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Motivation for Learning English as a Foreign Language in Japanese Elementary Schools
Abstract
This study investigated how 345 Japanese elementary school pupils’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning English changed with age (174 third– and 171 sixth–graders). Factor analysis identified five underlying factors: interest in foreign countries, intrinsic motivation, caregivers’ encouragement, instrumental motivation, and anxiety. The results of an ANOVA showed significant differences in intrinsic motivation, interest in foreign counties, and instrumental motivation between the third and sixth graders. The third graders' mean scores were higher than those of the sixth graders. This study revealed a rather steady developmental decline in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning English, which might be attributed to general development trends in contemporary Japanese elementary school pupils. Within a consensus that there is considerable room for improvement in primary–school English education in Japan, results of the present study suggest that the area of motivation can shed light on how the teaching methods for elementary school students in the higher grades can be improved. 本研究は、日本の小学生英語学習者の英語学習に対する内発的・外発的動機が年齢によりどのように変化していくかを調べたものである。調査参加者は、3年生174名、6年生171名、合計345名である。質問紙で得たデータを因子分析した結果、外国に対する興味、内発的動機、道具的動機、親の励まし、不安の５つの因子が抽出された。さらに分散分析の結果、外国に対する興味、内発的動機、道具的動機に有意差がみられ、どれも３年生の平均値が６年生の平均値よりも高かった。ｋの結果から、学年があがるほど英語学習に対する内発的動機と外発的動機が低下していることがわかる。これは今の小学生の一般的な発達的傾向に原因があるという推測も成り立つが、特に、本論文では日本の初等英語教育においても改善すべき点があるとの立場から、高学年の指導法の改善の必要性を示唆した。
... Children responded to all survey items using a 4-point Likert-type scale (1: more negative attitude to 4: more positive attitude, depending on the question items). The decision to use the 4-point Likert scale was based on previous research, in which the scale was found to be appropriate for elementary school students (Carreira, 2006). ...
... We followed the previous empirical research for young learners (8-12 years of age) in Japan. Five items were prepared to assess children's positive attitude toward English learning and English classes at school based on the motivation scales in Carreira (2006), Kunimoto (2006), and Nishida and Yashima (2009), mostly focusing on intrinsic motivation in SDT. Carreira's (2006) scale to assess the degree of willingness to learn about foreign countries or a positive attitude toward going abroad in the future. ...
... Five items were prepared to assess children's positive attitude toward English learning and English classes at school based on the motivation scales in Carreira (2006), Kunimoto (2006), and Nishida and Yashima (2009), mostly focusing on intrinsic motivation in SDT. Carreira's (2006) scale to assess the degree of willingness to learn about foreign countries or a positive attitude toward going abroad in the future. ...
In this quantitative study, we investigated the relationships between parenting and young learners' English learning-specifically parents' sociocultural influence on elementary school children's motivation-within the framework of self-determination theory (SDT). We surveyed 212 dyads of Japanese parents and their children (8-12 years old) and used structural equation modeling to elucidate the causal relationship between parents' attitudes and children's motivation for their second language (L2) learning, which is English as a foreign language learning context in this study. We found that parental involvement in children's English education positively impacted children's perceived competence in L2 learning and their interest in other countries, improving their L2 learning motivation. This demonstrates that parental involvement is a significant predictor of young learners' L2 motivation in Japan. We also identified a discrepancy between children's and parents' perceptions. Parents believe their involvement in children's L2 learning is autonomy-supportive behavior, while children do not always perceive this. We conclude that parental involvement in children's home L2 learning supports children's learning motivation. Our final model expands the SDT framework for language learning and covers both parenting and language learning research realms, improving our understanding of how parental attitudes and behavior influence children's L2 learning.
... Third, past studies have found that demographic features such as gender and age, were closely associated with motivation and engagement (e.g., Carreira, 2006;King, 2016a;King & McInerney, 2014;Martin, 2009). However, research has seldom examined how demographic features are related to the configuration of EFL learners' motivation and engagement (Yu et al., 2019). ...
... In terms of gender, researchers have found that females had higher autonomous motivation and engagement (e.g., Carreira, 2011;Iwaniec, 2019;King, 2016b;Oga-Baldwin & Fryer, 2020b;Voyer & Voyer, 2014). Age also has a significant impact on learners' motivation and engagement, and several studies have found that learners' motivation and engagement decline with age (e.g., Carreira, 2006;Ghenghesh, 2010;MacIntyre et al., 2003;Van de Gaer et al., 2009). ...
... Age also predicted the profile membership. Specifically, younger students tend to be "Motivated and Engaged" EFL learners, which partially aligns with studies that claimed that language learners' motivation and engagement decline with age (e.g., Carreira, 2006;Ghenghesh, 2010;Van de Gaer et al., 2009). Finally, years of learning English can also yield significant predictions for the profile group membership, extending the previous literature. ...
Motivation and engagement have long been recognized as determinants of foreign language learning. However, prior studies have mainly used variable-centered approaches to explore their relationships with key learning-related outcomes. Individual differences in foreign language learners' motivation and engagement and how they are associated with other language learning factors remain underexplored. Therefore, we employed a person-centered approach (i.e., latent profile analysis) to identify profiles of motivation and engagement in foreign language learning among 532 Chinese university students. Then, analyses of variance were adopted to explore the differences in emotional factors and academic performance across profiles. Finally, multinomial logistic regression analysis was utilized to investigate how demographic features related to profile membership. Four profiles were identified to portray Chinese university students' motivation and engagement in foreign language learning. They were labeled as “Demotivated and Disengaged”, “Motivated and Engaged”, “Demotivated but Engaged”, and “Moderately Motivated and Engaged” English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Results also indicated that these four profiles showed significantly different degrees of enjoyment, anxiety, and academic performance. “Motivated and Engaged” learners demonstrated the most adaptive outcomes, in contrast to “Demotivated and Disengaged” EFL learners. College major did not predict profile membership, but age, gender, and years of learning English did. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... Investigating L2 motivation among Japanese primary pupils is relatively popular [3,[13][14][15][16][17][18]. However, questioning their L2 instrumentality was intentionally eliminated in at least one study examining L2 motivation, because this variable was considered inappropriate for them [15]. ...
... As such, this study focuses on the L2 motivational variable instrumentality. It complements the findings of previous L2 motivational studies which are mainly associated with young L2 learners, in both domestic and overseas contexts [3,[10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... In keeping with this, it seems that their L2 instrumentality, at the administrative level, has long been relegated to second position in terms of obtaining a full picture of their L2 motivation. This is because, as mentioned previously, when considering appropriate EFL pedagogical approaches much attention is currently being paid to the intrinsic aspects of students motivation to learn EFL [3,13,14]. ...
The motivation of Japanese primary pupils to learn English as a foreign language (EFL) was examined in a pilot study of Japanese sixth form students (aged 11-12 years). The main aim is to verify the hypothesis that Japanese primary pupils learn EFL under a clear understanding of second language (L2) instrumentality, and examine whether the latest conceptual framework of L2 instrumentality can be applied to their EFL learning. The pupils completed a questionnaire that included 39 question items about different L2 motivational variables: integrativeness, and prevention- and promotion- driven instrumentality. The results were obtained based on factor analyses to examine how related L2 motivational variables are identified. Findings indicate that a clear distinction is drawn between integrativeness and instrumentality in learning EFL and that an explicit notion of L2 instrumentality is held among Japanese primary EFL pupils, based on the conceptual frameworks of L2 motivation. In particular, their L2 instrumentality substantiates that prevention-driven and promotion-driven instrumentality are distinct constructs within the conceptual framework of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) : significantly, these two internal constructs were identified as distinctive types by the participating pupils.
... Intrinsic motivation is "motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake" while extrinsic motivation is "motivation to engage in an activity as a means to and end" (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Noels, Pelletier, Clément, and Vallerand (2000) has developed a systematic model to introduce the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation into SLA, however there is not any satisfactory number of research about those two kinds of motivation in the case of foreign language learning including in English for foreign language (EFL) (Carreira, 2006). ...
... A completely different result is founded by Carreira (2006) in which there is a decrease the motivation and attitude developmental factors of the EFL learners. The decline occurs in all of the factors which are interest in foreign countries, intrinsic motivation, caregivers' encouragement, instrumental motivation, and anxiety. ...
... Motivation and Attitudes toward Learning English Scale for Children (MALESC) was used to obtain the data. MALESC is a questionnaire designed by Carreira (2006) to assess the motivation and attitude of the children in learning English, especially in SLA context. The questionnaire consists of 19 items and categorized into five factors. ...
... Applying ideas from SDT in a series of cross-sectional studies in Japanese elementary schools, Carreira (2006; found a clear pattern of decreasing motivation to learn English as a foreign language across school years, subjects, and genders. Students' motivation to learn in schools decreased in higher grades, both in terms of the desire to learn English (Carreira, 2006) and the desire to learn other subjects (Carreira, 2011). ...
... Applying ideas from SDT in a series of cross-sectional studies in Japanese elementary schools, Carreira (2006; found a clear pattern of decreasing motivation to learn English as a foreign language across school years, subjects, and genders. Students' motivation to learn in schools decreased in higher grades, both in terms of the desire to learn English (Carreira, 2006) and the desire to learn other subjects (Carreira, 2011). Male students also showed lower levels of adaptive motivation compared to females. ...
... showing negative correlations between more and less autonomous motives. Unlike in previous cross-sectional studies (Carreira, 2006;, students in this sample did not show decreases in the quality of their motivation; intrinsic motivation remained Oga--Baldwin, Contemporary Educational Psychology doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017 28 relatively stable. ...
Promoting intrinsic motivation is often a central concern in teaching foreign languages to elementary school children. Self-determination theory posits that intrinsic motivation develops through the interaction of the person and the environment. The present study investigated how elementary school students’ motivation develops over the course of a school year in Japanese public schools. Five-hundred and fifteen Japanese elementary school children were surveyed over the course of one school year. Self-reported motivation, perceptions of teacher support, need satisfaction, and engagement were measured at different times. External raters observed students’ engagement, while classroom teachers assessed the quality of students’ motivation and learning. Structural equation modeling results indicated a positive, dynamic relationship between motivation, perceptions of the learning environment, and engagement. External raters’ assessments showed significant positive correlations with students’ self-reported engagement. Findings indicate how the instruction offered in these Japanese elementary schools supported students’ foreign language learning motivation.
... Previous studies have reported that individual differences such as age, gender, and past experiences significantly affect L2 learning attitudes. For instance, Carreira (2006) found that 3rd graders in Japanese schools had a higher intrinsic motivation to learn English than 6th graders. A similar pattern was also observed in other academic subjects, suggesting an age-related influence on this decrease in motivation. ...
... Questions that were irrelevant to Japanese elementary school students (e.g., I can imagine myself writing English e-mails fluently) were excluded in the current study questionnaire. External influence questions were developed based on those used in Hayashibara's (2014) study and Carreira's (2006) study. Additional items (e.g., I play English games on my iPad/smartphone) were added to Hayashibara's (2014) study's existing questionnaire items to adapt to known English-related activities of the current new generation of children. ...
Introduction
The ideal second/foreign language (L2) self, a concept in second-language acquisition theory, is a learner’s future vision about their language ability. Research on the ideal L2 self is important for finding ways to improve motivation for learning a new language, foreign language teaching strategies, and personalization of instruction for individuals with different backgrounds and aspirations. The present study aimed to better understand the factors that might influence the ideal L2 self among Japanese elementary school students. While there have been numerous studies about the ideal L2 self in English language learning, few have focused on elementary school students’ motivation to learn English.
Methods
Data were collected from 225 4th- and 6th-grade elementary school students in Japan. The data were analyzed by performing t-tests and a hierarchical linear regression to understand the relationships between the pertinent variables and the ideal L2 self.
Results
The analysis results revealed three characteristics of the relationship between elementary school students’ English language skills and their ideal L2 selves. First, the results of the t-test suggested that international travel and English cram school experiences were differentiating factors for the ideal L2 self, suggesting that the groups of participants with and without those factors (experiences) had significantly different ideal L2 selves. Second, the experience of living abroad was not a significant differentiating factor for the ideal L2 self. Third, the results of the regression analysis suggested that school, home, and foreign media influences are significant contributors to the formation of the ideal L2 self. These factors may therefore subsume international travel and English cram school experiences.
