weights: hence scourges were sometimes
called Astragala, as Hesychius relates, from the name of those kind of weights which the ancients
used to wear hanging about their shoes. Under the tortures which those different instruments
5
inflicted, it was no wonder that slaves should die; indeed this was a frequent case; and the cruelty
grew at last to such a pitch, that a petition was made in the Council of Elvira to restrain it.
It is important to underline that only the Roman law did not have any restriction on the number of
lashes to be delivered in case of death penalty, whereas the majority of other Mediterranean
populations, like for example Egyptians and Greeks, had. Among the Jews only 39 lashes could be
delivered (Zaninotto, 2000).
Scourge mark types
Almost the whole surface of the double human image on the TS is covered by those marks which
have universally been referred to scourging (Fig. 1). They are particularly evident and numerous in
chest, back, buttock, leg and calve areas whereas they are fainter elsewhere, for example on belly
and back of knees, where the contact between the body and the sheet was absent or poor, as
demonstrated by Fanti et al. (1999) and Basso et al. (2000). In the dorsal imprint they are better
defined but somehow flattened on back, shoulders and buttocks, due to body weight. No
information is available from both right and left sides, whose imprints are lacking on the TS due to
its wrapping configuration.
Image processing of areas in the frames of Fig. 1 have been performed, in order to enhance scourge
marks. Adobe Photoshop 7.0 and different supplementary image filters were used on a high
resolution scanning of the Gian Durante 2000 photographs of the TS.
First, TSM image has been cyclically smoothed to reduce noise and enhance the contrast between
background colour and scourge marks. All body zones have been processed, but the results in areas
outside the violet frames of Fig. 1 could not be easily interpreted and have been discarded, as
scourge marks are too faint and not well differentiated from background noise. The knees in the
frontal image also did not return any pattern having reference to scourging. Each selected area then
has been filtered and colour has been tuned (filter mehdi “contrast balance”) to obtain a darker
shade and a better shape visualization for scourge marks.
=> Noise – despeckle => mehdi - contrast balance
Then, three different kind of wound has been identified after further image processing, as will be
shown below.
“Type 1”
Type 1 is the most evident scourge mark. Its shape is easily recognizable even to the naked eye and
it is universally known by TS experts (Fig. 2A). It consists of two small round marks connected by
a little trail (called “dumb-bell-shaped” by TS medical experts), attributed to the damage of Roman
flagrum ending parts. To refine its shape, an additional image processing has been done on each
single mark, in order to define its contours, using the filter “thorn edges”. This filter varies image
balance, smoothness and contrast and groups together pixels of the same colour, transforming the
input information into a black and white image. After this second step, most of Type 1 scourge
marks appear similar to example in Fig. 2B.
6
A minor amount of signs, however, gave a different output. They revealed a slightly smaller (15%)
but similar impacting object made of three aligned spheres (Fig. 3C, D). There is no need to think
about a different kind of whip in this case, because this is probably only an apparent discrepancy.
The most common mark (Fig. 2A, B) can be due to the same instrument that gave the other imprint
(Fig. 3A,B), but the trace of the third metal ball is blurred, because this left a trail rubbing against
the skin when the whip was pulled back. In this case it is probable that scourge marks are also
slightly bigger, because the heavy extremities penetrated deeper and maybe with greater strength
into the skin, giving rise to a wider wound. Also, an impacting angle less orthogonal with respect to
the skin surface could be responsible for Fig. 2 scourge marks.
Therefore, although not very common on the TS, Fig. 3 Type 1 scourge marks can better highlight
the shape of the flagrum extremities.
Fig. 2: Most common Type 1 scourge mark. A: as seen on the TS; B: after
image processing to define its contours.
B
B
Fig. 3: Rare Type 1 scourge mark. A: as seen on the TS; B: after image
processing to define its contours.
A
11 mm
A
11 mm
7
“Type 2”
Type 2 is the most diffused scourge mark, but it is too faint to be correctly perceived observing the
TS, especially at short distance and/or high magnification. It consist of large striped bands (10 - 15
mm wide) of varying length (somewhere reaching 7-8 cm, for example on shoulders and upper back
area) similar to deep scratches (Fig. 4 A, B). It can not be linked to the same whip responsible for
Type 1, and a different kind of image processing has been used to enhance this kind of mark.
Filter “medhi - contrast balance” (enhancing contrast between colours) plus filters “sharpen edges”
and “sharpen more” have been iteratively applied. The results are shown in Fig. 4C, D.
