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The Ancient Practice of Chinese Social Networking: Guanxi and Social Network Theory
Abstract
The Chinese concept of Guanxi is a form of social QHWZRUNWKHRU\�WKDWGHÏ �QHVRQHpVSODFHLQWKH� social structure and provides security, trust and a prescribed role. This essay argues that Eastern Guanxi and recently popularized Western Social Network Theory (SNT) overlap in three ways. First, both imply that information is essential to sustain a social system by prescribing a set of EHKDYLRUVWKDWUHJXODWHWKH�Ì �RZRILQIRUPDWLRQ� DQGWKDWGHÏ �QHLQVLGHUDQGRXWVLGHUUHODWLRQVKLSV� (Guanxi), or strong ties and weak ties (SNT). Sec- ond, both offer a theory of change coupled with an ethic of sustainability where order is created by trust as a local, relative phenomena. Finally, both Guanxi and SNT characterize randomness and order as essential, though Guanxi favors certainty and trust over chaos. The implications of the comparison undermine the claims of 'new- QHVVpDQGSULPDF\�RIWHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKUHFHQW� SNT literature. Furthermore, they suggest that :HVWHUQQHWZRUNWKHRULVWVFDQJDLQVLJQLÏ �FDQW� insight from traditional Eastern thought.
... It creates a socioemotional pressure that often interacts with individuals' behavior and decision making and is generally perceived as a form of social exchanges that mandates reciprocity (Hong and Engeström, 2004). Guanxi could have positive or negative implications on organizations (Hammond and Glenn, 2004), depending on how and why it is applied (Hong and Engeström, This paper builds on and extends prior research by examining the mediating role of Chinese banking employees' attitudes toward CSR on the association between guanxi and whistleblowing channels (internal versus external). Whistleblowers face threats when they divulge misconduct. ...
... Given the mediating role of the stockholder's view of CSR on external whistleblowing intentions, it would be beneficial to promote employees' CSR training, which may enhance employees' tendency to utilize internal whistleblowing channels. subject, father-son, elder-younger brother, husband-wife, and friend-friend (Hammond and Glenn, 2004). It identifies a set of insiders (collaborators, also known as zi ji ren) and outsiders (competitors, also known as wan ren) where insiders are more valuable to and maintain strong ties with the system than outsiders who maintain weak ties with the system. ...
... It identifies a set of insiders (collaborators, also known as zi ji ren) and outsiders (competitors, also known as wan ren) where insiders are more valuable to and maintain strong ties with the system than outsiders who maintain weak ties with the system. Sharing information with zi ji ren and withholding it from wan ren is a moral obligation among members in a guanxi structure because wan ren brings "change" to guanxi's network and could threaten the fabric of this connection (Hammond and Glenn, 2004). ...
This study examines the mediating role of Chinese banking employees’ attitudes toward Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Specifically, it investigates the impact of individuals’ CSR attitudes on the relation between social networking (guanxi) with their banks’ supervisors and their whistleblowing intentions. Using structural equation modeling with data collected from banking employees in Chinese financial organizations, the study finds that individual attitudes toward CSR
affect employees’ whistleblowing intentions. Specifically, participants with stronger beliefs in ethics and social responsibility (the stakeholder view) are more likely to blow the whistle internally and, conversely, participants with weak beliefs in ethics and social responsibility (the stockholder view) prefer to report wrongdoing through the external channels. This study provides empirical evidence of the mediating mechanism that individual attitudes toward CSR have on the influence of guanxi on employees’ whistleblowing intentions.
Journal of Forensic and Investiagitve Accounting 14 (2): 236-258.
... This idea may be superficial, as guanxi is not only a specific set of rules (Chan et al., 2016). Additionally, understanding of the rules is entirely different when referring to Chinese culture and its social networks, as compared to Western social networks (Hammond and Glenn, 2004). Considering the above, we argue this is a substantial gap in the literature which this research will try to fill. ...
... Network theory stresses the vital role of cooperative activities in international activities (Young, 2003), and is selected to ground our research. Network theory refers to the mechanisms and processes that interact with network structures to produce specific outcomes for individuals, groups and firms (Hammond and Glenn, 2004;Huggins and Thompson, 2015). Network theory is about the consequences of network variables, such as having many ties or being centrally located (Brass et al., 1998). ...
... Additionally, these norms include xinyong (trustworthiness), mianzi (face) and renqing (norms of interpersonal behaviour), which are essential notions in Chinese society that allow a long-term relationship to be established (Qi, 2013). These relationships also provide security, trust and a prearranged role (Hammond and Glenn, 2004). Guanxi helps to boost the efficiency of the business relations, giving firms specific benefits over competitors, and also allows the reduction and fast approval of legal affairs and business bureaucracy (Chan et al., 2003). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to explore the external factors that lead Western firms to fail in the Chinese market, proposing to reveal the main challenges they face in this market, such as culture, guanxi or others. Based on network theory, the authors propose to group failure attributes and actions to predict business failure.
Design/methodology/approach
Qualitative research based on in-depth interviews is conducted, with a sample of 21 individuals, from former/current managers that did or are currently doing business in China and a person from the Chinese Government. This research resorts to inductive reasoning and to Atlas.ti software to perform the analysis.
Findings
The findings reveal that it is possible to cluster seven distinct categories of external factors. Additionally, Chinese culture, local partnerships and the “catching-up effect” by Chinese firms are also external factors to be considered. The role of guanxi in China is changing, taking another format, and international companies in the Chinese market must take this into account.
Research limitations/implications
Several limitations arise in this research, such as information availability and time constraints, sample size and the characteristics of Chinese society (i.e. type of government). This study also proposes further confirmatory research to test the seven clusters proposed.
Practical implications
Managers can understand patterns of business failures when targeting the Chinese market and use the seven clusters as a tool to address this market appropriately in the future.
Originality/value
This paper intends to shed light on Western firms’ business failure in the Chinese market. The authors argue that several external factors linked to network surroundings contribute to Western firms failing in this market and that network failure attribution is still an understudied topic.
... For example, the concept is similar to Blat in Russia (Michailova and Worm 2003), "Good Ol'boy" networks in the United States, and "Old boy" network in the United Kingdom (Ledeneva 1998). Luo (1997) asserts that both guanxi and western networking share common features, and Hammond and Glenn (2004) argue that the Chinese concept of guanxi and western Social Network Theory (SNT) overlap. Redfern and Ho (2009) also support Luo's assertion while their empirical research was directed to Chinese managers. ...
... The concept of boundary in a western social networks context is similar to the concept of gate or door for guanxi i.e., a person inside the door is regarded as one of the group who merits acceptance whereas a person outside the door is regarded as a stranger and is not to be trusted (Luo 1997). Hammond and Glenn (2004) also suggest that the insider and outsider guanxi relationships are similar to the social networking concepts of strong ties and weak ties governing associations. They maintain (p. ...