Discussion
By understanding the factors that contribute to the ideal L2 self, educators and policymakers can strive to establish a more effective environment to improve students’ motivation to learn English.
... The investigation of learning motivation mainly takes place in formal education; attention is seldom placed on the field of adult education [25][26][27][28][29]. Recently, adult education has drawn more and more social attention, for the reason that mature learners' return to education is closely connected to their job, family, environment, and society. ...
... The responses of non-English majors indicate that they learn English mainly for higher salaries or for promotions, without any particular learning interest. In addition, Carreira [26] highlighted the comparatively stronger influence of instrumental motivation among adults than among younger children. The reason for this is that mature learners are more purposeful; they learn for practical rather than academic value. ...
This study examined the motivation of Chinese mature students toward learning English. The participants in the study were ten Chinese mature learners, of whom four were English majors and six were non-English majors. Each underwent a semi-structured interview. Their responses were then coded and analyzed based on Matsuzaka-Carreira’s motivation framework. Furthermore, the Keyword Extraction and Link Terms techniques of PolyAnalystTM were used for further analysis. The results showed that English majors tended to be goal-oriented, and non-English majors were more likely to be means-oriented. English majors were identified as having additional integrative motivation. The factors influencing the motivation of English majors were more diverse than those influencing their non-English major counterparts. The obvious distinction between the two groups was their attitude towards the target language and culture. These findings suggest that instruction for adults should be aligned with mature learners’ practical needs and individual characteristics.
... In addition, this plan was to make English a formal graded subject for elementary school students in Grade 5 and 6 (age 11 to 12 years old) nationwide and ensure standardised assessments across the board. Prior to the 2019 plan, English was taught in classrooms as a foreign subject but was not formally graded for Grade 5 and 6 students (Carreira, 2006). ...
... It further emphasises the importance of non-verbal communication features in the language, often overlooked by students learning English, let alone speaking. It is an area that has received significant attention, particularly in scholarly work discussing second language learners and the importance of non-verbal communication (Carreira, 2006;Richards & Schmidt, 2010;Van Lier, 2004). Therefore, despite the COVID-19 guidelines, teachers could still conduct these speaking tests even with the mask hindering the view of the organ we use to communicate. ...
Amid a global pandemic, while schools in many parts of the world were closed to adhere to quarantine orders, schools in Japan resumed face-to-face classes after only a month of closure with strict adherence to COVID-19 guidelines and standard operating procedures (SOP). This study examined how speaking assessments were administered face-to-face for Grade 5 and 6 elementary school students prior to and after introducing the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and amid a global pandemic between April to October 2020. The paper also reports the challenges and strategies employed in carrying out the speaking assessments following the CEFR while adhering to the SOP. The study employed a qualitative research method that utilised semi-structured interviews to elicit information from four teachers who taught in eight schools within Niigata City, Japan. Findings suggest that prior to the implementation of CEFR, not all teachers carried out speaking assessments. However, the implementation of CEFR emphasised the need to teach speaking and carry out speaking assessments. The CEFR also served as guidance for the teachers in preparing the assessment scoring rubrics. The results also showed that the speaking assessments were implemented individually instead of in groups before the pandemic and the presence of the masks, which increased the student's anxiety and affected their performance. However, the teachers employed various strategies to overcome the challenges by modifying the assessment tasks and utilising web conferencing technology.
... In other words, a learner's positive attitude and sufficient interest can be the most critical prerequisites for successful foreign language learning (Gardner et al., 1997). According to some research findings (Brumen, 2011;Carreira, 2006;Nikolov, 1999), young learners tend to be more intrinsically motivated than older learners to learn a foreign language. Therefore, it is worth investigating further the relationship between the degrees of young children's intrinsic learning motivation and their foreign language acquisition. ...
... In particular, Gardner and Lambert (1972) argued that a language learner's motivation could be a more critical factor than their aptitude. The finding of the current study might be significant in that it revealed the relationship between learners' intrinsic learning motivation and their foreign language (i.e., English) acquisition, particularly among young children who are more intrinsically motivated than older learners (Brumen, 2011;Carreira, 2006;Nikolov, 1999). ...
Approaches that blend brick-and-mortar modes with face-to-face methods in language teaching are recently reshaping the educational landscape across various contexts. Anchored on the tenets of TPACK Framework (Koehler & Mishra, 2009) and Blended Learning Framework (Horn & Staker, 2014), this study explored the viability of using e-mail in facilitating topical discussions via e-mail exchanges among six ESL writing classes of 198 students in a private university in Manila, the Philippines during the first semester of the academic year 2014-2015. Students were first required to have their individual e-mail accounts; then, they were assigned with e-mail exchange partners whom they communicated with on a weekly basis for a total of five weeks. E-mail thread discussion topics ranged from personal to societal issues covering local, national and global concerns. Data from student reflections, interviews, survey and focus group discussions revealed that despite some motivational and technology-related limitations, using e-mail in the classroom may help develop students’ interest and confidence in writing, enhance their technological and social skills, develop learners’ autonomy, and improve students’ attitudes towards English language learning. Pedagogical insights and implications are provided for ESL (English as a second language) and EFL (English as a foreign language) teachers and researchers in the light of these findings.
... Checklist and Unit Perception Questionnaire: The Motivation and Attitudes toward Learning English Scale for Children (MALESC) (Carreira, 2006) was adapted to measure two of five variables corresponding to intrinsic motivation and anxiety. ...
The acquisition of speaking skills in a foreign language is considered a challenge, especially for young learners. Research suggests that Affective Factors (AF), such as anxiety and motivation, may contribute to the blockade of the learning process and can hinder the participation, attention, and interest of students in class. Therefore, search for better teaching materials, tools, and methodologies that enhance students’ motivation to learn is constant. As much of this line of research is developed outside of Latin America and focuses on teenagers or older, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of audio-visual materials on students’, ages 8-9, speaking skills and their engagement with the lessons in an Ecuadorian primary public school. To do so, this study used a mixed method approach to collect qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative data was collected through a pre-test and pos-test and a motivational test questionnaire, and qualitative data was collected through the student’s feedback on the use of the proposed material via a focus group. The results show that audio-visual materials have a greater influence on grammar and vocabulary. In addition, evidenced low levels of anxiety and high intrinsic motivation had a positive influence on the acquisition of speaking skills.
... Schools lack quality teaching materials and qualified teachers (Ng, 2016). Unsurprisingly, Japanese children's motivation to learn English declines in higher elementary grades (Carreira, 2006). They find it hard to transition from meaning-focused English lessons in elementary school to cognitively demanding form-focused lessons in secondary school; 45% of middle school students do not understand their English lessons (Yoshida, 2012). ...
The growing emphasis on English in the education system in Japan has made English lessons one of the most popular extra-curricular activities for children. This qualitative study looks at how Japanese parents respond to language-in-education policy by examining their attitudes toward English and beliefs about extra-curricular English learning. Fifteen parents provided current and retrospective accounts of their children's extra-curricular English learning in semi-structured individual interviews. Interview transcripts were coded and analyzed based on the constructive grounded theory approach. The results showed that most parents had a positive attitude towards English, but it was their language beliefs that determined their choices regarding extra-curricular English learning. The belief that "'earlier is better'" motivated some parents to send their children for lessons at age five or younger. In contrast, parents who believed in the importance of child agency in learning enrolled their children for lessons at older ages or not at all. Extra-curricular lessons did not necessarily benefit the learning of English later in school. Hiatuses and discontinuity in learning, limited instruction time, instruction type, a lack of parental involvement, and children's lack of interest or readiness affected the effectiveness of extra-curricular English learning. These findings show how Japanese parents' language beliefs drive their children's extra-curricular English learning, but such investments may not necessarily produce the results they desire.
... Mean scores of third graders were greater than those of sixth graders. This research demonstrated fairly consistent developmental drop in desire for English learning, which may be related to modern Japanese elementary school students' broader developmental tendencies (Carreira, 2006). ...
One of the things that might lower students' desire for learning a language is demotivating situations. This study looked into what discourages open educational college EFL students from studying languages. It also examined the pedagogical consequences and suggestions for fostering incentives of EFL learners from the viewpoints of teachers. The research included 150 EFL learners and English language instructors from open educational colleges in Iraq. Two tools of research, a survey and semi-organized interviews with instructors and learners, are employed to gather the study's data. The findings showed that the most often-cited demotivating issues for Iraqi open educational college EFL students and English language teachers were those connected to subjects and context. The findings also indicated that the most demotivating elements for EFL students were a lack of engaging subject matter, a lack of English-practice opportunities, and an emphasis on grammar. Teachers have also made a number of suggestions for enhancing students' motivation, that's include utilizing technology, extrinsic reward and encouragement, as well as competitive and collaborative work.
... Most studies in this field analysed attitudes towards a particular language or languages, and the majority of these dealt with English as a FL (Carreira, 2006;Masgoret et al., 2001;Nagy, 2009;Nikolov, 1999Nikolov, , 2009Takada, 2003). A few studies focused on comparing attitudes to specific languages. ...
The main aim of the article is to identify Slovenian children’s attitudes towards foreign languages (FL), their motivation for learning languages, the influence of different significant others (teachers, parents, peers) on their language attitudes, and the ways they perceive languages which they are exposed to. The focus is on FLs in general rather than on a particular FL. The study is linked to the project ‘Languages Matter’ whose principal goal is to determine which factors support the creation of a supportive learning environment for the development of plurilingualism in the Slovenian school context. The article presents the results of a survey conducted in different primary schools in Slovenia on a population of 472 pupils aged 8/9 (n = 472). The survey questionnaire consists of two parts. The first part uses the LANGattMini scale (Bratož et al., 2019) to investigate the following factors: FL learning motivation, FL attitudes, and importance of significant others. The second part uses a qualitative paradigm and aims to gain an insight into the respondents’ perceptions of FLs. The results of the study indicate that children‘s attitudes towards FLs are generally positive but at the same time build a complex picture of interdependence between attitudes, motivation, and significant others.
... The research instruments that researchers used to obtain data in this research were in the form of close-ended questions. The number of questions in the Google Form is six questionnaires with four answer choices (Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree) that adopted from several journals, such as Carreira (2004), Husna & Murtini (2019), Subakthiasih & Putri (2020) and Takagi (2003). The object of this research is students' perception. ...
Motivation is something that encourages someone's willingness to do something to achieve what they want. In this study, the motivation in question is motivation in the field of language learning, especially learning English. This study aims to discuss what kinds of instrumental motivation are encouraging students in learning English. In conducting this study, the researcher used Descriptive Qualitative Method. The data collecting technique used in this study was to conduct a survey using Google Form 'Questions (questionnaire) with the number of questions in the Google Form are six questionnaires with four answer choices (Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree). The subjects of the research are coming from the students of English Education major in Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia, especially students from PI18A class. The object of this research is students' perceptions about what kind of instrumental motivations that motivate them and how high the motivation they have when learning English. The results of the study indicate that the majority of participants have high instrumental motivation in learning English.
... Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) developed by Gardner (2004), which has been validated and employed in various studies across contexts and cultures (e.g., Carreira 2006;Cocca and Cocca 2019;Tuyan and Serindag 2019;Ushida 2005;Yu and Watkins 2008). Forty statements regarding the five main areas of attitudes toward general education English courses (curriculum, instruction, assessment, materials, and teachers) were developed specific to the context as in the example of Martínez, Pérez, and Fernández (2013). ...
This mixed-methods study aims to investigate Thai EFL undergraduate students’ attitudes toward general education English courses (i.e., curriculum, instruction, assessment, materials, and teachers), English language learning motivation, and the effects of attitudes on English language learning motivation. The participants were 199 non-majored students enrolling in compulsory English courses at a public Thai university. All were required to complete Likert-scale questionnaires, followed by focus group interviews with ten participants. Descriptive statistics showed that participants had highly positive attitudes toward general education English courses (M = 4.67, S.D. = .75) and high English language learning motivation (M = 4.41, S.D. = .59). This is in line with the qualitative data analysis that emphasized participants’ positive attitudes toward teachers and instruction. Teachers had a significant role in enhancing integrative motivation, apart from external factors such as university requirement or job opportunities. Multiple regression can be reported as F(5, 193) = 28.94, p = .000, with an R2 of .428. This means that five attitude subscales were able to explain 42.8 percent of the variability of English language learning motivation. Hence, it is possible to conclude that attitudes toward general education English courses have a significant moderate impact on English language learning motivation of Thai EFL undergraduate students.