“Type 3”
Type 3 is very rare (it occurs less than 15 times) and much more faint. It is found on legs (in both
frontal and dorsal image), calves and close to the ankles. It consists of a fan composed by 3 - 4 thin
curved stripes (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4: Type 2 scourge marks. A, B as seen on the TS; C, D after image processing
to define their contours. In D red lines help visualize the shape; on the upper right
side part of another Type 2 mark is visible.
A
11 mm
B
11 mm
C
11 mm
D
11 mm
8
To enhance these marks, both kinds of image processing previously applied to Type 1 and Type 2
have been used. The resulting form is shown in Fig. 5 B, C, being somehow similar to a garden rake.
This mark is probably derived from Type 2, as will be discussed below.
Relationships between scourge marks
Type 2 mark was already noticed by some Authors, for example G. Ricci (1989), who charged them
to the graze left by flagrum straps. Nevertheless not all Type 1 marks have a “tail”, as it will be
possible to notice in detail below, nor the great majority of Type 2 marks terminate in a Type 1 sign.
The flagrum ending parts impact first and impede to the straps to come in contact with the skin,
unless they wrap around curved body surfaces, and this would happen mainly on body sides,
considering the position of the executor/s with respect to the prisoner. If Type 2 marks were due to
the flagrum leather straps they would not occur in the centre of the body; on the contrary they are
almost equally distributed over all body surface. Moreover, there are numerous evidences that Type
1 randomly overlaps Type 2, as will be shown in the following sections.
The temporal sequence Type 2 – Type 1 is recognizable from the fact that Type 2 marks in no way
disturbed Type 1. If Type 2 came after, indeed, Type 1 would appear smeared, due to deformation
of the wound by the scratches of the other whip. After image processing, on the contrary, Type 1
has always a contour that is quite sharp, and its local bleeding always covers Type 2 trace when the
two types of scourge marks cross cut each other (Fig. 6A).
In Fig. 6 a typical example of overlapping is shown, found in the right leg of the dorsal image. Type
2 scourge mark comes first, then Type 1. Following the leg contour, Type 2 has a convex shape.
Sketch of overlapping relationships is added for clarity in Fig. 6B.
Other examples can be found especially on the back in the dorsal image, where scourge marks are
numerous, as will be possible to see in Fig. 7, but also on chest and other areas of legs (see below).
It can be deduced that Type 1 and Type 2 scourge marks are not related to the same torture
instrument, but must have been left by different whips in different moments during scourging. Whip
B
C
Fig. 5: Type 3 scourge mark. A: as seen on the TS; B: after image processing used for Type 2
marks; C: after image processing used for Type 1 marks.
A
11 mm
9
leaving Type 2 marks has been used first, then whip leaving Type1, which is most probably the
already mentioned Roman “flagrum” having two or three leather straps with three aligned metal
spheres or bones at each end.
Dorsal Image: back area
In the back area Type 1 and Type 2 scourge marks are evident and crowded, and the overlapping of
these two kinds is particularly evident everywhere (Fig. 7).
Image processing gave good results on about 70% of the selected area, but in some cases the
scourge marks, especially Type 2, were too faint to obtain a neat image. The blows are almost
equally distributed on the whole surface, for both kind of whips, but Type 2 are more numerous
than Type 1. Scourge marks are better defined in the central part of the frame, where contact
between linen and skin was better, due to the weight of the corpse. On shoulders, wrapping of the
sheet around the body resulted in a bending of Type 2 marks. Marks are fewer and their definition is
worst toward the lumbar region, where there was little or no contact with the sheet because of the S
shape of the spine, maintained by rigor mortis (Basso et al., 2000). In the smaller frame of Fig. 7 the
reconstruction of resulting blows is shown.
Only blows clearly singled out are represented, as they probably are more numerous but it was
impossible to obtain a good image over the noise of the body image. For this reason an accurate
count is impossible, but in any case they certainly exceeded the only 39 lashes that would have been
allowed by a Jewish tribunal (Zaninotto, 1984, 2000).
Areas of large overlapping of the two kinds of scourge marks are indicated within yellow circles.
Fig. 6: Overlapping of Type 1 mark on Type 2 from upper legs in dorsal image, after
different kinds of image processing. In B a simple sketch of the two scourge marks is added
to help visualize the overlapping. On the right upper side of the picture, part of another Type2
scourge mark can be seen.
A
11 mm
B
10
Fig. 7: Image processing of scourge marks on back area. Reconstruction of some blows on the
smaller frame. Overlapping between Type 1 and 2 in yellow circles.