... 26) that "strong ties are the clusters of people with whom we have regular and direct contact" but "weak ties are the nodes in our social network that reach out beyond immediate friends and family". Both guanxi relationships and western social networks have insider and outsider components in common but guanxi focuses more on trusted insiders while western social networks treat weak ties as new information and opportunities (Hammond and Glenn 2004). These arguments are somewhat consistent with Hofstede's (1980Hofstede's ( , 1991 culture theory, which posits that Chinese have stronger uncertainty avoidance tendencies and a long-term view or orientation. ...
... Although previous studies have investigated guanxi through the lens of social network theory (e.g. Hammond and Glenn, 2004), this study contributes by exploring the constructs of social networks further, providing a clearer picture of what guanxi networks are and why they matter in managing supply chain issues. In social network studies, the constructs of trust, reciprocity, justice orientation and care orientation are reflected as xinren, renqing and ganqing in guanxi networks. ...
... Grannovetter (1992) argued that 'economic action and outcomes, like all social action and outcomes, are affected by others' dyadic (pairwise) relations and by the structure of the overall network of relations' (p.33). Hammond and Glenn (2004) explain, from a social network perspective, how the embeddedness of guanxi created order and predictability through a set of relations including weak ties and strong ties to stabilise the flow of information among ties and allow for adaptation to incremental change. Therefore, this study has taken a social network view and attempted to examine the impact on supply chain capital and sustainability implementation in SCM. ...
... recycling materials or reducing CO 2 emissions). The key players, who are not necessarily experts in the field but know more about sustainable SCM, could offer to help and show their willingness to do so by, for example, sharing relevant information (Hammond and Glenn, 2004). ...
Purpose – The objective of this paper is to explore the embeddness of sustainable supply chain management (SCM) in social networks, in particular, guanxi networks in Confucianism societies. Proposing key paths for further research also provide a significant guideline for future research and global SCM.
Design/methodology/approach – A systematic review of current studies is conducted to investigate the embeddedness supply chain capitals in guanxi netwroks. The evidence related to economic, social and environmental responsibilities of sustainability are recorded. From this, a framework is developed.
Findings – The literature review visualizes the constructs of ganqing, renqing, xinren and mianzi in guanxi networks, and the embeddedness of supply chain capitals. Our framework shows that, apart from generating supply chain capitals flow and trust, guanxi networks also create the mechanism of network governance to moderate the increase of sustainable SCM implementation under the institutional logics of sustainability.
Research limitations- The conceptual framework and justification are based on the review of the current studies of the field; future empirical study is encouraged to test the proposed propositions, both in Confucian cultures and in other emerging areas such as Middle East and Brazil.
Originality/value- Social network is a socially constructed concept, therefore, the constructs of guanxi networks have developed the knowledge of western-based social network theory. This study helps practitioners to understand the logics of this social norm and wisely use it for maximize operation outputs, including sustainable SCM implementation.
... A typical Chinese company is accustomed to living in a clan-like network, called Guanxi wang (Guanxi-net), which includes the direct and indirect blood relationships, distant relatives, direct and indirect friends, colleagues, schoolmates, and others with interests (Luo, 1997;Styles & Ambler, 2003). Due to the low-trust culture (between strangers), the high institutional uncertainties and the imperfection of the legal systems in China (Luo, 1997;Wang, 2007), social norms have been playing a crucial role with Guanxi in regulating the social order and eliminating the uncertainties and chaos (Watt, 1999;Pun, Chin, & Lau, 2000;Hammond & Glenn, 2004). Guanxi is underpinned by Confucianism-the principal value system governing Chinese social behaviour as well as business dynamism (Yum, 1988;Redding, 1993;Bond & Hofstede, 1990). ...
... First, mianzi (face) is regarded as "social currency and personal status" in the Guanxi network, which is often decided by power and wealth (Luo, 1997). Mianzi-saving can be viewed as a strategy to protect selfreputation (Hammond & Glenn, 2004). Another factor to make Guanxi function is 'renqing', which "is a unique term in Chinese culture, often referring to the resource that one can present to another person as a gift in the social exchange process, and a set of social norms that one should follow to get along well with other people" (Hwang, 1987, cited by Wang, 2007. ...
... Weak ties, on the other hand, can bring valuable and novel ideas to the clustered networks (Granovetter, 1973). By the language of Guanxi network theory, the strong ties are named insiders (zijiren) and weak ties are outsiders (wairen) (Hammond & Glenn, 2004). However, as Guanxi is a dynamic networking approach, outsiders can be transformed into insiders with long-term accumulated endeavour, such as trustbuilding activities, emotional bonding, favour exchange, and other reciprocal behaviours (Yau et al., 2000). ...
... In Western society, relationships grow out of (business) deals, while in Asia deals are primarily the result of social interactions, involving the exchange of favors [69]. In addition, these relationships are formed and maintained by personal face-to-face relationships. ...
... Obviously, this does not match with the collectivistic Thai culture. To summarize, the general finding here is that the local Thai culture emphasizes the role of a trusted insider, which is in conflict with Western society's new social network concept that suggests that the new information and opportunities are critical for the survival of any individual [69,70]. In contrast, the development of a 'group app' might be more easily accepted in Thai culture. ...
With the rapid global spread and application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the question is whether every culture makes similar use of the ideology that often underlies its creators' design. ICT applications are designed with underlying beliefs or principles about e.g., work, communication, and individuality. These beliefs or principles are invisible and hidden in software and, as such, in many instances not recognized by users in other cultures. These hidden principles might even frustrate the understanding, use, knowledge-sharing, and e-collaboration between people from different cultures. In this article, we aim to explore, from a historical point of view, the early years of adaptation of ICT in developing countries, and we will highlight the importance of the use of intercultural (ICT-)skills to learn to recognize cultural differences from a relationship-based definition in technology-mediated collaboration. A semi-systematic or narrative review approach is used that is particularly suitable for topics that have been conceptualized differently. Our review firstly summarizes and categorizes the cultural factors impacting the adaptation and diffusion of ICT, especially in developing countries, and investigates which factors could hinder and/or facilitate the collaboration with other countries. Secondly, the findings of a thorough comparison between different intercultural competencies' frameworks indicate that intercultural competencies show a combination of motivation, knowledge (-management), and skills, which are key competencies in the light of successful technology-mediated collaboration.
... Thus, the understanding from interpersonal networks to interorganisational networks can help port logistics companies clarify the effect of interpersonal guanxi on interorganisational relationships and consequent outcome variables, like supply-chain effectiveness and firm performance. Guanxi describes interpersonal relationships among managers that are translated into interorganisational strategies of relying on networks and alliances to advance the firm (Peng et al. 2008)-that is, from micro connections to the macro social order (Hammond and Glenn 2004). Besides, Morgan and Hunt (1994) define relationship marketing as the activity of building, developing, and maintaining a successful business relationship. ...
... Accordingly, as summarised in Table 5 These results suggest that, in both countries, interpersonal relationships have significant effect on interorganisational relationships, reflecting micro connections to the macro social order (Hammond and Glenn 2004). However, for port logistics firms in Taiwan, interpersonal relationships engender more significant effects on supply-chain effectiveness and firm performance than interorganisational relationships, and the opposite is the case in Panama. ...