... Based on the findings from the responses of the participants and their parents, three implications relating to potential use of the intercultural experiences of students in elementary school English education are discussed. (Cummins, 1982(Cummins, /2001箕浦, 2006；中島, 2016 (Carreira, 2006a(Carreira, ,2006bCarreira, 2011;林原, 2013;Nishida, 2015) In classes such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) wherein the pedagogical focus is on knowledge and competence required in academic settings such as academic presentation, what kind of feedback should teachers give to students about their performance to socialize them into becoming academics? Studies investigating students' perceptions about the teacher's post-performance feedback support the necessity of the dialogical process for students to understand the teacher's feedback and to utilize it for their next performance. ...
King and Harumi and the 15 authors contributing to this 184-page book
(available in print and various e-book formats) suggest that research interest and insights into the existence of silence in East Asian EFL classrooms has increased this past decade. The editors also caution that there is much work to be done to further explore the meaning and frequency of silence in language learning (LL) environments.
... Based on the findings from the responses of the participants and their parents, three implications relating to potential use of the intercultural experiences of students in elementary school English education are discussed. (Cummins, 1982(Cummins, /2001箕浦, 2006；中島, 2016 (Carreira, 2006a(Carreira, ,2006bCarreira, 2011;林原, 2013;Nishida, 2015) In classes such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) wherein the pedagogical focus is on knowledge and competence required in academic settings such as academic presentation, what kind of feedback should teachers give to students about their performance to socialize them into becoming academics? Studies investigating students' perceptions about the teacher's post-performance feedback support the necessity of the dialogical process for students to understand the teacher's feedback and to utilize it for their next performance. ...
Applied linguistics (AL) research and practice are critical at their core. To date, AL scholars have surveyed a broad range of language-related issues and phenomena including translation and interpretation, education and literacy, language pedagogy and language teacher education, second language acquisition, language pragmatics, language ideologies and identities, and language policy and planning. This short list reveals both the profoundly humanistic nature of AL as a branch of the social science and the need for AL scholars of all strands to conceptualize their work in social and cultural terms. In this paper, I work from the premise that criticality must be of central importance to our work. From this basis, I then discuss some of the core principles of critical AL research and attempt to raise awareness among JALT Journal contributors and readers of the need to appreciate and engage with the profoundly social and cultural nature of the work we do. 応用言語学研究とその実践は、本質的に批判的なものである。これまで、応用言語学研究者は、翻訳と通訳、教育とリテラシー、言語教育と言語教師教育、第二言語習得、語用論、言語イデオロギーとアイデンティティ、言語政策と計画を含む言語関連の幅広い問題と現象を調査してきた。ここに列挙した項目から明らかになることは、社会科学の一分野としての応用言語学の極めて人間的な性質と全ての分野の応用言語学研究を社会的・文化的に概念化する必要性である。この論文では、私は我々の仕事および応用言語学にとって批判的な考え方（criticality）が最も重要であるという大きな前提から論を進める。その上で、私は、批判的応用言語学研究の中核的な原則を論じ、我々が従事する仕事が社会や文化と深く関わっていることを理解して取り組む必要性について、JALTジャーナル寄稿者と読者のみなさんの意識を高めることを試みる。
... Indeed, Sawyer (2007), states that Japanese learners of English's motivational levels fluctuate in important ways over the course of their compulsory English language learning. Starting in elementary school, Carreira (2006) observed a steady decline from grade 3 to grade 6 of both intrinsic motivationstudents motivated by an internal drive to achieve their goals, and also extrinsic motivationstudents motivated by external sources. Students then begin their junior high school English course enthusiastically only to lose motivation in the first half of the year before it stabilises (Koizumi & Matsuo, 1993). ...
Students in Japan have little opportunity to communicate with foreigners. They spend most of their time studying to pass tests. Many teachers and researchers alike, worry about the troubling phenomenon of demotivation, among JHS English learners. This research investigated a group of 25 grade 8 students at a private junior high school in Hiroshima, Japan. It was intended to ascertain whether offering students an opportunity to communicate with native English speakers at a private school in Australia would improve motivation to learn English. The research identified, by using questionnaires, whether students were intrinsically or extrinsically motivated and to what extent they possessed integrative or instrumental orientations. It also identified the causality of any demotives present. A short one month intervention was then carried out to assess the effects of using asynchronous computer mediated communication (ACMC) to improve students’ motivation to study English. Students in Japan were matched with students in Australia in a private blog accessible to the pair of students as well as teachers from both schools. Students were requested to write a blog on a chosen topic in a single 50 minute period in the IT room. Students were then able to communicate freely until the following week’s lesson in the IT room when they would be asked to write about the next topic. This intervention lasted 4 weeks.
The research found that the students have a multifaceted motivational makeup. The students possess higher levels of intrinsic motivation and the students who self-assessed that they were ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ motivated possess high levels of intrinsic motivation. The students showed little signs of demotivation although they expressed a lack of opportunity to communicate as one such source. Students largely possess an instrumental orientation with no sign of what Gardner (1985) coined an integrated orientation - longing to integrate with an L2 community, whether through travel, migration or merely watching movies or listening to music in the L2. In fact, students highlighted a stark preference to integrate with Western nationalities in particular.
Overall, student motivation levels increased after the intervention in 13 of the 25 students. A lack of enthusiasm from the partner school students in Australia is thought to have caused this lack of increase in some students.
... Few studies have been done on factors decreasing motivation in language learning. For example, Carrerira (2006) related the decrease in elementary school students' motivation to age, pointing out that their motivational decrease may not be happening only in English, but also in general learning. Similar studies (e.g., Crookes & Schmidt, 1991) have shown that students' intrinsic motivation decrease with age. ...
Abstract Motivation, as the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn a language, has been considered as the key variable in language learning (Gardner, 1985, Dörnyei, 2002) and motivating factors have been defined and studied as influential factors in the process of language learning. In line with other studies, the aim of this study was to investigate the main motivating factors among Iranian EFL at intermediate learners’ speaking ability. To this end, a sample of 100 Iranian EFL learners at two private language institutes studying English was selected. To gather the required data, the researchers used a PET (Quintana, 2003) and a motivation questionnaire in English. Repeated Measure ANOVA indicated eight motivating factors (i.e., determination, anxiety, extrinsic motivation, sociability, attitudes to culture, intrinsic motivation, beliefs about failure, andenjoyment)among which‘determination’was mentioned as the most motivating factor. The hope is that the findings help language teachers encourage motivating factors and among the learners.
... The focus is on the fact that this proposal has steadily been manifested as a core concept of Courses of Study through decades until the present 2017 version (MEXT, 2019a). Accordingly, 'zest for life', the core concept of the overall educational quality, was interpreted in dealing with Primary EFL in a way that it would emphasise more intrinsic aspects of learning EFL among the Japanese primary EFL pupils (Carreira, 2006(Carreira, , 2012Oga-Baldwin et al., 2017). This view indicates that, at the initial stage of their learning EFL, learners are expected to 'like' English to engage themselves with learning it. ...
This paper will present an overview of the implementation of primary EFL at the national level within an educational implication which attempts to indicate a possible direction in making more progress with pedagogical approaches to deal with the Japanese primary EFL pupils concerning their L2 motivational issues. Accordingly, the placement of primary EFL in EFL education in Japan and the influence of primary EFL on Japanese EFL learners will be focused on with more attention to practical aspects of their learning EFL; Japanese primary EFL pupils expect to make more progress with their language proficiency and to be able to communicate with other people in English in this globalising world (MEXT, 2017g).
... The third graders' mean scores were higher than those of the sixth graders. This study revealed a rather steady developmental decline in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning English, which might be attributed to general development trends in contemporary Japanese elementary school pupils (Carreira, 2006). ...
New immigrants' arrival in any country indeed brings new challenges to settle in the country. Learning the language of a new country is one of the major hassles in settling and starting a new life. In Canada, new immigrants must learn English as a second language because English is an official language and is also used day to day in almost all provinces except for a few states where the French language is more acceptable compared to English. Learning English requires motivation and there are some barriers in learning. Thus, this study addresses these barriers and assesses what motivational factors are there for new immigrants to learn English. It was a cross-sectional quantitative study conducted at a poly-cultural center, and Canada from June-2018 to December-2018. A total of 325 participants who registered and gave consent were included in this study. The results showed that factor 1 (Desire for career and economic enhancement) is significantly associated with age groups (P=0.001), gender (0.001), educational status (P=0.012), and time in Canada (P=0.027). Factor 2 (Desire to become a global citizen) is not significantly associated with all demographic data except for gender (P=0.027). Factor 3 (Desire to communicate and affiliate with foreigners) shows an association with all other demographic characteristics, except for gender (P=0.63), nationality (P=0.568), and educational status (P=0.091). In factor 4 (Desire for self-satisfaction), only educational status (P=0.046) has a significant association. Factor 5 (self-efficacy) and factor 6 (Desire to be integrated with other cultures) do not show any significant association with any demographic characteristics. In conclusion, the main motivating factors for new immigrants learning English as a second language acquisition is the desire for career and economic enhancement and the desire to communicate and affiliate with foreigners.
... To address the second factor, we translated and revised the "Motivation and Attitudes towards Learning English Scale for Children (MALESC)" by Carreira (2006) to better reflect the situation of Korean children, and face validity was again reviewed by three child development experts. MALESC consists of 19 items of five subfactors: intrinsic motivation, instrumental motivation, caregivers' encouragement, interest in foreign countries, and anxiety. ...
This article analyzes the relationship between Korean mothers’ beliefs about early childhood English education and preschoolers’ attitudes toward English learning. English experiences in the home were also projected to be significantly related to the aforementioned factors. Participants consisted of 159 mother–child pairs in South Korea. This study yielded three main results. First, correlations were found between the mothers’ education level and all three factors, while the fathers’ education and family income levels correlated only with preschoolers’ English experiences at home. Second, the subfactors of the mothers’ beliefs, the preschoolers’ home English experiences, and their attitudes toward learning English were revealed to be partly related. Third, the study showed that preschoolers’ English experiences at home mediated the relationship between the mothers’ beliefs in the importance of English education and the preschoolers’ attitudes. In effect, while the mothers’ beliefs about early childhood English education did not directly affect their children’s attitudes, indirect effects were found to be mediated by English experiences at home. Based on these results, we propose that it is necessary for parents to create a rich language environment in the home that engenders in children positive foreign language learning attitudes.
... Doiz defines motivation as an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action or, in more technical terms, motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will avoid or approach. And the degree of effort they will exert in this respect [4]. The motivation questionnaire used in the study is based upon the to Doiz's motivation questionnaire [5]. ...
... 数々のリサーチが日本の中高生の英語学習への意欲は学年が上がるほどに減退し、 彼らの学習についての不安は成長と ともに高まると示唆している。 この実践報告レポートでは、 まず筆者の主宰する民間英語教室での中高生の学習状況と彼らが 有する独特のニーズを自己決定理論と内発的動機づけに関する理論の観点を通して紹介する。 次に、 彼らの英語学習への内 発的動機を育み、 英語で独自のアイディアを表現する自信を高めるために当校で開発、 実施している小規模な創造的プロジェ クトを解説する。 プロジェクトの描写ではプロジェクトの目的、 クラス構成と活動手順を示し、 プロジェクトが目的を果たす上で の効果についての指導者の振り返りコメントも提示する。 また最後に、 現在の創造的プロジェクトの限界と今後の改善の可能 性を述べる。 R esearch suggests that Japanese students' motivation for English study tends to decline as they move through their schooling (Benesse Educational Research and Development Institute, 2014;Carreira, 2006;Matsuno, 2018;Sakai, 2009;Yamamori, 2004). In addition, a longitudinal study by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT, 2019) reported that secondary school students' anxiety over grades rises from the 1st year of junior high school to the 2nd year of high school, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2017) indicated that 15-year-old students in Japan have higher schoolwork-related anxiety than those of the other countries surveyed in the report. ...
