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Einstein's revolutionary light-quantum hypothesis
Abstract
The paper in which Albert Einstein proposed his light-quantum hypothesis
was the only one of his great papers of 1905 that he himself termed
``revolutionary.'' Contrary to widespread belief, Einstein did not
propose his light-quantum hypothesis ``to explain the photoelectric
effect.'' Instead, he based his argument for light quanta on the
statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics, with the
photoelectric effect being only one of three phenomena that he offered
as possible experimental support for it. I will discuss Einstein's
light-quantum hypothesis of 1905 and his introduction of the
wave-particle duality in 1909 and then turn to the reception of his work
on light quanta by his contemporaries. We will examine the reasons that
prominent physicists advanced to reject Einstein's light-quantum
hypothesis in succeeding years. Those physicists included Robert A.
Millikan, even though he provided convincing experimental proof of the
validity of Einstein's equation of the photoelectric effect in 1915. The
turning point came after Arthur Holly Compton discovered the Compton
effect in late 1922, but even then Compton's discovery was contested
both on experimental and on theoretical grounds. Niels Bohr, in
particular, had never accepted the reality of light quanta and now, in
1924, proposed a theory, the Bohr-Kramers-Slater theory, which assumed
that energy and momentum were conserved only statistically in
microscopic interactions. Only after that theory was disproved
experimentally in 1925 was Einstein's revolutionary light-quantum
hypothesis generally accepted by physicists---a full two decades after
Einstein had proposed it.
... In his explanation to the photo electric efect in 1905, Einstein invoked quanta (photon) as theoretical justiication to expel electron from the atom [1], which was viewed as a particle with zero rest mass [2], although the idea was rejected by many of his contemporary scientists lead by Millikan, [3], also famous were J.J. homson, Summerield, and Richardson [4], but with endorsement from Compton experiment in 1922 [5], scientists gradually accepted the notion that electromagnetic radiation is wave particle duality [6]. ...
... Replacing E R in Eq (7) with v h, hence B CMF is given in terms of frequency as ( ) 4 25 ...
The wavelet envisioned by Huygen’s in diffraction phenomenon is re-interpreted as being polarized after passing through slit/hole which removed the electric field component from the Electromagnetic Radiation (EM-R), the remained wave consist of the Circular Magnetic Field (CMF), this CMF lost the speed of light and the electric field, hence it’s a short distance travel field, originated from the CMF produced by accelerated electrons, integrated with the Electric Field (EF) during the Flip-Flop (F-F) mechanism producing EM-R; hence the passing of light through a single hole/slit resulted in a CMF which reproduced as rings on the monitor screen in single wave diffraction, while the interference of two such CMF in double slits experiment, produced constructive or destructive interference forming patches on the monitor screen; and the perceived electron diffraction is an enter of two CMF from a single electron into a slit then emerged to produce constructive or destructive interference, in addition to the electron which entered and emerged from the slit with the stronger CMF, the paper finally derived the origin of Planck ‘constant (h) for the second time; the logical interpretation of double slits diffraction will restore the common sense in the physical world, distorted by the pilot wave.
... statistical? interpretation? of the entropy, not the photoelectric effect (Stuewer, 2007), and he first used the word quanta (Einstein & into English, 1965), then in 1909 he introduced the wave-particle duality, based on the splits in energy and momentum into a wave dominant in low-frequency and particle term in high- frequency region (Stuewer, 2007), the explanation was intended to fill the gap in his interpretation of the photoelectric effect which necessitates the collision of photons with electrons to be released (Sachs, 1988), the theory was then extended in 1914 to allow part of energy to be emitted in the form of an ejected corpuscle (Millikan, 1916), thus he combined electromagnetic wave and particle quanta (photon) to explain photoelectrons ejection, by doing this he coined the light? duality,? ...
... statistical? interpretation? of the entropy, not the photoelectric effect (Stuewer, 2007), and he first used the word quanta (Einstein & into English, 1965), then in 1909 he introduced the wave-particle duality, based on the splits in energy and momentum into a wave dominant in low-frequency and particle term in high- frequency region (Stuewer, 2007), the explanation was intended to fill the gap in his interpretation of the photoelectric effect which necessitates the collision of photons with electrons to be released (Sachs, 1988), the theory was then extended in 1914 to allow part of energy to be emitted in the form of an ejected corpuscle (Millikan, 1916), thus he combined electromagnetic wave and particle quanta (photon) to explain photoelectrons ejection, by doing this he coined the light? duality,? ...
This paper suggested a mechanism for Electromagnetic Radiation (EM-R); the mechanism is based on the Flip-Flop (F-F) of combined Circular Magnetic Field (CMF) and Electric Field (EF) produced by energetic charged particles, the action released the EM-R; while as the F-F generates EM-R, it is also achieved within specific Flipping Time (tF), the inverse of which is the Flipping Frequency (fF), the model is compared with Maxwell’s two transformations to elaborate differences and characteristics, hence when EM-R is better understood, that will reflects on the physical world and related human ideas and philosophies.
http://fundamentaljournals.org/ijfps/archive/2014No3.html
... As we will see shortly, an analysis of this data leads us to an estimate of the year in which Gates' fortune will exceed his all-time peak net worth. It also leads us to the interesting conclusion of a "work function" for Bill Gates, akin to the idea of a work function first conceived by Einstein, in 1905 to explain the photoelectric effect [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]; see Appendix II for a brief discussion. ...