This study explores the differential impacts of guanxi and relationship marketing, both at the interpersonal and interorganisational level, within the port logistics industry. We compare the effects of these two marketing approaches on outcome variables to elucidate managerial implications for logistics firms conducting cross-cultural business. The PLS-SEM method is used to analyse data from a survey of logistics companies in Taiwan and Panama. In both countries, interpersonal relationships engender significant effects on interorganisational relationships, and firm performance has significant effects on firm loyalty. As regards the determinants of supply-chain effectiveness and firm performance, we show that interpersonal relationships play a more important role in Taiwan, while interorganisational relationships have more weight in Panama. In other words, Asian companies focus on guanxi marketing at the personal level, while Latin American ones focus on relationship marketing at the interorganisational level. These findings and consequent knowledge can help companies conducting business in Asia and Latin America to adapt to counterpart’s cultural business practices.
... It facilitates useful connections to networks of family, friends and associates. Guanxi is a form of SNT which also defines the individual's place in the social network and determines security of position within the network, their trustworthiness and prescribed role (Hammond & Glenn, 2007 ). An individual possessing guanxi relevant to a particular situation can draw on their connections to gain a competitive advantage, or as Bell (2000, p. 132) suggests, access a 'network of assistance'. ...
... Guanxi requires the development and maintenance of an intimate and pervasive relational network in which network members energetically, subtly, and imaginatively engage (Hammond & Glenn, 2007 ). ...
... In such a way, religious communities and families provide a continuous presence during major life events and can serve as a buffer in times of crisis (Stone et al 2004). Social network theory, moreover, posits that strong emotional ties provide trustworthy relationships where one regularly shares information and beliefs (Hammond& Glenn 2004). For example, U. S. Americans perceive clergy as trustworthy sources for information and aid during crises (Gardner 2005). ...
... Respondents at all sites noted a breakdown in official networks and wasted time awaiting rescue from authorities: The sooner they recognized the inadequacy of government response, the quicker they tapped into the unforeseen resources of existing interpersonal and community communication networks. According to social network theory (Hammond and Glenn, 2004), the trust that comes from strong emotional ties is crucial to creating communication networks that can be used during disasters. Respondents expressed anger toward governments and NGOs who had appeared biased and incompetent, largely because of their slow response at interfacing with interpersonal and community networks. ...
This research provides a cross-cultural look at communication's role in community disaster preparation and recovery. Cultures in three diverse sites were investigated: Individuals and community groups in Thailand's Phuket and Phangna provinces which experienced a tsunami in December 2004; in eastern Guyana where flooding devastated coastal areas in January 2005; and in New Orleans, Louisiana, where tens of thousands of people were displaced by the winds of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita and the waters that breached levees in fall 2005. Analyzing data from in-depth interviews and focus groups with individuals; members and leaders of faith-based and community organizations; and members and representatives of governmental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), this study theorizes about the need for community members to strengthen interpersonal and community communication networks as preparation for and survival during disasters.
... In this process, the two stakeholder parties of guanxi have formed a community of interests and mutual trust. This has also led to the emergence of guanxi becoming more important than regulations in the social ecology (54). Similarly, patients hope to use their social networks to find familiar doctors in a particular hospital to treat them. ...
Introduction
This study explores doctors’ and patients’ understandings of citizen journalism on doctor–patient relationship issues. It also examines the communication effect of citizen journalism as a communication platform on doctors and patients who are taking part in the doctor–patient relationship in contemporary China.
Method
This study draws on the analysis of 24 semi-structured interviews with doctors from both publicly funded and privately operated hospital, and nine focus groups which included 36 patients with different socio-economic backgrounds.
Result
The empirical research present the following results: (1) authority and witness are the two key factors to construct the stakeholders’(doctors’ and patients’) awareness and trust of citizen journalist reporting on the doctor–patient relationship issues. (2) stakeholders’ perception on citizen journalism will construct them concern on the uncertain and unfamiliar knowledge during the hospital activities.
Discussion
The interpretation of doctor–patient relationship reports by doctors and patients affects their mutual trust. Authority and witnessing are two key factors that citizen journalists should consider when reporting on doctor–patient relationship news. Doctors from different types of hospitals and patients with different income levels have different understandings of the authority and witnessing of the reported content. Reading the content of doctor–patient conflicts reflected in citizen journalist reports can exacerbate the emotional fluctuations of doctors and patients. After reading these reports, doctors and patients may experience increased anxiety about uncertainty and unfamiliarity in doctor–patient communication.
Contribution
This study provides a framework for public health research from the relationship between communication content and audience. It also provides answers from the perspectives of media and stakeholders to investigate the tension in doctor–patient relationships in China.
... Despite efforts by Chinese e-tailers to improve online security through technology build-ins and infrastructure advancements, beliefs about online insecurity remain ingrained among most Chinese e-buyers (Martinsons, 2008). Guanxi can enhance security by determining people's roles within a social structure (Hammond & Glenn, 2004). Social network theory indicates social networks consist of strong and weak ties, with strong-tie aggregates comprised of people from the same familial, social, or professional group (Badi et al., 2017). ...
China is now a world-leading e-commerce market. As a result, studies to deconstruct online relationships in China can inform marketing scholarship and practice. Hence, our primary goal is to create an improved e-tailing-centric e-guanxi scale to assess guanxi in online B2C and C2C commerce contexts. We also explore and confirm the factors contributing to and stemming from e-guanxi. Two survey-based online studies of Chinese university students were used to test a PLS-SEM model with e-guanxi as the central construct, online communication as the antecedent, and buyer satisfaction, word-of-mouth, and repurchase intention as the consequents. By informing e-guanxi-enhancing strategies, this research can provide insights into e-guanxi’s effect on Chinese e-tail markets and help identify the best e-guanxi-enhancing practices.
... One of the well-known social interactions between the Chinese people is the social network: Guanxi (关系). Guanxi is a form of social network theory in Chinese culture that describes an individual's place in the social structure and provides mutual benefit in personal and business relationships (Hammond & Glenn, 2004). Through this social capital phenomenon, Chinese people share knowledge about countries that are good for visit, settlement, or investment. ...
This paper conduct an empirical research and investigate the effect of China's travel purposes on Hungary's inbound tourism during a period of uncertainty. The study takes into account the influence of the Covid-19 and Ukraine-Russia war on inbound tourism. The short-run monthly sample from January 2018 to July 2022 has been utilzed to capture the uncertain period. A Poisson Regression Model has been applied to calculate the efficacy of China's travel purposes on Hungary's inbound tourism. This study finds that China's leisure and business trips have positive and significant effect on Hungary's inbound tourism. China's business trips has a large contribution to Hungary's inbound tourism than leisure trips. During the uncertain period, the Covid-19 and Ukraine-Russia war had a negative and significant effect on arrivals of tourists to Hungary. Inbound tourism from China to Hungary had contributed positively to the economic performance of Hungary's tourism sector.