Research shows that Japanese students’ motivation for English study tends to decline as they move through their schooling and that secondary-level students’ schoolwork-related anxiety rises as they grow older. In this practice-oriented paper, I first discuss the learning background and needs of junior and senior high school students at my private language school. I then describe small-scale “creative projects” that I design and implement with the aim of fostering the students’ intrinsic motivation for English language learning and to improve their confidence in expressing and discussing original ideas in English. The description of a sample project illustrates the project goal, class profile, and project procedure. My reflective comments regarding the effectiveness of the project in achieving the above-mentioned goals are also provided. Finally, the limitations of creative projects and possibilities of further improvements are discussed. 数々のリサーチが日本の中高生の英語学習への意欲は学年が上がるほどに減退し、彼らの学習についての不安は成長とともに高まると示唆している。この実践報告レポートでは、まず筆者の主宰する民間英語教室での中高生の学習状況と彼らが有する独特のニーズを自己決定理論と内発的動機づけに関する理論の観点を通して紹介する。次に、彼らの英語学習への内発的動機を育み、英語で独自のアイディアを表現する自信を高めるために当校で開発、実施している小規模な創造的プロジェクトを解説する。プロジェクトの描写ではプロジェクトの目的、クラス構成と活動手順を示し、プロジェクトが目的を果たす上での効果についての指導者の振り返りコメントも提示する。また最後に、現在の創造的プロジェクトの限界と今後の改善の可能性を述べる。
... and Gómez-Lacabex 2017). Together with these initial questions, they were also asked to answer a motivation questionnaire in Spanish, which was based on Gardner's (1985) Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) and adapted to this type of learners, in line with previous motivation studies for young apprentices (Kiss and Nikolov 2005;Carreira 2006;Cid et al. 2009;Lasagabaster and Sierra 2009;Fernández-Fontecha 2014, 2015. ...
This paper describes the process of design and compilation of the Primary Education Learners’ English Corpus (PELEC), a learner corpus which includes written (14,577 words) and spoken materials (47,032 words) from Primary Education learners in the Autonomous Community of Cantabria. It is composed of data from a total of 252 students in the fourth and sixth grade of Primary Education (aged 9–10 and 11–12, respectively) who were studying in five different state schools which followed either a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) or an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) approach.
... The conclusions of other research related to the first issue also appears mixed: Some studies have argued that earlier introduction may improve certain language abilities, such as listening and speaking (for a full account see Katsuyama, Nishigaki, & Wang, 2008), yet others (see Kajiro, 2007) claim that gains are no longer as evident after students spend some time at the secondary level. Some research has also suggested that early instruction may in fact be demotivating for students, who begin to realize a disconnect between what they are taught and the available opportunities to use the language as they mature (Carreira, 2006). As for the second issue, study participants' concern over the extent to which HRT language competency can be increased through in-service training programs is supported by Butler's study (2004, p. 247), which revealed that after 120 hours of training only 7.8% of South Korean HRTs had enough English ability to perform communicatively-focused language instruction. ...
This essay examines the opinions and perceptions of 15 elementary school teachers and administrators regarding the English Education Reform Plan released by MEXT in December 2013 in order to pinpoint problems that may occur over the following six-year implementation period. The study consists of short individual and small group interviews loosely structured around six questions concerning the proposed policy and its impact on elementary level EFL. Participant responses are analyzed for their possible implications for the following language policy metrics: compatibility, complexity, relative advantage, observability, and trialability. The essay concludes by advocating a two-way approach to curriculum development at the elementary level and citing a need for both macro- and micro-level policy actors to work together to effectively deal with the challenges ahead. 本論では、平成25年度に文部科学省が発表した「グローバル化に対応した英語教育改革実施計画」の6年間にわたる実施にあたって、小学校レベルでどのような問題があるかを突き止めるため、その実施計画を基にそれぞれの小学校関係者の意見をまとめた結果を考察する。今回の研究は、15名の現役のクラス担任、学校長、また教育委員会、ALTを対象に、実施計画の中長期的な影響を話題にした、1対1および小グループに対する6つの質問からなる聞き取り調査を行った。対象者の回答を分析し、実施計画について、適合性(compatibility)、複雑性(complexity)、相対的優位性（relative advantage)、可観測性(observability)、試行可能性(trialability)などの言語政策基準に基づいて論ずる。結論として、今後、計画の実施に関連する問題を克服するには、国と各地域における小学校現場との緊密な関連が必要である。
... However, competition provokes different perceptions from learners with different backgrounds, and may have negative influences on students with low achievement by placing cognitive overload on them (Chen & Huang, 2013;Cropper, 1998;Kohn, 1986;Lam, Yim, Law, & Cheung, 2004). It is also possible that the competitive mechanism in games may affect the performance and motivation of novice learners and learners with low self-efficacy (Bandura & Locke, 2003;Carreira, 2006;MacIntyre, Baker, Cl� ement, & Donovan, 2002). As students who learn English as a foreign language tend to encounter new vocabulary and concepts in learning tasks, it is important for them to adopt effective strategies to reduce their anxiety and cognitive load during the learning processes (Lin & Chen, 2006;Tsai & Tsai, 2018;Zou, Huang, & Xie, 2019). ...
Digital game-based language learning promotes motivation and enables learners to immerse themselves in learning. However, some gaming elements (e.g., competition and challenge) or learning content (e.g., difficulty levels) may have different influences on different learners, especially those with low self-efficacy or academic achievement, as competitive games may lead to frustration. It is therefore important to take students' cognitive capacities into consideration when designing a competitive learning environment, and to provide them with learning content of appropriate cognitive complexity. In the current study, a game-based situational vocabulary learning system that integrated a cognitive complexity-based competition strategy was developed to provide learners with appropriate tasks. A quasi-experiment was conducted in a high school English course to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. It was found that, compared to the conventional situational gaming approach, the situational game with the cognitive complexity-based competition strategy significantly improved the participants’ learning performance (in particular, that of the low-achieving students), but it also increased their anxiety. Furthermore, the behavioral analysis showed that the students who learned with the proposed approach accomplished the tasks more smoothly, because the system could take into account players' learning performance and adjust the cognitive complexity of the following tasks through upgrading or downgrading the learners' gaming levels to ensure that individual students learned with tasks at appropriate levels for them. On the other hand, the participants who learned with the conventional game-based learning approach had a greater tendency to fail the game repeatedly. Based on the findings and relevant studies, we also discuss suggestions for future research.
... Moreover, the experts' insights stated above are in line with previous relevant researches, such as: Degang's research (2010) to Thai students majoring in business English at an English-medium University which revealed that students were relatively highly motivated, close to equally motivated to learn English Tamimi. Furthermore, Shuib (2009) did the research at petroleum engineering undergraduates in Hadhramout University of Sciences and Technology, Malaysia encountered that students' achievement in acquiring a foreign language cannot be separated from their English language motivation; and Carreira (2006) in Japanese Elementary Schools further proved that motivation could shed light on how the teaching methods for elementary school students in the higher grades can be improved. The result of these previous relevant researches are in line with the the result of this study in terms of the role of English learning motivation in acquiring a foreign language. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate whether there is (1) a difference in the speaking ability between students who are taught by using discussion technique and those taught by using the conventional technique; (2) an effect of interaction between the speaking techniques applied and English learning motivation toward students' speaking ability; (3) a difference in speaking ability between students with high English learning motivation who are taught by using discussion technique and those taught by using the conventional technique; and (4) a difference in speaking ability between students with low English learning motivation who are taught by using discussion technique and those taught by using the conventional technique. The study used a 2X2 factorial design, which involved a sample of 96 students. The data were collected by using questionnaire and a speaking test then analyzed by Two-way ANOVA. The result indicates that (1) there was a significant difference in speaking ability between the students who were taught by using discussion technique and those taught by using the conventional technique; (2) there was a significant interactional effect between the teaching techniques applied and students' motivation toward their speaking ability; (3) there was a significant difference in speaking ability between students with high English learning motivation who were taught by using discussion technique and those taught with the conventional technique; and (4) there was significant difference in speaking ability between the students with low English learning motivation who were taught by using discussion technique and those taught with the conventional technique.
... Por otra parte, Ilić y Oletić (2014) encontraron bajos niveles de motivación intrínseca entre los estudiantes además de diferencias mínimas en la motivación en relación con el sexo. Otras técnicas estadísticas que se han empleado han sido ANOVA (Matsuzaki Carreira, 2006) con 345 estudiantes japoneses de inglés, llegándose a la conclusión de que los métodos de enseñanza para alumnos de los últimos cursos de primaria debían mejorarse. Por último, Wang (2008) utiliza el análisis factorial aparte del coeficiente de correlación de Pearson y la regresión múltiple, llegando a resultados que indican que la motivación extrínseca autónoma está correlacionada positivamente con la motivación intrínseca y las calificaciones obtenidas, mientras que la motivación extrínseca controlada está correlacionada negativamente con ellas. ...
... A modified version of scales, based on previous literature [8,[24][25][26], were utilized. All items were revised to describe the child's behavior reflecting the child's English interest, so that mothers and teachers could assess the child's daily behaviour based on their observations. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a mother’s motivation for providing English education to a young child on the provision of English education and the child’s interest in learning English. Also, the mediating role of the type of English education provided (English interaction at home and English private lessons) between a mother’s motivation and a child’s interest in learning English was examined. In total, 414 Korean mothers of 3-to-5-year-olds reported their motivation for providing English education to their child, frequency of English interaction at home, and the duration of English private lessons the child experienced. The degree of a child’s interest in learning English was measured by both the child’s mother and the teacher. The main results are as follows. First, a mother’s integrative motivation had a positive effect on the provision of English education. On the other hand, a mother’s instrumental motivation did not have a significant effect on the provision of English education. Also, a mother’s integrative motivation had an indirect effect on a child’ interest in learning English through English interaction at home. A mother’s integrative motivation had a direct effect on a child’s interest in learning English as well. This study is theoretically meaningful in that the concept of integrative and instrumental motivation of foreign language learners is extended to the mothers who provide foreign language education to their young children. Also, this study provides practical implications for early childhood mothers by highlighting the importance of integrative motivation and English interaction at home to enhance the child’s interest in learning English.
... In relation to this notion, actually, socio psychologists were the first to initiate serious studies on motivation in language learning due to their awareness that this aspect may effects on L2 learning (Dörnyei, 1998). More recently, a number of studies on the role of motivation in second or foreign language learning have been increasingly flourishing (Root, 1999;Li, 2006;Carreira, 2006). In addition, since the role of motivation is undeniable, learning motivation is considered as empirical studies (Yu, 2010). ...
This study explores types of motivation for students’ EFL learning and identifies factors that motivate them in the learning process. This is a descriptive study utilizing both quantitative and qualitative design by involving a class of one vocational school. Through close-ended questionnaire, open-ended questionnaire, and interview, the data were collected. The results of this study were in line with the previous findings (see Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Yu, 2010; Tahaineh & Daana, 2013). The findings discovered that both instrumental and integrative motivation play a crucial role in the students’ EFL learning process within this context. Nevertheless, it revealed that the instrumental motivation had a predominant role in the EFL learning. Besides, the data showed that there were thirteen factors which affected the students in the learning as classified by Williams and Burden (1997, cited in Dornyei, 2001). However, since types of motivation and motivational factors are dependent upon context, it is suggested to conduct the research related to this topic in different context or site.
... Motivation has also been shown to decrease with age across primary school (MacIntyre, Baker, Clément & Donovan, 2002;Nikolov, 1999), once learners cognitively develop and have a more realistic image of what FL learning involves and what they can achieve (Nikolov & Mihaljevic Djigunovic, 2011). Some authors have found a decrease in both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Carreira, 2006(Carreira, , 2010) and yet other studies do not report significant differences in motivation with age (Cenoz, 2003;Lasagabaster, 2003). Such inconclusive findings point to the need to explore the learning context and the variables that influence FL motivation in early language learning as well as to study its development over time (Mihaljevic Djigunovic, 2009). ...
Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) is often introduced in school settings in an attempt to increase exposure to the foreign language (FL) and promote motivation and positive language attitudes. The present study examines how language learning motivation develops over the course of two academic years in two types of instruction setting (CLIL and non-CLIL) with equal but low exposure to the FL and in two types of CLIL subject (science and arts and crafts). Data were collected from four primary schools in fifth and sixth grades by means of a motivation questionnaire. Differences between groups are observable in relation to the second language (L2) learning experience dimension of motivation in favour of the CLIL learners, who increased their motivation over time. Type of CLIL subject was found to be relevant also only in relation to the L2 learning experience dimension of motivation. Even in low exposure contexts, FL motivation is promoted and maintained over time by adding CLIL to the language experience of young learners.