Back
11
Dorsal Image: buttock and leg areas
A similar situation is found in buttocks and back of legs areas (Fig. 8). Here, some Type 1 blows
caused remarkable bleeding that completely soaked the linen. Sheet banding effects are particularly
evident (highlighted with dotted lines in Fig. 8) and should not be confused with scourging marks.
Overlapping of Type 1 on Type 2 is shown within the yellow circles.
Legs
Buttocks
Banding
Fig. 8: Image processing of scourge marks on buttock and leg areas. Banding effects are
highlighted. Reconstruction of some blows in the smaller frames. Overlapping between Type 1
and 2 in the yellow circles.
12
Another peculiarity that has nothing to do with whip imprints are the mirror stains within violet
circlets of Fig. 8. Although their composition has not been determined yet and the possibility for
them to be blood can not be completely discarded (Fanti, 2008), it is more probable that they have
been generated by drops of unknown origin which stained the TS when it was folded.
Dorsal Image: calves
In calve area, Type 1 and Type 2 are almost equally represented. In some cases this second type left
very deep traces that can be confused with Type 1 by the naked eye (left leg, Fig. 9).
Type 3 is also present close to ankles. This mark could be due to the same instrument responsible
for Type 2, probably a bunch of thin flexible rods or rigid leather cords, which tended to separate
while wrapping around the calve, leaving a fan-shaped trace. This kind of whip was common in
ancient times, and especially among the Romans, as discussed before.
Calves
Fig. 9: Image processing of scourge marks on calve area. Reconstruction of detectable blows
in the smaller frame .Overlapping between Type 1 and 2 in the yellow circles.
13
Frontal Image: chest area
In the chest area Type 2 marks are strongly evident and caused abundant bleeding, but only few
Type 1 are recognizable (Fig. 10). Other examples of clear overlapping can be seen within yellow
circles. A probable reason for this scarcity of Type 1 scourge marks could be found in the meaning
of scourging: it had to be a torture but should not kill the victim. Impacting of the heavy flagrum
ending spheres on the chest could have caused high damage, for example to ribs, lungs, and
possibly to the heart, leading eventually to the death of the condemned during or immediately after
the scourging, as often reported by ancient Roman historians (as reported in the section below).
This have been avoided by the executors.
Chest
Fig. 10: Image processing of scourge marks on chest area. Reconstruction of detectable
blows in the smaller frame. Overlapping between Type 1 and 2 in the yellow circles.
14
Frontal Image: upper leg area
In the front leg area, Type 2 and 3 are the most diffused scourge marks, but they are fainter with
respect to other zones, except for the central part of the legs, which probably corresponds to the area
of highest sheet-skin contact (Fig. 11). Overlapping between Type 1 and Type 2 is found (yellow
circles).
Type 1 is scarce and its shape is not well defined even after image processing. It is lacking on the
right leg. Interference of water halos has been reduced by additional image manipulation with
blurring filters to gain a good scourge marks resolution.
Upper legs
Fig. 11: Image processing of scourge marks on frontal upper leg area. Reconstruction of
detectable blows in the smaller frame. Overlapping between Type 1 and 2 in yellow circles.
15
Frontal Image: lower leg area
In the frontal lower part of legs the contact with the sheet was probably lighter (Basso et al., 2000).
Type 1 marks are slightly more evident than Type 2 and both kinds show cylindrical deformation
due to partial enveloping of the linen around the calves, their shape resulting bigger and elongated.
This effect is more pronounced in the right leg (Fig. 12).
Type 1 and Type 2 overlapping is frequent and it is shown within yellow circles.
Frontal Image: arm area
Type 1 scourge marks are present also in the forearms (Fig. 13). This evidence however can not tell
anything about the position of the TSM during scourging, because the arms could be hit both if he
was bound to a low pillar and if his hands were tied up, or around, to a higher column. It can be
only excluded that the hands were tied behind his back, otherwise no whip marks would have been
found. The presence of scourge wounds could have affected the shape of the blood flows from the
wrist wounds, as can be thought looking at the shape of the rivulet within the green circle of Fig. 13.
Lower legs
Fig. 12: Image processing of scourge marks on frontal lower leg area. Reconstruction of
detectable blows in the smaller frame. Overlapping between Type 1 and 2 in yellow circles.
16
Head area
A blood trace similar to Type 2 mark is found also in the head area (Fig. 14). The close similarity
could indicate that a scourge blow hit the head, but it is not certain. The presence of hair, indeed,
should have given a different imprint with respect to what it is seen where the sheet touched the
naked skin, unless the hypothetical blow have ripped out part of the scalp.