... Las históricas organizaciones comunitarias de este grupo se carac-terizaron por tener como objetivo el apoyo mutuo, gracias a la cooperación laboral y personal, a mantener las prácticas culturales y mostrar ciertos niveles de integración gracias a su participación económica en actividades y obras en la región de asentamiento. En los países y localidades donde hay presencia china, histórica o reciente, existen muestras de solidaridad entre paisanos (Hammond y Glenn, 2004), respaldo a los que se quedaron en el país, así como acciones filantrópicas y cívicas en las regiones de residencia (González, 2017). Acciones que no evitan conflictos internos y con miembros de la sociedad de acogida (Nieto y Fisac, 2002;Guerra, 2010). ...
Resumen: Los inmigrantes chinos que arribaron a la costa de Chiapas (México), a prin-cipios del siglo xx, crearon asociaciones que facilitaron su integración. Sus descendientes también han formado sociedades con disímiles proyectos que muestran la heterogenei-dad de la colonia oriental. El objetivo de este artículo es exponer las divergencias gene-racionales de los descendientes a la hora de imaginarse como comunidad y las tensiones producidas con la llegada de nuevos inmigrantes de esa región. Una diferenciación ex-presada en la concepción comercial y en las representaciones culturales que identifican lo chino en territorio chiapaneco.
Abstract: Chinese immigrants who arrived on the coast of Chiapas (Mexico) at the beginning of the 20th century created associations that facilitated their integration. Their descendants have also formed associations with dissimilar projects that show the het-erogeneity of the Chinese colony. The objective of this article is to expose the genera-tional divergences of Chinese descendants when it comes to imagining themselves as a community and the tensions produced with the arrival of new Chinese immigrants. A differentiation expressed in the commercial conception and in the cultural representations that identify Chinese in Chiapas.
... On average, each letter was forwarded about six times before it arrived. Milgrem's experiment and further research led to the "small world theory" which suggests that, on average, there is no more than six degrees of separation between one person and any other person on the planet (Hammond & Glenn, 2004). ...
This study aims to conceptually address the Social Networks Theory in today's world, where social media is gradually increasing its power, metaverse universes are being talked about, and the web 3.0 transition has begun. For this purpose, in the study, firstly explanatory information on Social Networks Theory was discussed and then the study was concluded by making a literature review. In the theoretical part, which includes conceptual information, the definition of Social Networks, the brief history of Social Networks Theory, its dimensions and illuminating elements are included. In the literature review section, it is explained how the scanning is done in general, and the 3 most cited studies on Social Networks Theory in foreign literature are discussed in detail. Then, Turkish sources were examined and information was given about the 3 most cited studies. Since the study is a literature analysis, it contains compiling information for subsequent studies. A summary of the literature has been prepared for the authors who will work on Social Networks Theory in the following periods. The limitations of the study do not exist since it was written as a literature analysis in essence.
... En resumen, su éxito muchas veces se ha analizado desde una mirada esencialista que destaca el rol de las prescripciones confucianas en los roles familiares y en los lazos particularistas de relaciones tipo Guānxì, cuyos fundamentos estarían en una ética colectivista de lealtad familiar y confianza (Yang 1994;Guthrie 1998;Luo 1997;Hammond y Glenn 2004;Tsai 2007;Hu, Schaufeli y Taris 2016). En el polo opuesto, como vimos, otros autores han fijado el análisis en los obstáculos que precisamente constituyen esas relaciones familiares para el desarrollo y expansión mundial (Fairbank 1960;Parsons 1971;Weber 1997, entre otros). ...
En este artículo analizamos la relación entre los patrones familiares y las prácticas económicas de las redes comerciales chinas en su expansión hacia Latinoamérica. Durante los últimos diez años los comerciantes chinos instalados en España, principalmente familias de la provincia de Zhejiang, han comenzado a desplazarse hacia América Latina, en especial a Chile, controlando extensas cadenas globales de mercancías que penetran desde allí a otros países sudamericanos. Describiremos en primer lugar sus características para luego discutir cuáles de ellas potencian o dificultan su lógica empresarial y su expansión comercial.
... It can be viewed as an extended family where trust and reliability are basic conditions for providing lifelong reciprocal favors. Thus, when there is a difficulty, people involved may try to resort to their guanxi to help solve the problem (Leung, Wong & Wong 1996;Liu 2008;Hammond & Glenn 2004;Lau 2000). When possible, business is carried out among people belonging to the same guanxi, which goes against the principle of fair competition in a market economy. ...
China does not have a unified and consistent ethical understanding. Ethics have to be mostly conceived and applied in personal terms. At the negotiation table, parties bring their own moral principles and values from their cultural background, education, and experience. Justice principles anchored in Chinese moral philosophy clearly take precedence over legal justice principles. For a Chinese negotiator, striking a deal is a process of balancing between two contradictory sets of values: Confucius’ notions of rightness, and those of modern distributive (and procedural) justice. Now, distributive justice implies a whole range of criteria, such as rewards according to efforts, merits, and contribution, as well as need. Equality is still not on the Chinese justice agenda. Fairness has to find its own way between guanxi requirements, traditional nepotism, the influence of symbols, propitious numbers, references to ancestors, feng shui, and astrology.
... Social network theory points out that social networks are composed of a series of subjects and ties between subjects [24], and interpersonal and inter-organizational relationships are regarded as the medium through which one subject obtains various resources from other subjects [25]. This theory explains individual behavior in the network and system behavior as a whole. ...
In the context of digitalization, business model innovation has become a key way for enterprises to obtain competitive advantages. However, many small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) still do not know how to effectively realize business model innovation. Exploring the factors affecting the realization of business model innovation or the effective path to promote business model innovation in SMEs has become a hot topic of research. Exogenous growth theory points out that network ties have become an important way for SMEs to obtain external resources and promote enterprise growth. However, the existing research ignores the impact of network ties on the SMEs’ business model innovation. Focusing on this theoretical gap, this study constructs a “network ties - business model innovation - enterprise growth” model to explore the influence mechanism of five network ties of SMEs: customer ties, supplier ties, competitor ties, political ties, and knowledge ties on business model innovation and enterprise growth. Based on a questionnaire survey of 234 SMEs in Chengdu, China, the research hypothesis was tested using PLS-SEM and fsQCA. The PLS-SME results show that the customers, suppliers, competitors, and knowledge ties of SMEs have a significant positive effect on business model innovation, and business model innovation has a significant positive effect on enterprise growth. In addition, business model innovation plays a mediating role between supplier ties, competitor ties, knowledge ties, and enterprise growth. The fsQCA results show that three paths lead to high-level business model innovation of SMEs, among which customer ties, supplier ties, competition ties, and knowledge ties are the necessary conditions, and three paths lead to high-level growth of SMEs, among which business model innovation is the most core necessary condition. The conclusion of this study not only enriches the relevant research on social network theory and business model innovation but also provides practical insights for SME managers to use network ties to realize business model innovation and promote enterprise growth.
... These theoretical insights may provide important clues for a social physiological explanation of possible competitive dynamics among firms (Kilduff, 2019). A majority of the studies on interorganizational networks (Van De Ven, 1976;Ring and Van De Ven, 1994;Westphal et al., 1997;Gulati, 1998;Gulati and Gargiulo, 1999;Hammond and Glenn, 2004) are mostly concerned with the patterns and consequences of positive tie formation. There is however a limited number of macro-level studies (Sytch and Tatarynowicz, 2013;Abosag et al., 2016;Pillai et al., 2017) investigating the explanatory potential of negative interactions among firms. ...