... To assess LLM, the scale by Carreira (2006) (see Appendix 3) was used which focuses on two dimensions of motivation for language learning: intrinsic and extrinsic. The former refers to doing something for its own sake, while the latter refers to doing something for the sake of achieving something else. ...
The study examined the effect of a commercial digital video game on high school students' language learning motivation. Participants were 241 male students randomly assigned to one of the following three treatments: Readers, who intensively read the game's story; Players, who played the digital video game; and Watchers, who watched two classmates play the digital video game. A language learning motivation scale was given to the participants as a pre- and post-test. Also, field notes were taken. Results indicated a significant language learning motivation increase over time. Only the Watchers, however, showed significantly higher motivation than the Readers in the end. Thus, the use of commercial digital video games can help enhance high school students' language learning motivation.
This quantitative-oriented study investigates junior middle school EFL teachers’ beliefs about motivational practices in the language teaching process. Grounded in self-determination theory, the study examined teachers’ beliefs in three basic psychological needs (relatedness, competence and autonomy) and the effect of their teaching experience on these beliefs. Data were obtained from 84 Chinese junior middle school English teachers through a questionnaire. Results suggested that teachers recognized motivational practices for relatedness and competence satisfaction while showing relatively low recognition of a few motivating practices for autonomy satisfaction. Teaching experience was found to have no influence on teachers’ conception of needs-related motivational practices. Findings reveal that traditional activities like collective lesson preparations may have a negative influence on teachers’ beliefs about motivational practices. They also present the necessity for adjustments on educational regulations, and for modern professional training to help teachers understand students’ basic psychological needs, and to encourage new ideas to bolster students’ intrinsic motivation for language learning.
The current study aims to discuss the current situation of research on speaking anxiety of EFL learners through some variables. The journals indexed in various databases were searched and 59 studies were selected for the review by considering (a) the participant selection process of the studies (b) the main causes of speaking anxiety in EFL classrooms (c) whether there is any difference according to some variables including level of proficiency, gender, and English learning background (d) how the participants perceive themselves in terms of speaking anxiety. It was found that the number of studies on speaking anxiety has been on the increase in the last decade. When it comes to the causes of speaking anxiety in the bunch of studies, the foremost and most reported cause of speaking anxiety is learners’ fear of making mistakes, being compared by others, proficiency level and gender type. As speaking one of the four skills to communicate in any language, it is important to find solutions to these questions and enhance the development of the EFL learners’ speaking skills. The findings yield important insights on Turkish EFL learners speaking anxiety in English for all the stakeholders ranging from teachers and learners. In addition, it is hoped that, from the sociological perspective, this paper will pave a way to rethink and criticize the local context in countries which do not include oral exams in their national standardized testing system and mandate receptive skills.
Embedded in the Soft Power policy of Japan, Japanese language education is promoted to contribute to the expansion of Japan's impacts in Asia. In Vietnam, this program was conducted through a joint project by Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and Japan's Embassy. Although English is still regarded as a dominant foreign language in this country, Japanese has been drawing more attention in recent years. However, while English education is well-explored and assessed academically from various perspectives, there is still a lack of research in Japanese teaching and learning. Firmly grounded on Spolsky's model of Language Planning Policy (LPP), this study centralizes parents as an influential factor in the language choices. From the LPP and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) perspectives, it examines the impacts of Japan's Soft Power policy on community's ideologies and perceptions, and how it may influence their language choices. Centralizing parents of junior-high-school learners of Japanese, the results revealed that language was an effective medium to exhibit diplomatic influence on another country. Implications are also discussed.
The field’s current understanding of L2 motivation is largely reliant on explicit self- reports (e.g. questionnaires and interviews). While such means have provided the L2 motivation field with a wealth of understanding, the underlying assumptions are that such attitudes take place in a conscious manner and that such representations are adequate. Recent developments have discussed these limitations and have called for a more in-depth and holistic understanding of the motivational psyche of L2 learners (e.g. Al-Hoorie, 2016a; Dörnyei, 2020). This thesis seeks to address this research lacuna by arguing for the inclusion of an implicit dimension into L2 motivation research, using the case of Hong Kong as an illustration. This thesis is first made up of a systemic literature review which provided an empirical understanding of the unprecedented boom in published studies that occurred between 2005 – 2014. Studying the dataset that was made up of 416 publications allowed for an understanding of the L2 methodological and theoretical trends in the literature. While there were several key findings from this empirical review, specific to this thesis, the most significant lies in the identification of the lack of an implicit dimension in the field. Consequently, this shaped the premise for this thesis, namely to set forth the case for a subconscious dimension of L2 motivation research. The selection of Hong Kong as a research location was motivated by its unique linguistic landscape. In order to better understand the situation, a qualitative pilot study that sought to determine Hong Kong’s viability as a location for unconscious motivation research was carried out. The qualitative results show that indeed, Hong Kong is loaded with ethnolinguistic tension. Regarding the participants’ attitudes towards the three languages, Cantonese was found to be synonymous with the Hong Kong identity and English was seen as a superior language that was associated with prestige and professional opportunities. In comparison, Mandarin held little relevance to the participants’ everyday lives. Upon further investigation, it was found that Fear of Assimilation was the main reason behind the participants’ lacklustre attitudes towards Mandarin. Overall, this qualitative pilot study offered an insight into the complexities underscoring Hong Kong’s unique, and loaded, linguistic environment; confirming Hong Kong’s suitability as a research location for this implicit line of research.
Children who attend English immersion institutions present largely different attitudes toward learning English. The current study attempted to explain these differences by examining the variations of children’s temperament (i.e., impulsiveness and anxiety). The study also investigated whether parent–child interactions as a means for English education could reduce the negative effects of such temperaments on children’s interests in learning English. Data collection was conducted through surveys of mothers and teachers of preschool children who attend English immersion institutions. Frequency analysis, correlation analysis, regression analysis, and Johnson-Neyman technique were performed. Results suggested that individual differences in children’s English learning interests could be explained by variances in the levels of impulsiveness and anxiety. Parent–child interactions using English were found to reduce the negative effects of impulsiveness on children’s English learning interests. Findings of this study may offer theoretical contributions to existing research in the domains of child temperament and language learning. Possible methods for practical application within the English learning environment to enhance young children’s interests in learning English are also presented.
This article explores the effects of the type of instruction (Content and language integrated learning, CLIL, vs. non-CLIL) and gender upon foreign language motivation in Primary Education learners in northern Spain. A total of 252 students with ages ranging from 9–12 completed a questionnaire measuring different motivation components. Results showed that CLIL students seem to manifest greater parental support and be more critical with their image as foreign language learners. Additionally, gender turned out to be a more influential factor in non-CLIL learning settings, since non-CLIL males obtained worse results than their female counterparts in overall motivation and intrinsic motivation . This gender effect was not observed in CLIL classrooms, which potentially makes this learning approach a more egalitarian educational setting for both genders in terms of foreign language motivation.
Motivation is one of main determinant factor in learning second or foreign language. There are two types of motivation, which are integrative and instrumental motivation. Both of them play an essential role of the success in learning second or foreign language. Unfortunately, there is some debate about which kind of motivation is important for second language learner. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the senior high school students’ motivation toward learning English as a second language. The study is quantitative design. The participant of this study was twelve grade students at one of senior high school in Bandung. The data were obtained through questionnaire. The used questionnaire was integrative and instrumental motivation scale of Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) that is adapted by Vaezi (2010). The questionnaire has 5-point scale ranged from “strongly disagree†to “strongly agreeâ€. The data gained then was analyzed using SPSS 16.0. The result of the study showed that senior high school students were instrumentally motivated in learning English as a second language. In their point of view, learning English was important for supporting their future job and career. Keywords: Integrative and instrumental motivation, senior high school students
Digital interactive language learning has become increasingly prevalent and significant in educational settings. It is challenging to apply collaborative learning methods because students tend to engage passively with traditional methods of lectures. Several studies have suggested that digital interactive technologies such as Zuvio Interactive Response System (IRS) have been applied to increase learning motivation. However, related studies on using IRS in English a foreign language (EFL) classrooms are limited in Taiwan, especially from learners' perspectives. The aim of this study was to integrate an interactive response system into an English grammar course and to explore whether the assistance of this digital tool could promote students' learning motivation and whether it could facilitate a student learning environment. Based on the research background and rationale, the following research questions were investigated: (1) How does the use of the IRS influence students' perceptions toward their learning attitudes? (2) How does the use of the IRS influence students' perceptions toward learning contents? (3) How does the use of the IRS influence students' perceptions toward classroom interaction? An experimental design was employed. This research was conducted in this one-semester project to uncover 49 EFL learners’ views of IRS in a grammar class. Zuvio IRS and the British Council Grammar Snacks videos were utilized in this experimental instruction. A questionnaire was administered and consisted of demographic information, Likert scale questions, and open-ended short-answer questions. The results showed positive attitudes for learning with Zuvio IRS and videos, and the interactions between students and the teacher that mediated by Zuvio IRS. Future studies might explore learning outcomes of students from different majors, implement results of IRS studies into curriculum and instruction, and create more appropriate questions into IRS.
The present chapter focuses on digital games as a potential means for learning English among children in Japan. A group of children (sixth-grade students, ages 11–12; n = 82) were asked to conduct the following activities: (1) identify game elements (elements that motivate learners to engage in games) and learning elements (elements that promote learning) by examining existing digital games; (2) develop digital game plans for learning English vocabulary in group settings; and (3) conduct self- and peer-evaluations of their own plans. A digital game developed based on the children’s ideas was evaluated by fifth grade students. Based on the project’s results, the present chapter aims to better understand the conditions that enable digital games to help children learn English from their point of view.
This study aimed to investigate the relationship among perceptual learning styles, vision, L2 self-guides, L2 motivation, and language learning achievement. To do this, the study pursued a quantitative survey methodology where a composite instrument that contained perceptual learning styles, future self-guides, imagery capacity, and motivated behavior and effort subscales was employed. The instrument was translated into Turkish, and both translation and back translation procedures were conducted to ensure the content validity of the instruments. The study was conducted at Giresun University, a state university in the North of Turkey, with 343 participants. These participants were prep-class and 1 st year students between the ages of 18 and 23. All of the participants-at the time of data collection-were A1 level students, as measured according to descriptors proposed in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). The quantitative data were analyzed through SPSS Statistics 20.0. Parametric tests were employed as the data showed a normal distribution. Both descriptive statistics and inferential analysis including one-way repeated measures ANOVA, Pearson product-moment correlation, and multiple regression analysis were applied and conclusions were drawn. The results indicated that the tertiary level EFL learners in the Turkish educational context had high levels of ideal and ought to L2 self-guides, strong vision and L2 learning motivation. They also mainly preferred visual and auditory learning styles which were the supporters of a stronger vision. Regression analyses revealed that while the best predictor of language learning achievement was L2 motivation, L2 motivation was highly predicted by L2 self-guides, ideal L2 self in the first place, and
Points of transition in life are accepted as times which impact greatly on aspects of the individual’s psyche, including motivation to learn. In spite of this, pupils’ views are rarely heard in discussions of transition from primary to secondary school in general and in relation to modern languages in particular. This exploratory study investigated the motivation of young learners of foreign languages in one region of the UK at time of transitioning from primary school to secondary school. Ten to 12 year olds shared their views of the experience of transition and provided motivational insights which test the applicability of Dörnyei’s L2 ‘motivational self system’ [2005. The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum] for learners in this age group. Eighteen students were interviewed in their final year of primary school and again one year later in their first year of secondary school. Pupils identified foreign language learning as a generally a positive experience but one which could include, in the primary school, a higher level of challenge, more ‘real’ work and evidence to facilitate a feeling of making progress. This provided the background for consideration of whether these experiences contributed to focal pupils’ vision of self. The pupils’ messages resonate beyond the confines of foreign languages to other subjects and other transition experienced by young people around this age.