Right arm
Fig. 13: Image processing of scourge marks on the right arm. Reconstruction of detectable
blows in the smaller frame.
Fig. 14: Head area in the dorsal image.
A bloodstain similar to Type2 can be appreciated
(green circle).
17
A comparison with the description of Roman flogging instruments has been done to find if the
scourge marks seen on the TS can fit them or not, in particular for whip responsible for Type 2.
Scourges and torture sequence
Image processing confirms that the TSM underwent scourging with a “flagrum”, of the kind armed
with the so-called “astragala” (Flagrum taxillatum). These particular extremities were probably
aligned triplets of small rough bones or spiky metal spheres, capable to hook up and rip the skin
when pulled back, causing local and sometimes abundant bleeding. The resulting traces are Type 1
scourge marks. Direction and dipping are consistent with the presence of two executors, one at each
side of the condemned, as already stated by Ricci (1989) and others (for an exhaustive review see
Baima Bollone, 1990 and Fanti, 2008). The total number of flagrum lashes can not be determined, it
would be certainly underestimated as we miss information from both sides of the body, and from
those areas (for example the belly) that did not return a good image because the contact between
sheet and skin was scarce or absent, or bleeding was not so intense to stain the linen. Type 1 marks
enhanced in this study, however, are about 115, meaning 40 to 60 blows depending on the number
of leather straps (3 or 2, respectively). Flagra used in TSM scourging should not end with more than
3 cords, because multiple marks are not found (as it would be expected in the case of the “cat-of-
nine-tails” or similar whips). The entire body surface registers Type 1 scourge marks, but they are
less frequent in the chest area, presumably avoided not to cause the prisoner’s death. Head has also
been saved up but for one single blow on the nose, found by Tamburelli in 1989.
A possible representation of the flagrum used for the TSM is given in Fig. 15.
Before being beaten with flagrums, the TSM had been previously whipped with a different
instrument. From TS data this should be similar to a bundle of flexible rods, or hard thin leather
straps capable at a certain extent to wrap around body surface, leaving the more evanescent but
much more numerous Type 2 imprints. This scourge could be identified with the “Bucædæ” or the
“Spanish cords” (similar to the flogger of Fig. 16A), or more probably with another instrument very
similar to lictor’s bundles (“fasces lictoriae” or “virgae”: small rods made of white flexible birch
wood) that were also used as symbols of justice and usually carried by the lictors during celebratory
processions (Fig. 16B). This whip is probably responsible also for Type 3 marks, its fan-shaped
pattern due to little separation of the rods (or cords) while they were slightly wrapping around legs
and calves. Again, blow patterns are consistent with a couple of executors. The number of Type 2
lashes evidenced in this study (again underestimated for the same reasons mentioned above) is
about 170, meaning a total of 220+10 visible marks for the processed areas.
In the intention of the judge probably this scourging should take the prisoner to “one step from
death”, as a form of exemplar punishment, often delivered in Roman trials in both republican and
imperial times.
18
Fig. 15: “Flagrum” whip responsible for Type1 scourge
marks.
Fig. 16: Possibile kind of whips responsible for Type 2 scourge marks. A: “Bucadae”-like
flogger; B: White wood “virgae”.
Images of the” fasces lictoriae” are reported for comparison on the left.
A
B
19
Open conclusions
Basic computerized processing of the TS image evidenced three different kinds of marks that can be
connected to scourging:
- Type 1 (about 35 % of scourge marks) consists of two or three round dots connected by small bars.
- Type 2 (about 65 % of scourge marks) is more numerous and consists of large striped bands of
varying length, similar to scratches. They are randomly overlapped by Type 1 marks.
- Type 3 (less than 1 % of scourge marks) is rarer and fainter and it is a fan shaped scratch. It is
present only on legs and calves, especially near the ankles.
The first type corresponds to the imprint of the well-known Roman “Flagrum taxillatum”. The last
two mark types most probably both originate from a different whip, a sort of bundle of flexible
wood rods (“virgae”) or thin rigid leather cords (“Bucadae” or “Spanish cords”).
Even if this is a preliminary study and further investigation is needed, the obtained data speak in
favour of the use of at least two kinds of whip. The TSM underwent scourging with different torture
instruments, probably by one or two couples of executors.
REFERENCES
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Symposium Series No. 625, Archaeological Chemistry, Chapter 17, 223-228.
- Baima Bollone P. L., Jorio M., Massaro A. L. (1981). La dimostrazione della presenza di sangue
umano sulla Sindone. Sindon, Quad. No. 30, 5-8.
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