Purpose
This study aims at developing a conceptual framework for the networking behaviour of firms having relational and non-relational competitive interactions. Initially the question of how negative ties change the meaning of competition for the rival firms was discussed and then how these types of interactions can change possible networking preferences of organizations were theoretically estimated.
Design/methodology/approach
This study suggests that relational rivalry is closely linked with negative ties and even the emergence of strong positive ties among firms is viewed as a consequence of dyadic negative interactions. Different types of competitive conditions were classified under non-relational and relational categories.
Findings
Not applicable.
Originality/value
A majority of the studies on interorganizational networks are mostly concerned with positive tie formation patterns and the consequences of these interactions. However, there is limited number of macro-level studies, which realized explanatory potential of the negative interfirm relations. Negative interorganizational relations may also make significant contributions to the discipline of economic sociology.
... These theoretical insights may provide important clues for a social physiological explanation of possible competitive dynamics among firms (Kilduff, 2019). A majority of the studies on interorganizational networks (Van De Ven, 1976;Ring and Van De Ven, 1994;Westphal et al., 1997;Gulati, 1998;Gulati and Gargiulo, 1999;Hammond and Glenn, 2004) are mostly concerned with the patterns and consequences of positive tie formation. There is however a limited number of macro-level studies (Sytch and Tatarynowicz, 2013;Abosag et al., 2016;Pillai et al., 2017) investigating the explanatory potential of negative interactions among firms. ...
This study suggests an alternative method to mall managers and investors that might be helpful to find an ideal tenant mix. Paths of 700 customers in a super-regional shopping mall were determined and their interactions were analyzed by using network analysis techniques. Interaction patterns of the visitors among stores according to the frequency of visits and educational levels were compared. The findings highlight emergence of different patterns between groups.
... The agent was an important part of the Associate Dean's network. Such connections in China are termed guanxi and have been described as working in a similar way to social network theory (Hammond and Glenn 2004). Without these connections, this project would probably not have happened. ...
Similar to the research in Chap. 5, which explored educator’s perspectives of children’s learning in the infant/toddler years, this study investigated the perspective of early childhood educators in Australia and China on children’s learning and optimal conditions for learning for preschool children. The same structured questionnaire used for the infant/toddler study was also conducted in both countries and four main questions were investigated; what situations can be characterized as learning? What activities are important for learning? What are the best conditions for children’s learning? How do early childhood educators understand participation in relation to children’s learning? Internationalization of education has seen relationships develop between countries and an exploration of educator’ theories on children and learning can provide a nuanced approach to comparative research. The findings suggest there is significant sharing of ideas as well as important differences across the contexts of Australia and China.
... Guanxi capital can then be defined as the accumulated wealth and potential resources gained from practice of Guanxi relations or networking activities. Structurally, Guanxi capital is within the extended scope of social capital, in parallel with the basic attributes of social networks popularized in Western literature (Hammond/Glenn 2004). Tab. 1 lists the common properties of social capital and Guanxi capital. ...
... A collectivistic organizational culture may also have a moderating effect on the relationship between ownership symbiosis and firm performance for two reasons. On the one hand, collectivistic cultural value is said to be more congruent with symbiotic networks (e.g., Hammond & Glenn, 2004), and the reason is that collectivists do better in inter-group transactions in order to improve firm performance (Chen, Peng, & Saparito, 2002). On the other hand, studies have suggested that, when a group or an organization develops a strong collectivistic cultural value among its employees, the efficiency of internal transactions can be improved (e.g., Chatman, Polzer, Barsade, & Neale, 1998;Francesco & Chen, 2004). ...
... "Mianzi" (face) and "renqing" (favor) are important factors and tools in extending and manipulating the guanxi network (Luo 1997;Hwang 1987). Mianzi is regarded as the tactic of protecting one's own reputation since it represents social currency and personal status in the guanxi network (Luo 1997;Hammond, Glenn 2004). In the guanxi network, participants must abide by the promise and obligation of reciprocity and equity. ...
Trust is regarded as a critical feature and a central mechanism in business transactions, especially in the Chinese guanxi network. In this context, the major objective of this research is to explore the key factors influencing trust in different stages of a construction project from the perspectives of owners and consultants involved in a Sino-German eco-park in China. The analytic network process (ANP) was employed to assess which factors are most closely related to trust and to establish four models to meet the objective of this study. According to the ANP results, trust is strongly influenced by factors that are associated with the mutual interests between owners and consultants. In addition, there are certain differences in the priority of the factors influencing initial trust between owners and consultants, but these gaps gradually decrease over time. The weight of guanxi also decreases over time, and the owners’ and consultants’ guanxi transforms from out-group to in-group focused.
... The discussion of whether the development of western-type legal institutions in China would lead to a decline of guanxi assumes, for instance, the higher efficiency of legal enforcement of contract and protection of property rights over against the informality of particularistic reciprocal exchanges (Guthrie, 1998; see also Yang, 2002). A continuing presence of guanxi in the economies of Chinese cultural areas outside of mainland China, such as Singapore and Taiwan, in which the rule of law has a significant presence, and its continuing role in those areas of the mainland Chinese economy that have been subject to corporate governance reform (Chen & Easterby-Smith, 2008;Chen et al., 2013: 193;Hammond & Glenn, 2004) raises the question not of 'will guanxi atrophy?' or even 'will it be crowded out by competing institutions?' but rather 'in what areas of the economy is the application of guanxi efficient?' ...
Research on guanxi is conducted principally within the disciplines of anthropology, business studies and sociology. It typically takes the form of empirical case studies, applications of extrinsic theory and literature reviews cum trend reports. The present paper, on the other hand, provides an analysis of guanxi in consideration of its elemental relations, components and properties. Discussion indicates the limitations of treatments of guanxi in terms of trust, guanxi bases, tie-strength and the conveyance of influence and information. Having established the characteristic features of guanxi discussion then turns to how it may be an option or choice of commitment for persons and groups in contemporary China, its form and role in marketized exchanges, and how the efficiency of guanxi may be characterized.
... The People's Bank of China estimates that between the mid-1990s and 2008, nearly 18,000 Chinese officials working as executives at state-owned enterprises received, in sum, $123 billion (Seligson 2009). This dynamic is further fueled by the Chinese cultural reverence to guanxi, which references the Chinese commitment towards having strong relationships and protecting one's social webs of connections (Hammond and Glenn 2004). This strong cultural belief in close relations with those you work with or associate with can result in situations where unqualified persons are awarded important positions. ...
China has implemented a model of state capitalism while the growth of the United States in the same time period occurred using a market-driven liberalism model. While evidence indicates that China’s state-owned companies are less innovative and productive than their private competitors, China’s control pattern of free-market competition has been amazingly successful. This article shows that there are distinct differences between China’s state capitalism model and the U.S. economic model. China and the U.S. are not competitors in a zero-sum game. The dynamic between the American and Chinese economies continues to develop into a more mature relationship than an outright competition.