The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of students’ grade levels, gender, and interaction between the two on mathematics motivation. In addition, the relationship between students’ various types of mathematics motivation and achievement were examined. Four hundred twenty four elementary school students (186 boys and 238 girls), 588 middle school students (296 boys and 292 girls), and 276 high school students (154 boys and 122 girls) completed the MMS. The findings of this study showed that all types of motivation in mathematics steadily decreased with grade advancement (elementary through high school) with the exception of introjected regulation. Moreover, results indicated a significant gender difference in each type of mathematics motivation, exception regarding intrinsic motivation, where the difference was not significant. In addition, the interaction between grade levels and gender was significant only in students’ introjected regulation; the differences in intrinsic, external regulation, and amotivation were consistent between males and females in different grade levels. Finally, the results revealed a significant relationship between all types of motivation and mathematics achievement as well as overall academic achievement.
An early start of foreign language (FL) teaching has been encouraged on the basis that the main gains in this period lie in the development of positive attitudes and motivation. But the view that those positive effects will remain unchanged over learners’ language-learning trajectories is at odds with the currently prevailing notion that motivation is a complex and evolutionary process that fluctuates over time. In fact, research has shown that the positive attitudes attested in the first years of primary school wane after a while. But we still know very little about young learners’ motivational development, and longitudinal studies are very scarce. This 10-year longitudinal study looked at the trajectories of a group of young learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) from age 6 to age 16 using a mixed-methods design. It examined their outcomes in relation to their language-learning aptitude and motivation, and it observed the ways in which their levels of motivation rise and fall over time. The triangulation of data from different sources, and principally from yearly individual interviews, provided us with insights to better understand the role played by internal and external factors in those trajectories and some of the challenges for FL teaching to young learners.
This article focuses on the design of digital instructional game (DIG) tasks for young second language (L2) learners. The aim of the study is to identify motivational task elements based on what children respond to positively in games and incorporate into their own L2 vocabulary learning game designs. Eighty-two sixth-grade students (ages 11–12 years) in Japan were first asked to identify game elements by examining existing games and then to design games incorporating DIG tasks of their own and peer-evaluate them. Building on previous work (Butler, 2015), the study uses a mixed-methods approach to examine how both task-intrinsic characteristics and implementation conditions were realized in innovative and engaging DIG tasks by children. Although the study focuses on young learners, the findings might be applied to any type of task, including both digital and physical tasks for adults as well as for children. The article concludes with suggestions for how to design instructional materials which allow individualized learning and encourage autonomy in order to cater to the genuine interests of learners and to invoke intrinsic motivation for learning.
There are variations in the extent to which particular types of inferences or activations are made during reading (G. McKoon & R. Ratcliff, 1992; M. Singer, 1994). In this study, the authors investigated the influence of reading purpose (for entertainment or study) on inference generation. Participants read 2 texts aloud and 2 texts for comprehension measures. Reading purpose did not influence off-line behavior (comprehension) but did influence on-line reader behavior (thinking aloud). Readers with a study purpose more often repeated the text, acknowledged a lack of background knowledge, and evaluated the text content and writing than did readers with an entertainment purpose. This pattern was stronger for the expository text than for the narrative text. Reading purpose, and possibly text type, affects the kinds of inferences that readers generate. Hence, inferential activities are at least partially under the reader's strategic control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This overview delineates the direction of pedagogical developments since the 25th anniversary issue of TESOL Quarterly. Three tendencies characterize our professional practice: (a) a continuation along the earlier lines of progression (i.e., in opening up the classroom to learning opportunities, integrating skills, and teaching for specific purposes); (b) a radical reorientation along new paradigms (i.e., in understanding motivation and acquisition in terms of social participation and identity construction; in developing methods from the ground up, based on generative heuristics; in widening testing to include formative assessment; in accommodating subjective knowledge and experience in teacher expertise); (c) unresolved debates and questions about the direction in certain domains (i.e., when and how to teach grammar; whether to adopt cognitivist or social orientations in SLA, testing, and teacher education). Our professional knowledge gets further muddled by the new movements of globalization, digital communication, and World Englishes, which pose fresh questions that are yet to be addressed. However, grappling with these concerns has engendered realizations on the need for local situatedness, global inclusiveness, and disciplinary collaboration that are of more lasting value.
Insert Japanese abstract here ______________ 48,JALT JOURNAL Most language,teachers,believe that motivation,is a key factor for suc-
The purpose of the present study was to explore the effect of graphic organizer instruction versus outlining on students' text recall in tenth-grade world history. Based on the hierarchical structure of graphic organizers depicting interrelationships among ideas, we hypothesized that students instructed in the use of graphic organizers would display significantly higher text recall than a group using outlines. Seventy-two tenth graders in three sections of world history participated in the study. Two sections received systematic instruction in the development of graphic organizers and a third section received parallel instruction in outlining. One of the two graphic organizer sections had previous instruction in summarization and question generation during an earlier study. Six 15-item multiple-choice quizzes comprised one of the dependent measures. On the first five quizzes there were no significant differences between the three sections. However, when teacher prompting was phased-out on quiz six, the graphic organizer group with previous training in summarization significantly outperformed the other two groups. Additionally, on a second dependent measure involving the development of a written recall protocol based on difficult college level text, the group with previous summarization experience significantly outperformed both the new graphic organizer group and the outlining section. Implications for a cumulative, long-range view of metacognitive instruction are discussed.
The objective of the following study was to analyze what differences exist between successful and unsuccessful learners with regard to their use of texts and graphics. First, a theoretical framework is presented in which texts and graphics are viewed as complementary sources of information with qualitatively different functions for knowledge acquisition. Comprehension of graphics is considered as a process of structure mapping between a visuo-spatial configuration and a corresponding mental model whereby this mapping can be directed by the respective text. Within the background of this theoretical framework, an empirical study is presented in which university students received as learning material a time-zone map of the earth as well as a hypertext dealing with the topic “time and date.” The subjects had to answer with these two information sources a series of questions about the topics. In order to analyze the subjects' cognitive processes, the Thinking Aloud Method was used. By means of a post-test a distinction was made between a group of successful learners and a group of unsuccessful learners. The comparison between the two groups indicated that the successful learners used the map more intensively and in a different way than the unsuccessful learners. The successful learners did not retrieve more text information, but concentrated more on information which was relevant for the construction of a mental model, and they adapted more readily to the demands of mental-model construction in the course of information retrieval than the unsuccessful learners. Some instructional consequences concerning direct and indirect guidance of knowledge acquisition by means of texts and graphics are pointed out.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the transfer effects of graphic organizer instruction on fourth graders' ability to use top‐level structure as an aid in comprehending and retaining content reading materials. Twenty‐four fourth graders, all average or above average in reading ability, were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: 14 days of graphic organizer instruction, 7 days of graphic organizer instruction, or the control group. Tests for transfer effects (using brief chapters from tradebooks which dealt with topics similar to those found in the students' regularly assigned textbooks) revealed that subjects in the 14‐day organizer group comprehended and recalled significantly more information than those who received no instruction in the use of graphic organizers. However, no reliable difference was found between those who had only 7 days of instruction and those who had none. Implications for future investigators and classroom teachers are discussed.
ABSTRACTS
Seven Norwegian law students read self‐selected study texts at three different points of time. Think‐aloud protocols were generated during reading and later analyzed to locate the sources referred to when students made links reaching beyond what they read at the moment. The proportion of links to sources located within the selected text decreased and the proportion of links to sources located outside the task context increased over time, with one possible explanation for this being that the students changed their understanding of the task from reading to keep up with lectures to review for the examination. The students who increased their use of sources located outside the task context most when starting to review texts also obtained the highest grades at the examination. Indepth studies of two cases both confirmed and elaborated the findings concerning all participants.
Siete estudiantes noruegos de leyes leyeron, en tres momentos diferentes, textos de estudio elegidos por ellos mismos. Se generaronprotocolos de pensamiento en voz alta durante la lectura, los que luego fueron analizados para localizar las fuentes que evocaban los estudiantes cuando establecían vínculos que iban másallá de lo leído en el momento. La proporción de vínculos con fuentes localizadas dentro del texto seleccionado disminuyó con el tiempo y la proporción de vínculoscon fuentes localizadas fuera del contexto de la tarea aumentó. Una posible explicación de esto es que los estudiantes modificaron su comprensión de la tarea: de la mera lectura a lapuesta al día de las lecturas que debían revisar para el examen. Los estudiantes que aumentaron el uso de fuentes localizadas fuera del contexto de la tarea obtuvieron las calificaciones másaltas en el examen. Estudios en profundidad de dos casos confirmaron y expandieron los hallazgos concernientes a todos los participantes.
Verbindungen der Studenten bezogen, die über das, was sie geradevorlasen, hinausragten. Die Anzahl an Verzweigungen zu Quellen innerhalb des ausgewählten Textes nahm ab und die Anzahl an Verbindungen zu lokalisierten Quellen, die außerhalb des Aufgabenrahmenslagen, erhöhte sich im Laufe der Zeit, als eine Aufgabenrahmens am häufigsten erhöhten, sobald sie damit begannen die Texte zu überarbeiten, erlangten ebenfalls die besten Zensuren imExamen. Ins Einzelne gehende Studien von zwei Fällen bestätigten und erläuterten jeweils die Ergebnisse in bezug auf alle Teilnehmer.
à voix haute ont été produits encours de lecture, qui ont été ensuite analysés pour identifier les sources avec lesquelles les étudiants établissent des liens au‐delà de ce qu'ils sont en trainde lire à un moment donné. La proportion de liens appartenant à des sources localisées dans le texte choisi diminue tandis que la proportion de liens appartenant à dessources localisées hors de ce texte de la tâche, passant de la lecture d'un texte à la révision d'autres textes en vue de l'examen. Les étudiants qui augmentent leur utilisationde sources extérieures au contexte de tâche pour réviser des textes sont ceux qui ont obtenu les meilleurs résultats à l'examen. L'étude approfondie de deux casconfirme et apporte d'autres données qui valent pour tous les participants.
In recent years, advances in computer software have made it possible for persons with little knowledge of text design to construct graphic organizers (GOs) with the intention of helping students learn more effectively from textbooks. Consequently, the use of GOs in textbooks has increased dramatically. Unfortunately, the guidelines used in constructing GOs have not been based on empirical evidence, but rather on the authors’ intuition. This is probably due to the lack of consensus among educators regarding what makes a GO effective, because GO research has been nonsystematic. This paper provides a rationale for the use of GOs, traces their history and development, reviews sixteen studies that have used GOs as text adjuncts, and, unlike other recent reviews of GOs, discusses limitations that have made GO research nonsystematic and provides suggestions for how future research may answer the question, “How should GOs be constructed for use in classrooms?”
In Exp I, 40 undergraduates either did or did not create a map-like representation while learning a passage. Learners who generated a map exhibited significantly greater retention than did control Ss. In Exp II, 120 undergraduates were either forced to study the map, instructed to study, or given no map prior to reading. Learners who were forced to process performed significantly better than other groups on retention measures. Ss not forced to study performed no better than the control group who received no map. Free-recall data showed that forced map study benefited learners with low vocabulary scores more than Ss with higher vocabulary scores. This was not true for multiple-choice or constructed response measures. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes a learning orientation scale in which 5 dimensions are defined by an intrinsic and an extrinsic pole: preference for challenge vs preference for easy work, curiosity/interest vs teacher approval, independent mastery attempts vs dependence on the teacher, independent judgment vs reliance on the teacher's judgment, and internal vs external criteria for success/failure. The reliability and factorial validity of the scale have been adequately demonstrated. Additional validity studies with a total of 2,925 Ss in Grades 3–9 are reported. Higher-order factoring yielded 2 distinct clusters of subscales: The 1st 3 dimensions form 1 factor and are interpreted as more motivational in nature; the remaining 2 are viewed as more cognitive–informational in nature. Developmental data show that across Grades 3–9 there was a shift from intrinsic to extrinsic on the 1st motivational cluster. Conversely, there was a dramatic developmental shift from extrinsic to intrinsic on the cognitive–informational cluster. Interpretations for these developmental differences are advanced, and the educational implications are explored. The discussion focuses on the need to be precise in conceptualizing and operationalizing the term "intrinsic motivation." (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes a theoretical framework whereby the action's endogenous attribution is linked with the inferences of intrinsic motivation, subjective freedom, and the action's underlying intention. The endogenous-exogenous distinction is proposed to replace the frequently invoked partition between the action's internal and external causes. Both conceptual and empirical considerations are put forth in favor of such a replacement. Classical attribution topics to which the internal-external partition has been applied are reinterpreted in terms of the endogenous-exogenous distinction, and novel data are reported that support the latter framework. Finally, several categories of conditions for endogenous (or exogenous) attributions are identified, and possible directions of further research within the endogenous-exogenous framework are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Researchers interested in academic self-regulated learning have begun to study processes that students use to initiate and direct their efforts to acquire knowledge and skill. The social cognitive conception of self-regulated learning presented here involves a triadic analysis of component processes and an assumption of reciprocal causality among personal, behavioral, and environmental triadic influences. This theoretical account also posits a central role for the construct of academic self-efficacy beliefs and three self-regulatory processes: self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reactions. Research support for this social cognitive formulation is discussed, as is its usefulness for improving student learning and academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
This chapter discusses theories of information processing in spatial learning techniques. The basic assumption of functional models of semantic memory and its many variants is that humans process information in accord with hierarchically inclusive schemata and subschemata. A schema can be described as the abstract prototype of a class of objects, events, or situations. Schemata are usually viewed as being recursively embedded, that is, one schema can be a component of another schema. Schema theory has proven to be useful in providing a framework for studies of prose processing where activation of appropriate existing schemata facilitates comprehension and recall. The original formulation of the model was relatively simple and straightforward. It involved a single, central control mechanism and viewed learning entirely in terms of moving through ever-deeper levels of processing.