... Complexity theory as a new version of general systems theory mainly focuses on how the interactions lead to emergence and self-organization of micro and macro level living systems (Holland, 1995). Some authors classify social networks studies as a sub field of complexity theory because researchers try to explain nonlinear behavior of the living systems by examining interactions between nodes (Hammond and Glenn, 2004). These main scientific fields of inquiry have generated some tools to understand structure, behavior and change of the networks. ...
There has been an increasing interest in organization theory field towards network theory and methodology during the recent years. Academy of Management Review which is one of the most important journals in this field published a special issue concerning the organizational networks. Social embeddedness theory of Granovetter (1985) can be seen as a milestone for the widespread usage of social network methodology in the field of economics and management. Network research methodology has gained importance to measure the social capital of the organizations (Bordieu, 1983 and Coleman, 1988) for understanding institutional effects in an organizational field (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; Galaskiewicz and Wasserman, 1989) and to map resource dependency relations between organizations (Pfefer and Salancik, 1978). Networks research methodology can also be used to determine some micro issues in organizations like coalition groups, cliques, social capital formation tendency of the actors. The purpose of this study is to provide information to the potential researchers about basic aspects of social network theory, usage areas in organizational research field, data collection, data entry, measurement items, data analysis and software tools for analyzing social networks.
... As discussed frequently in the literature, information exchange is the primary motivation for communication and social relations (31Á33). Chinese social networks have strict boundaries that define insiders and outsiders in relation to the individuals in the social network (33). Hwang (34) states that individuals are 'not morally obligated' to trust in those who are outsiders. ...
Background:
This paper reports on a research study that aims to identify and explain barriers to knowledge sharing (KS) in the provision of healthcare referral services in Chinese healthcare organisations.
Design:
An inductive case study approach was employed, in which 24 healthcare professionals and workers from four healthcare organisations in the province of Hubei, Central China, were interviewed using semi-structured scripts.
Results:
Through data analysis, 14 KS barriers emerged in four main themes: interpersonal trust barriers, communication barriers, management and leadership barriers, and inter-institutional barriers. A cause-consequence analysis of the identified barriers revealed that three of them are at the core of the majority of problems, namely, the absence of national and local policies for inter-hospital KS, lack of a specific hospital KS requirement, and lack of mutual acquaintance.
Conclusions:
To resolve KS problems, it is of great importance that healthcare governance agencies, both at the national and regional levels, take leadership in the process of KS implementation by establishing specific and strong policies for inter-institutional KS in the referral process. This paper raises important issues that exceed academic interests and are important to healthcare professionals, hospital managers, and Information communication technology (ICT) managers in hospitals, as well as healthcare politicians and policy makers.
Internal marketing (IM) has been widely studied from various perspectives. However, despite its potential to enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty, further exploration is needed, as many organizations have yet to fully embrace the concept. In response, internal marketing mix (IMM) has developed a unique set of components to assist organizations in achieving their IM objectives. This chapter seeks to enhance the understanding of IMM as a context-dependent practice and its evolution over the years. The authors address the following questions through a comprehensive literature review: How has IMM evolved over recent decades, and what are the primary approaches in IMM? How can these approaches be implemented in an organizational context? The authors discuss three dominant approaches to IM: transactional internal marketing (TIM), relational internal marketing (RIM), and guanxi internal marketing (GIM), which effectively address the role of employees in organizational success. Following the discussion of the three dominant approaches to IM, the authors delve into each approach individually by examining the 4Ps of marketing mix. The chapter’s insights and findings provide a comprehensive insight into the complex facets of IM and its impact on effective organizational management, as well as enhancing employee engagement, satisfaction, and well-being. This understanding equips strategists and practitioners with valuable knowledge to make informed decisions.
Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) play a major role in the world economy accounting for humongous economic development and employment growth. On the other hand, the revolution in information technology (IT) and communications has changed the way people conduct business today. Thus, the reinvention of marketing requires a cursory examination of the role of e-marketing and technological capabilities on the performance of SMEs is imperative. A cross-sectional survey was used to collect data from SMEs in Northeast Nigeria, while the Linear Regression model was deployed to test hypotheses. The study found that e-marketing has a significant effect on competitive advantage, Sales volume, customer retention, and market share Furthermore, the technological capabilities of small businesses have proven to be a catalyst to the performance of SMEs in Northeast Nigeria. Beneficiaries of this research include Researchers, Entrepreneurs, Policy makers, and practitioners.KeywordsE-marketingTechnological capabilitiesSMECompetitive advantage
Research design aims to provide a rationale, framework and structure before engaging with data collection and data analysis (Vaus, Research design in social research, Sage, 2001). A reasonable research design defines the structure of the research process, arrangement of the different methods required to respond to the research questions and the different outputs at each of the stages established.
OBJECTIVES: The high turnover rate of nurses has been a matter of debate among scholars. Nurses’ social interaction patterns and the social structure they are situated within may provide clues about possible causes of their high turnover intentions. This study aims to investigate the possible effects of negative and positive ties on the intention of turnover among nurses.
DESIGN & SETTING: A hybrid research methodology was used. Social network analysis was used to reveal the positions of the nurses (n = 126) in the positive and negative networks. A statistical model was formed with varying types of centrality measures, intragroup conflict, and intention to leave variables. The data was collected from all the nurses working in a special branch hospital.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The findings of the study clearly indicate that negative interactions directly and indirectly affect the intention to leave, and the nurses demand professional support from their colleagues. The findings also show the existence of a fragmented social structure among nurses, which suggests the increased importance of brokerage roles.
Managers should closely monitor the negative interactions among nurses, and they need to use conflict management techniques frequently to reduce hostile relations in the business environment. Managers should especially seek ways to increase altruistic tendencies among colleagues because nurses demand professional support ties more than friendship relations.
It is common knowledge that Australian universities have become active players in the international education market since the 1980s. Partnerships have taken myriad forms, many of them brokered through agents. The focus of this study was a product of the relationship between a multinational agency and two universities, one in China and one in Australia. These universities both offered early childhood teaching degrees. It was agreed students from China would study for two years in their home country and then transfer to Australia for two years, graduating with a dual degree. Other aspects of the initiative have involved lecturers from Australia visiting China to teach into the undergraduate early childhood degree. Lecturer visits commenced in 2013 and the first cohort of students arrived in Australia in 2014.
La Zona Franca de Iquique (ZOFRI, Chile) es uno de los principales puntos de ingreso de mercancías chinas a América Latina. En su salida de Chile, su primer mercado es Bolivia y luego Paraguay, el reconocido gran depósito hacia Brasil. Este tránsito global desde China requiere acomodos locales, "étnicos" si se quiere, que leen de diferente forma la utilidad mercantil y los medios para obtenerla. Este artículo indaga en las prácticas de las redes chinas en la zona, legitimadas culturalmente en una lógica de establecer "relaciones" llamada "guanxi" (关 系), que opera según "acuerdos particularistas" que ensamblan o tensionan la sociedad de llegada y su "universalidad" del imperio de la ley. Intentaremos mostrar esta convivencia, y también sus fracturas.