Identified strategies used by 24 tenth grade students to comprehend a short story. Strategy usage was related to 3 factors: interest, high and low; reader proficiency, good and poor; and writing style, concrete and abstract. This resulted in a 2×2×2 design. The method, analysis of readers' verbal protocols, was adapted from cognitive psychology research. The protocols, verbalizations about the subjects' silent reading behavior, were transcribed and analyzed to infer stragegies. Of the 10 strategies identified, 3 pertain to the word level, 6 pertain to the clause level, and 1 pertains to the story. To test for statistically significant differences in use of a strategy by 1 group of subjects, the Fisher exact probability test was employed. The level of significance was .05. Although all subjects used the same 10 strategies, readers with high interest, readers with abstract style material, and good readers used certain strategies significantly more often. The types of strategies identified and the conditions under which they were used have implications for a theory of reading as problem solving and for teaching strategies./// [French] Identification des stratégies utilisées par 24 étudiants de la dixième année pour la compréhension d'une courte histoire. Le choix d'une stratégie était lié à trois facteurs: le niveau d'intérêt, haut et bas; l'aptitude à lire de l'individu, bonne ou mauvaise; et le style du passage, concret ou abstrait. Il en résulta un schéma de 2×2×2. La méthode employée (analyse des protocoles verbaux des lecteurs) a été adaptée de la recherche en psychologie cognitive. Les protocoles, qui sont la verbalisation par le sujet des démarches qu'il a adoptées lors de la lecture silencieuse, furent transcrits et analysés afin d'en déduire les stratégies. Parmi les dix stratégies identifiées, trois sont au niveau du mot, 6 au niveau de la proposition et 1 au niveau du récit. On eut recours au test d'exactitude de probabilité de Fisher pour mesurer l'importance statistique des différences d'utilisation d'une stratégie par un groupe de sujets. Le niveau de significane était de .05. Tous les sujets avaient employé les mêmes stratégies, cependant, les lecteurs faisant preuve d'un fort intérêt, ceux qui avaient eu un passage de style abstrait et ceux qui lisaient bien, couramment, firent usage de certaines stratégies considérablement plus souvent. Les types de stratégies identifiées et les conditions dans lesquelles elles furent utilisées ont des implications en ce qui concerne la lecture en tant que proède de resolution de problème et pour les méthodes d'enseignement./// [Spanish] Se identificaron las estratesgias usadas por 24 estudiantes de 10° grado para comprender un cuento corto. El uso de estrategias fue relacionado con tres factores: interés, alto y bajo; destreza para leer, mucha y poca; y estilo literario (del cuento), concreto y abstracto, resultando en un estudio de 2×2×2. El método--análisis de los protocolos verbales de los lectores--fue adaptado de investigación en el campo de la sicología del conocimiento. Los protocolos (verbalización del comportamiento individual durante la lectura tácita) fueron transcritos y analizados para deducir las estrategias. De las 10 estrategias que se identificaron, 3 se aplican a palabras, 6 se aplican a frases y una al cuento. Las diferencias significativas en el empleo de estrategias del primer grupo de lectores fueron determinadas estadísticamente mediante una prueba Fisher de probabilidad exacta, con un margen de error de .05. A pesar de que todos los sujetos usaron las mismas 10 estrategias, los lectores con un alto grado de interés, aquellos con cuentos de estilo abstracto y los lectores con mucha destreza para leer emplearon ciertas estrategias más a menudo, en forma significativa. Los tipos de estrategias identificadas y las condiciones bajo las cuales fueron empleadas sugieren una teoría para el uso de la lectura para solucionar problemas y para maneras de enseñar.
Cette etude rend compte des liaisons intertextuelles faites par huit lecteurs lors de la lecture de cinq passages. Lors de sessions d'une duree de trois heures, chaque lecteur a rapporte a haute voix ce a quoi il avait pense lors de lectures silencieuses, puis a repondu a des questions incitatives et non diriges. Deux types generaux de liaisons intertextuelles apparaissent : des liaisons entre les idees, les evenements et les gens ; des connexions sociales, culturelles, politiques et historiques
Successful reading comprehension depends not only on readers' ability to access appropriate content and formal schemata. It also depends on their ability to monitor what they understand and to take appropriate strategic action. L2 reading research and pedagogy might fruitfully be expanded to explore how different kinds of L2 students can be helped to monitor their reading comprehension. Suggestions in this article include how to introduce students to the concept and language of routine monitoring and, from L1 training studies, how to teach specific monitoring and repair strategies to individuals with special reading problems (reciprocal teaching—Palincsar & Brown, 1984) and to larger, more “average” groups (a think-aloud procedure—Bereiter & Bird, 1985). Our underlying knowledge about such monitoring behaviors might be viewed as strategy schemata, which, in addition to schemata for content and form, influence how we understand what we read. Learning to articulate this knowledge is thought to enhance learning, at least in the classroom context. Applications to the many L2 contexts remain to be explored.
Think-aloud protocols, a version of verbal report in which participants state their thoughts and behaviors, have become increasingly popular as a means of studying the comprehension processes of native English speakers. The study reported in this article used think-alouds to examine the comprehension strategies used by college-level students—both native speakers of English and nonnative speakers—enrolled in remedial reading classes as they read material from a college textbook. “Poor” readers (those who had failed the college's reading proficiency test) were chosen for study because they are the ones at whom college remedial reading programs are aimed. Furthermore, their use of comprehension strategies has not attained the degree of automaticity found in fluent readers. Thus, they may be more aware of how they solve the problems they encounter as they read. Some of the strategies used by the ESL and native-speaking readers in the study are described. Strategy use is related to measures of memory and comprehension and to academic performance, and implications for teaching are discussed.
In recent years, characteristics of the good language learner have been identified and classified. It has been proposed that learning strategies based on these characteristics can be taught to students, and a number of resource materials for learner training are available. However, published data indicate that success in language learning may be more complex than such an approach would suggest. Attempts to translate the theory behind learner training into practice have produced only qualified success. Among some of the factors complicating implementation of learner training are cultural differences, age, educational background of students, students' and teachers' beliefs about language learning, and varying cognitive styles. Until empirical data, particularly in the form of longitudinal studies, are gathered to answer questions about the usefulness of learner training, teachers should approach the implementation of learner training in the classroom with caution.
The aim of this article is to review the psycholinguistic research on second language (L2) self-repair to date with particular attention to the relevance of this field for L2 production and acquisition. The article points out that W. J. M. Levelt's (1989, 1993, 1992) and W. J. M. Levelt et al.'s (in press) perceptual loop theory of monitoring can be adopted for monitoring in L2 speech as well. It is also argued, however, that this theory needs to be complemented with recent research on consciousness, attention, and noticing in order to account for mechanisms of error detection in L2.
Recent research on cognition has indicated the importance of learning strategies in gaining command over second language skills. Despite these recent advancements, important research questions related to learning strategies remain to be answered. These questions concern 1) the range and frequency of learning strategy uses by students learning English as a second language (ESL) and 2) the effects of training in learning strategies on English language skills. This study, which was conducted with high school ESL students, was carried out in two phases corresponding to the two research questions. In Phase I, ESL students and their teachers were interviewed to identify strategies associated with a range of tasks typically found in ESL classrooms and in other settings. Results indicated that students used a variety of learning strategies but typically used more familiar strategies and applied them to discrete-point rather than integrative tasks. In Phase II, ESL students were randomly assigned to receive learning strategies training on vocabulary, listening, and speaking tasks. Results varied depending on the task but generally indicated that strategy training can be effective for integrative language tasks. Results are discussed in terms of implications for teaching and future research.
Self-monitoring, defined as deliberate attention to some aspect of one's behavior, is considered to be an important self-regulatory process in learning. In the present experiment, 72 graduate students in a statistics class were assigned to a self-monitoring group, an instructor-monitoring group, or a control group to investigate the effects of self-monitoring on students' learning strategies, motivation, knowledge representation, self-judgment ability, and course performance. During the course, the self-monitoring group recorded the frequency and intensity of their various learning activities, the instructor-monitoring group evaluated the instructor's teaching, and the control group took the course without any treatment. The self-monitoring group performed better than the other two groups on course tests, used more self-regulated learning strategies, and developed better knowledge representation of the course content. Psychological processes are suggested through which self-monitoring increases students' learning and provides a prototype of a self-monitoring protocol that has potential for improving students' course performance.