The Free Trade Zone of Iquique (ZOFRI, Chile) is one of the main points of entry of Chinese goods to Latin America. In Iquique a flow begins firstly to Bolivia and secondly to Paraguay, the great deposit of the Brazilian market. This article investigates the practices of Chinese networks in the area, culturally legitimized in a logic of "relations" called "guanxi" (关 系), which operates according to "particularist agreements" that coexist, assemble or stress the society of arrival and his "universality" of the rule of law.
In China, guanxi is a unique and ubiquitous informal social network. Previous research on guanxi has focused on management, sociology and economics in China. This paper proposes for the first time that guanxi is a significant literary archetype in Chinese fiction. The guanxi archetype originated from the coincidence between an upsurge in fiction writing and the social turbulence created by the economic transformation that occurred in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Confucianism, the cultural root of guanxi, was fortified during the violent ethical upheaval of this era, reinforcing guanxi’s status in both social realities and fictional narratives. As a form of social capital, guanxi was interwoven into the expanded commercialization in this transitional epoch, becoming a shortcut for securing one’s material interests through information asymmetry and flaws in the legal system and thus creating social inequity. Culturally, guanxi therefore earned derogatory implications during the late Ming dynasty, when commercialism prospered, in contrast to its positive evaluation in the early Ming dynasty, when commercialism was less significant. As guanxi is a ubiquitous institution that has been embedded in the social structure of China for more than 2000 years and thoroughly permeates quotidian life, the guanxi archetype persists in modern and contemporary fiction. With the increasing importance of guanxi in China, it will not only remain a significant literary archetype but also be an avenue to interpret Chinese literature.
This chapter summarizes the entire book focusing on key research findings, managerial implication and limitation, and future research. It argues the contribution to the field of guanxi and social network theory in the cross-cultural context and highlights six models and frameworks developed in this book and their impact and importance.
Improvements in information & communication technologies have reshaped production and consumption relations in the post-modern era. Societies have tried to readapt themselves to the requirements of new knowledge based economy. It has also became vital for the organizations to answer the needs of knowledge society. Whether they are public or private, organizations will play a key role during the transformation process of the societies and economies. It is not only important for the organizations to use the latest information technologies but also create social structures which can ease information flow throughout the organization. Social network studies which are quite different from traditional approaches in sociology can be used as a tool to understand and manipulate organizational networks. The results of several research activities have shown that actors use their social connections to reach information, resources and possible opportunities (Garguilo and Benassi, 2000). It is not enough to use advanced information technologies in the organization to build an effective knowledge distribution system regarding to social network perspective, it is required to understand the patterns of social interactions between actors and to find a fit between technical structure and social structure for effective knowledge based organizational design. Structural holes theory (Burt, 1992) emphasized importance of brokerage roles of the actors in a social network. Structural holes, represent unconnected parts between actors and brokers are the actors who connects the unconnected parts of the social systems (Burt, 1992). If there are lots of structural holes in an organization, there will also be lots of brokerage opportunities for some actors in an organizational network. Brokers are the bridges and gatekeepers who are 42 controlling information flow in the organizations. It is vitally important to explore brokerage patterns in an organizational network for an effective knowledge based design. This study is a conceptual framework aims at bringing an explanation to socially created information flow structures in the organizations by using structural holes theory.
This chapter discusses the impact of guanxi on the capacity of small- and medium-sized businesses accessing informal financial resources. Entrepreneurs starting a business outside their country of origin can face barriers in accessing capital, customers, or suppliers. Guanxi facilitates interaction between companies and people in Confucianist societies, including when they emigrate to other nations. Does this type of social construct still play the key role, when Confucian entrepreneurs live in Western societies? Based on interviews with Chinese entrepreneurs active in the principal business center of Brazil and nonparametric test data, our results suggest that different levels of guanxi allow SME businesses to access informal financial resources; the entrepreneur’s different levels of guanxi, in terms of parental and nonfamily ties, influence the types of informal financing that might be available; unlike the Western literature on the financial cycles of start-ups, this type of informal financing can extend beyond the initial stage of the business; and finally, an entrepreneur’s lack of speaking the local language presents a barrier for Chinese entrepreneurs to access formal bank loans.
Studying the social behaviors in web-forums helped to understand how users behaved online, and why they remain committed to online interactions when there is little or no marked individual gain. The present study argues that online Guanxi that is made-up of discourse features of trust, social presence and face-saving acts played important roles in building online Guanxi in web-forums. Cumulatively these three aspects of online bonding together were termed as online Guanxi. However, this paper will discuss only one of the discourse features which is trust. Broadly speaking, Guanxi aided the web-forum interaction by getting forum members to indulge in return?action in a broader context of exchange, where an initial information seeking act necessitated responding messages. Guanxi was sought in web-forums not to profit or benefit, as in a contract or economic exchange, but rather Guanxi became the foreground that necessitated interactivity when forum members recognized the other forum members' need to share information.
This book investigates rural–urban income inequality in China, and the existing literature has examined this issue extensively. Whereas the purpose of this book is to explore from the rural perspective we believe the following theories and thoughts are closely related to our research.
This paper explores the role of guanxi, particularly in its special form of tunqin, in building rural resilience in a poverty-stricken county in north China. The emphasis of this paper is placed on the nature and function of such guanxi. By presenting how guanxi is maintained, this paper also analyses the impact and effectiveness of local guanxi as a strategy to cope with poverty. Whereas tunqin guanxi appears to have built rural resilience in order to cushion villagers against life's upheavals, the maintenance of rural guanxi diminishes this resilience as scarce resources are spent on the exchange of cash gifts, thus aggravating local poverty.
The rise of China troubles the taken-for-granted epistemological and ontological constitution of International Relations (IR) theory. The Greek term 'theoria' implied travelling to foreign locales with the aim of gaining illumination that can then simultaneously inform and transform the 'home' of the traveler. Yet, instead of travelling, IR theory engages in silencing. This paper undertakes an interpretative journey of China's IR concepts. In particular, it looks at the notion of guanxi - one of the two terms that goes into the Chinese phrase for International Relations (guoji guanxi). The contention is that 'relationality' renders a more accurate translation of guanxi in English. In the process, the paper uncovers the practices of 'international relationality' as an opportunity to redefine the 'international' as a co-dependent space where two or more actors (despite their divergences) can interface into a dialogical community.
Since the emergence of the Islamic Republic in Iran, social scientists, including international relations (IR) scholars, have been called to develop endogenous/ indigenous theories to reflect Iranian/Islamic points of view. This theorizing has led some Iranian scholars to develop ideas about international life on the basis of Islamic texts and teachings. Furthermore, due to an increasing awareness of the Eurocentric nature of IR theories over the last few years, the international community of IR scholars has become open to non-Western IR theories. This opening has made homegrown theorizing more attractive to Iranian IR scholars, and debates about it have become more vivid. This article seeks to examine the attempts by the Iranian IR community to conceptualize and theorize IR from Iranian/Islamic points of view and to show how contextual factors have limited such attempts. The first part of the article reviews the IR scholarship in Iran to give a portrait of Iranians' achievements in this regard. The second part examines contextual factors that may have affected homegrown theorizing in Iran, including international agency, sources of inspiration, the dynamism of the IR community, the relationship between academia and government, and intellectual autonomy. An evaluation of this structural context suggests that even if theorizing IR from an Iranian point of view is both possible and preferable, this cannot be done unless certain structural constraints are overcome.