In this study, 48 U. S. high school students of average ability, who were half good comprehenders and half poor comprehenders, read three expository passages of increasing difficulty. The good comprehenders read the original passages; the poor comprehenders read versions revised so that passages would be of the same relative difficulty for both groups. In each passage, students were asked to fill blanks left by randomly deleting 12 context-dependent content words. Subjects were asked to explain their reasoning processes for these cloze responses, and subjects' explanations were analyzed to identify their comprehension strategies. All subjects reported depending heavily on using key vocabulary, rereading, making inferences, and using previous experience in constructing responses for all three passages. In addition, readers used more organizational strategies (recognizing passage and sentence structure) on the passage of medium difficulty than on the other two passages. Total strategy use declined for poor comprehenders as texts became more difficult. Good comprehenders also used more strategies on the easiest passage, but their strategy use was the same on the medium and difficult passages. When compared directly, the two groups used the same type and number of strategies on the easy passage, but as the passage difficulty increased, good comprehenders used more types of strategies and used strategies more often than the poor comprehenders did. /// [French] Dans la présente recherche, 48 étudiants américains du secondaire, de rendement moyen, dont la moitié était de bon compreneurs et l'autre moitié de mauvais compreneurs, ont lu trois extraits de textes informatifs de niveaux de complexité croissants. Les bons compreneurs ont lu les textes dans leur version originale; les mauvais compreneurs ont lu des versions modifiées de façon à les rendre d'égale difficulté pour les deux groupes. Pour chaque passage, les étudiants devaient combler les vides laissés en éliminant au hasard 12 mots dont le sens pouvait être construit à l'aide du contexte. Les sujets devaient expliquer comment ils procédaient pour trouver les mots. L'analyse des justifications a servi à identifier les stratégies utilisées. Tous les sujets ont dit s'être appuyés sur des mots clés, avoir relu le texte, fait des inférences et s'être servis de leur expériences antérieures pour trouver les mots dans les trois extraits. En outre, les lecteurs ont utilisé davantage de stratégies organizationnelles (reconnaître la structure du texte et de la phrase) pour trouver les mots dans les extraits de niveau de difficulté moyen que dans les deux autres niveaux. Le total des stratégies utilisées diminuait chez les mauvais compreneurs en fonction du niveau de difficulté des extraits. Les comparaisons entre les deux groupes montrèrent que les deux types de lecteurs ont utilisé les mêmes stratégies et à la même fréquence dans les extraits de faible difficulté mais lorsque le niveau de difficulté augmentait, les bons compreneurs utilisaient plus de stratégies différentes et à des fréquences plus élevées que les mauvais compreneurs. /// [Spanish] En este estudio, 48 estudiantes norteamericanos de educación media de habilidad promedio, la mitad buenos y la mitad malos entendedores, leyeron tres pasajes expositorios de dificultad creciente. Los buenos entendedores leyeron los pasajes originales; los malos entendedores leyeron versiones revisadas de forma tal que los pasajes tuvieran la misma dificultad relativa para ambos grupos. En cada pasaje, se les pidió a los estudiantes que llenaran los espacios dejados en blanco, después de quitar al azar 12 palabras de contenido dependientes del contexto. Se pidió a los sujetos que explicaran el razonamiento de sus respuestas, y estas explicaciones fueron analizadas para identificar sus estrategias de comprensión. Todos los sujetos reportaron una dependencia muy fuerte en su uso de vocabulario clave, en la relectura, en la creación de inferencias, y en el uso de su experiencia previa en la estructuración de respuestas a través de los tres niveles de dificultad. Además de esto, los lectores usaron más estrategias de organización (uso de estructura del pasaje y la oración) en el pasaje de dificultad media que en los otros dos pasajes. El uso total de estrategias declinó para los malos entendedores según aumentaba la dificultad del texto. Los buenos entendedores también usaron más estrategias en los pasajes más sencillos, pero su uso de estrategias fue el mismo en los pasajes de dificultad media y alta. Cuando se compararon directamente, los dos grupos usaron el mismo tipo y número de estrategias en el pasaje sencillo, pero según se incrementó la dificultad, los entendedores buenos usaron más estrategias diferentes y las usaron más frecuentemente que los entendedores malos. /// [German] An dieser studie beteiligten sich 48 Schüler einer amerikanischen High School, die durchschnittliche Fähigkeiten besaßen - eine Hälfte besaß gute Verständnisfertigkeiten, die andere schlechte. Diese Schüler lasen drei expositorische Textausschnitte mit zunehmendem Schwierigkeitsgrad. Die Schüler mit guten Verständnisfertigkeiten lasen die Originalabschnitte; die mit schlechten lasen revidierte Fassungen, so daß die Abschnitte relativ betrachtet für beide Gruppen dieselben Schwierigkeitsgrade aufwiesen. In jedem Abschnitt wurden willkürlich 12 kontextabhängige Inhaltswörter ausgelassen, die von den Schülern ersetzt werden mußten. Die Schüler wurden gebeten, ihre Argumentationsprozesse für die Einträge dieser Leerstellen zu erklären, und diese Erklärungen wurden anschließend analysiert, um die Verständnisstrategien zu identifizieren. Alle Schüler gaben an, daß sie sich in ihren Entscheidungen sehr stark auf folgende Faktoren stützten, um bei den drei Schwierigkeitsstufen Antworten finden zu können: Schlüsselwörter, Nachlesen, Inferenzen aufstellen und Hintergrundwissen anwenden. Des weiteren benutzten die Leser mehr Organisationsstrategien (Abschnittsgliederung und Satzstruktur) bei dem Abschnitt mit mittlerem Schwierigkeitsgrad als bei den anderen beiden. Mit zunehmendem Schwierigkeitsgrad der Textabschnitte nahm der Strategiegebrauch von Schülern mit schlechten Verständnisfertigkeiten ab. Schüler mit guten Verständnisfertigkeiten benutzten mehr Strategien beim leichtesten Textabschnitt, doch blieb die Zahl der Strategien für den mittleren und schwierigen Textabschnitt gleich. Im direkten Vergleich benutzten beide Gruppen dieselbe Art und Anzahl von Strategien beim leichten Textabschnitt, doch mit zunehmendem Schwierigkeitsgrad der Textabschnitte benutzten die Schüler mit guten Verständnisfertigkeiten mehr Arten und eine höhere Anzahl von Strategien als die Schüler mit schlechten Verständnisfertigkeiten.
The study reports the direct and indirect effects of a summarization training program on the reading and studying skills of 70 sixth-grade students. The training improved recall of major but not minor information on a studying task. Path analyses showed that the summarization training affected recall of major information indirectly, through its effect on the amount of major information in students' notes, confirming a metacognitive hypothesis. The training also improved summaries of paragraphs that had main ideas stated within the paragraphs, but not those in which the statement of main ideas had to be invented. These results indicate that summarization training is an effective tool for improving reading and studying skills. The findings also suggest ways to improve the summarization instruction for children of this age. /// [French] Ce travail présente les effets directs et indirects d'un programme d'enseignement de la récapitulation sur la lecture et l'étude chez 70 élèves de sixième année. Pour ce qui est de l'étude, cet enseignement a facilité le rappel des informations principales mais non celui des secondaires. Une série d'analyses a démontré que l'enseignement de la récapitulation n'affectait qu'indirectement le rappel des informations principales, soit au niveau de leur quantité retrouvée dans les notes des élèves; ceci ne vient que confirmer une hypothèse métacognitive. Cet enseignement a également permis aux élèves de mieux résumer les paragraphes dans lesquels l'idée principale était énoncée mais cela n'a toutefois rien changé dans les cas où l'idée principale devait être déduite. Ces résultats démontrent que l'enseignement de la récapitulation peut améliorer l'étude et la lecture. A partir des résultats, on a pu suggérer quelques moyens d'améliorer cet enseignement. /// [Spanish] Este estudio reporta los efectos directos e indirectos que un programa de entrenamiento para hacer resúmenes tiene sobre las habilidades de lectura y estudio de 70 estudiantes de sexto año. El entrenamiento mejoró el recuerdo de información importante pero no el de los detalles en una tarea de estudio. Los análisis de ruta (path analyses) demostraron que el entrenamiento para hacer resúmenes afectaba el recuerdo de la información más importante de manera indirecta, a través de su efecto en la cantidad de información importante en las notas de los estudiantes, confirmando una hipótesis metacognitiva. El entrenamiento también mejoró los resúmenes de párrafos que contenían ideas principales expresadas dentro de esos párrafos, pero no aquellos en los que la idea principal necesitaba ser inferida. Estos resultados señalan que el entrenamiento para hacer resúmenes es un instrumento efectivo para mejorar las habilidades de lectura y estudio. Los resultados han sido interpretados para proveer sugerencias de como mejorar este tipo de instrucción. /// [German] Diese studie berichtet über den direkten und indirekten Einfluß eines Zusammenfassungs-Uebungs-Programms im Meistern von Lesen und Lernen bei 70 Schülern im sechsten Schuljahr. Das Uebungs-Programm verbesserte die Erinnerung von wichtigen, jedoch nicht von weniger wichtigen Informationen bei einer Lern-Aufgabe. Richtungs-Analysen zeigten, daß das Uebungs-Programm indirekten Einfluß hatte auf die Erinnerung von wichtigen Informationen, und zwar deshalb, weil die Schüler sich reichlich Notizen gemacht hatten, was eine metakognitive Hypothese unterstützt. Die Uebungen hatten auch Verbesserungen zur Folge in der Zusammenfassung von Paragraphen, in denen wichtige Punkte enthalten waren, jedoch nicht in solchen, wo die wichtigen Punkte angedeutet waren. Diese Resultate weisen darauf hin, daß Zusammenfassungs-Uebungen wichtiges Werkzeug darstellen zur Verbesserung von Lesen und Lernen. Die Resultate wurden so interpretiert, daß Vorschläge gemacht werden für die Verbesserung des Unterrichts.
This article presents the technique of self-monitoring, whereby students annotate their drafts with comments or queries on their problem areas, before handing their texts in to the teacher. The teacher responds in writing to these notes, thus giving direct and appropriate feedback on the points raised by the students. The use of this technique facilitates the teacher's understanding of the writer's problems and intentions, and allows students more control over the feedback they receive. It enables teacher and student to engage in a dialogue over the text even in circumstances where individual, face-to-face discussions are not possible. 1
Three theoretical explanations have been proposed to account for reactivity in self-monitoring, including Kanfer's cognitive-mediational model, Rachlin's operant recording response model, and Nelson and Hayes's multiple cueing model. The present study compared these models under uniform conditions. Sixty undergraduates were assigned to either self-monitoring (SM); SM plus goal setting (GS); SM, GS, plus self-reinforcement (SR); GS plus SR; or a training only control group. The dependent variable consisted of verbal nonfluencies. Results suggested that although all conditions produced significant reductions in verbal nonfluencies, reactive effects were largest under the two conditions that employed self-reinforcement conditions (i.e., SM + GS + SR, and GS + SR). The role of external contingencies in the reactivity of self-monitoring are discussed.
This study identified strategies used by Grade 6 readers reading three short narratives. Differences in strategy use were studied with reading proficiency and background knowledge varied. Eighty students-40 low-proficiency and 40 high-proficiency readers-comprised the sample. Equal numbers of students were randomly assigned to read either three passages on familiar topics or three passages on unfamiliar topics and to report verbally their thinking as they constructed interpretations. Qualitative analyses showed similarities and differences between young readers' inference strategies and those used by adults as reported in the seminal work of Collins, Brown, and K. M. Larkin (1980). The quantitative analyses showed that an interaction between proficiency and text familiarity determined frequency of strategy use. The strategies most frequently associated with high-proficiency and high-background-knowledge readers are shifting focus when an impasse is reached, confirming prior interpretations, and empathizing with story content. The strategies most frequently associated with low-proficiency and low-background-knowledge readers are assuming default interpretations and withholding or reiterating information.
A study investigated the effect of explicit training and practice in learning strategies on errors in a second language listening cloze test. Subjects were 150 Japanese university students enrolled in four classes of first- or second-year English as a Second Language. Two additional classes served as control group. The treatment group received nine weeks of explicit instruction in the strategies of predicting, listening for key words, and self-monitoring, and had varying amounts of practice in them and were never penalized for wrong guesses. A cloze pretest and posttest were administered to experimental and control groups. In the posttest, treatment groups were told to use prediction and monitoring techniques. Results support the use of learning strategies training for improving listening comprehension. Contains 23 references. (MSE)
A study of learning strategies in second language learning, of both English and other languages, presents a theory of the role learning strategies play and uses it to examine specific studies and to integrate research results. The research and theory described here are based on a cognitive information processing perspective of human thought and action, viewing language as a complex cognitive skill that can be described within the context of cognitive theory. An introductory chapter introduces some early studies on learning strategies in second language learning, and related theoretical background. This is followed by a rationale for cognitively-based theory in second language acquisition, and application of cognitive theory to a set of prevalent constructs emerging in the second language learning literature. Drawing on this theoretical foundation, methods of research on learning strategies, particularly collection of data, are then discussed. Four studies of strategies used by second language learners are analyzed, and conclusions are drawn. The issue of instructing learners in the use of learning strategies is addressed in a separate chapter, with reference made to two related studies. Finally, instructional models and materials for teaching learning strategies are outlined. A glossary and substantial bibliography are included. (MSE)
Examined the relative effects of self-monitoring on-task behavior, academic accuracy, and disruptive behavior by 3 male students (aged 13–14 yrs) with behavior disorders. Of interest were the reactive effects of each self-monitoring procedure, as well as the collateral effects on the other 2 behaviors that were not being self-monitored. The 3 self-monitoring conditions were compared using counterbalanced treatment procedures and a withdrawal design. Results indicate positive effects of self-monitoring on all 3 target behaviors for each S. Although each self-monitoring procedure had similar positive effects, self-monitoring academic accuracy appeared to be most beneficial for these Ss. It resulted in increased academic accuracy and impacted positively on task and disruptive behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies explored a cognitive processing framework for how people read and understand graphs, tables, and illustrations. In Study 1, 16 undergraduates provided verbal protocol data in think-aloud tasks with 4 graphs and 4 illustrations taken from textbooks and newspapers. Ss answered questions that required them to either locate specific details in the documents (local search) or see trends and understand the gist of the documents (global search). In local search, Ss reported thinking about the organization and category structure of the documents. In global search, Ss reported making generalizations and developing abstractions. Study 2, using 55 undergraduates, employed a larger set of documents as well as global and specific questions. Performance on all tasks revealed 1 factor requiring local search and a 2nd factor requiring global search. It appears that performance on the 2nd factor benefitted from abstraction processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
28 students (aged 111–155 mo; IQ range 74–204) with learning disabilities were taught a spelling study procedure (SSP), followed by instruction in self-monitoring of performance (SMP) and self-monitoring of attention (SMA). Results showed that on-task behavior was significantly higher in both SMA and SMP than in SSP. Number of correct practices was significantly higher in SMP than in SSP. Spelling achievement was significantly lower in SMA than in SSP, and spelling maintenance was significantly lower in SMA than in SSP and SMP. Student interviews indicated that SMA was experienced as intrusive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)