Among Chinese immigrants in Spain, there exists a distinction whether they are coming from Wenzhou port or Qingtian mountain range, both neighbor locations in the province of Zhejiang and main migratory cores towards the Iberian Peninsula. Starting from this identity distinction, I analyze the presence of “ethnic” reciprocity structures inside the transnational migratory space that are favoring the entry of immigrants into instrumental and consumption rationality patterns. In this article I focus on one of them: mianzi (面子) or face , main source of symbolic capital and the base of the status among Chinese people. I present some of the configurative institutions of mianzi and of the legitimacies that build its value. Despite its entrante in western modernity, mianzi appears as a resourceful structure adapting to new social spaces through the comprehensive meanings and practices that it covers.
This paper explores the role of guanxi , particularly in its special form of tunqin , in building rural resilience in a poverty-stricken county in north China. The emphasis of this paper is placed on the nature and function of such guanxi . By presenting how guanxi is maintained, this paper also analyses the impact and effectiveness of local guanxi as a strategy to cope with poverty. Whereas tunqin guanxi appears to have built rural resilience in order to cushion villagers against life's upheavals, the maintenance of rural guanxi diminishes this resilience as scarce resources are spent on the exchange of cash gifts, thus aggravating local poverty.
Résumé
L’émergence de la Chine, et notamment l’internationalisation accélérée des entreprises chinoises ces dernières années, interpellent et semblent nous imposer de nouveaux défis culturels. Cet article a pour objectif
de comprendre les mécanismes des guanxi - les réseaux sociaux chinois - qui entrent en jeu dans le contexte d’internationalisation des entreprises chinoises en France. L’intérêt de cette étude est de présenter un cas unique, à multiples niveaux de guanxi, à travers le fonctionnement de l’Association for Europe-China Cooperation (AECC), une agence d’accompagnement des entreprises dans les échanges commerciaux entre la Chine et l’Europe. L’exemple développe le cas de la ville de Mingshan qui cherche à internationaliser ses entreprises notamment vers la France.
Abstract
The emergence of China, and especially the accelerated internationalization of Chinese companies in recent years, are quite striking and seem to bring about new cultural challenges. This aim of this article is to explain the mechanisms of guanxi - or Chinese social networks - that come into play in the context of the internationalization of Chinese enterprises in France. The interest of this study is to present a single qualitative case with multi-level guanxi relations, by analyzing the operation of the Association for
Europe-China Cooperation (AECC), an agency providing assistance to companies in trade relations between China and Europe. The study focuses on the case of the city of Mingshan (China) seeking to internationalize its business, especially in France.
This book considers the nature and possibilities of conceptual change and transformation under conditions of globalization, especially with regard to Chinese social and cultural concepts. It argues that the influence of globalization promotes the spread of West European and American social science concepts and methods at the expense of local concepts and approaches, and at the same time (paradoxically) provides opportunities for the incorporation of local concepts, including Chinese concepts, into Western or mainstream social science.
The place of origin -Wenzhou port or Qingtian mountain range, both located in the province of Zhejiang- is a mark of identity among the Chinese immigrants in Spain. In this transnational immigration context, I analyze the way the presence of "ethnic" structures of reciprocity has started to stimulate migrants to merge with instrumental and consumption rationality patterns. As one of those patterns, Mianzi or face is the main source of symbolic capital and the base for the high prestige among Chinese people. In this article, I discuss some of the institutions and legitimacies that constitute the values of mianzi. Along with a wide range of meanings and practices, mianzi becomes a structure that far from experiencing a weakness because its entrance in Western modern age, adjusts to new social spaces and accounts for its relevance.
Research regarding the development of guanxi, especially outside China, is scarce. A through literature review conducted as part of this research found only five different models and from these three were from Hong Kong. The guanxi development model, which includes the most variables, that is, the membership type, network level, and tie type of the relational actors. A single case relationship between a Hongkongese industrial customer and a Finnish industrial supplier tests the theoretical model. It is suitable for the setting and is tested in three further case relationships for Chinese industrialcustomers and Finnish industrial sellers.
This essay presents the logical and empirical requirements for studying communication from the systems perspective. Four alternatives are distinguished: open, closed, cybernetic, and structural‐functional systems. The systems perspective is contrasted with competing theoretical views, and it is argued that the systems view can incorporate important aspects of each. A brief account of the epistemic framework provided by systems is provided.
This paper presents an account of politeness phenomena in modern Chinese. The modern conception of politeness as well as its historical origin are discussed. A critical comparison is made between western notions of face and politeness and their Chinese counterparts. Four politeness maxims are formulated and illustrated. The relation between politeness on the one hand, and language and conversation on the other, is also discussed.
The economic miracle of East Asia is followed by the emergence of a new common identity in Confucianism among the nations in the region. Being the predominant cultural determining force in East Asia, Confucianism has deeply influenced East Asian behaviour. Three behavioural traits in East Asians are discussed. First, the East Asian's lack of "personality" is traced to the Confucian social institution of Li-rules of propriety. Second, the East Asian's lack of principled moral thinking is linked to the dyadic, relation-based character of the Confucian ethic, its lack of hypothetical reasoning and its hierarchical view of human relationships. Third, the East Asian's lack of assertiveness is rooted in the Confucian ideal of man as a reflection of harmony in the cosmos and the Confucian ideal of society as based on the fulfillment of duties rather than the assertion of rights. The implications of these Confucian traits suggest the need to re-formulate Western conceptions of and approaches to East Asian behaviour.
Most Westerners preparing for a business trip to China like to arm themselves with a list of etiquette how-tos. "Carry a boatload of business cards," tipsters say. "Bring your own interpreter." "Speak in short sentences." "Wear a conservative suit." Such advice can help get companies in the door and even through the first series of business transactions. But it won't sustain the prolonged, year-in, year-out associations Chinese and Western businesses can now achieve. The authors' work with dozens of companies and thousands of American and Chinese executives over the past 20 years has demonstrated that a superficial adherence to etiquette rules gets executives only so far. They have witnessed communication breakdowns between American and Chinese businesspeople time and time again. The root cause: the American side's failure to understand the much broader context of Chinese culture and values, a problem that too often leaves Western negotiators flummoxed and flailing. American and Chinese approaches often appear incompatible. Americans see Chinese negotiators as inefficient, indirect, and even dishonest, while the Chinese see American negotiators as aggressive, impersonal, and excitable. Such perceptions have deep cultural origins. Yet those who know how to navigate these differences can develop thriving, mutually profitable, and satisfying business relationships. Four cultural threads have bound the Chinese people together for some 5,000 years, and these show through in Chinese business negotiations. They are agrarianism, morality, the Chinese pictographic language, and wariness of strangers. Most Western businesspeople often find those elements mysterious and confusing. But ignore them at any time during the negotiation process, and the deal can easily fall apart.