... The idea of a work function was conceived by Einstein, in his famous 1905 paper [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12], which actually fetched him the Nobel Prize in physics (not his theory of relativity, or E = mc 2 upon which much of his fame rests). A more detailed list of references on the photoelectric effect, with some illustrations about the photoelectricity experiments, in provided in another recent article [13] discussing the Forbes billionaires data from different countries [14]. ...
Bill Gates' personal net worth data, since he ascended to the top of the Forbes Billionaires list in 1995, is analyzed here and leads to: a) An estimate of the year in which Gates' fortune will exceed his personal all-time peak net worth in 1999, and b) The interesting conclusion of a "work function" for Bill Gates. The work function in physics, first conceived by Einstein, in 1905, to explain photoelectric effect, is related to the difficulty of producing an electron by a photon, when the latter strikes the surface of a metal. Likewise, the work function in the billionaire problem is shown to be related to the difficulty of wealth generation.
... In the case of the photoelectric effect, these misconceptions or "myths" are that (a) Einstein's 1905 theory of the photoelectric effect relied on and was a natural extension of Planck's theory of 1900, which Einstein adopted and applied to the nature of light; (b) Einstein's 1905 paper was primarily a theory of the photoelectric effect; (c) the main aspect of Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect was an explanation of experiments which showed that the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends linearly on the frequency of incident light but is independent of its intensity; (d) the experimental fact of the photoelectric effect is inexplicable without the photon hypothesis; (e) since there were no classical alternatives to Einstein's explanation, it was, of course, accepted; and (f) the final verification of Einstein's theory was provided by Millikan in his experiments of 1916 (Kragh, 1992, p. 352). Stuewer (2006) goes on to show how Einstein's light-quantum hypothesis of 1905 was consistently rejected by the physics community and that it was only with Compton's theoretical explanation of the effect that the community reluctantly accepted the photon in 1925. A culmination of this early work on electrons and photons was presented at the 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels (Bacciagaluppi & Valentini, 2006). ...
... Students will be entering into a state of disequilibrium by now, as Einstein's hypothesis has still not been accepted by the physics community. At this point, the story of Compton's contribution, as portrayed in Stuewer (2006), can be used to bring a satisfactory resolution to the story. Even though Einstein had received the Nobel Prize in 1921, physicists did not accept his photon concept. ...
The photoelectric effect is commonly used as the introductory topic for the study of quantum physics. However, there are various indicators that some instructional materials and approaches to the topic contain deficiencies and even factual errors. A major aspect of instruction is the historical and scientific background for the photoelectric effect. In this paper, I outline the key elements of the history of the discovery of the photoelectric effect, of Einstein's light-quantum theory, and of the ultimate acceptance of the theory that are necessary for developing sound instructional materials.
... In the case of the photoelectric effect, these misconceptions or "myths" are that (a) Einstein's 1905 theory of the photoelectric effect relied on and was a natural extension of Planck's theory of 1900, which Einstein adopted and applied to the nature of light; (b) Einstein's 1905 paper was primarily a theory of the photoelectric effect; (c) the main aspect of Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect was an explanation of experiments which showed that the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends linearly on the frequency of incident light but is independent of its intensity; (d) the experimental fact of the photoelectric effect is inexplicable without the photon hypothesis; (e) since there were no classical alternatives to Einstein's explanation, it was, of course, accepted; and (f) the final verification of Einstein's theory was provided by Millikan in his experiments of 1916 (Kragh 1992, p. 352). Stuewer (2006) goes on to show how Einstein's light-quantum hypothesis of 1905 was consistently rejected by the physics community and that it was only with Compton's theoretical explanation of the effect that the community reluctantly accepted the photon in 1925. A culmination of this early work on electrons and photons was presented at the 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels (Bacciagaluppi and Valentini 2006). ...
... Students will be entering into a state of disequilibrium by now, as Einstein's hypothesis has still not been accepted by the physics community. At this point, the story of Compton's contribution, as portrayed in Stuewer (2006), can be used to bring a satisfactory resolution to the story. ...
The photoelectric effect is commonly used as the introductory topic for the study of quantum physics. However, a literature
review reveals that besides various weaknesses and errors in the presentation of the history of the photoelectric effect,
textbook presentations also contain incorrect presentations of the work function and the photon concept. In this paper, I
present, in story form, five key episodes of the history of the photoelectric effect that are necessary for its accurate and
adequate portrayal: (a) the discovery of the photoelectric effect, (b) the characterization of and initial explanation for
the photoelectric effect, (c) Einstein’s revolutionary paper on the light quantum and its explanation for the photoelectric
effect, and his, eventually, receiving the Nobel Prize despite not having his hypothesis accepted, (d) Millikan’s experimental
verification of Einstein’s photoelectric equation despite not accepting Einstein’s hypothesis, and (e) Compton’s measurements
and his theoretical explanation which produced the ultimate acceptance of Einstein’s hypothesis. The story, entitled “The
Birth of the Photon Concept,” has been tested in a classroom setting and is proposed as an essential component in the process
of developing sound instructional materials.
... Nevertheless, this idea received little consideration until the observation in 1922 of the Compton effect. Resulting from the inelastic scattering of light by an electron, it made it possible to attribute a particle-like momentum to photons [133]. ...
The discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012 at CERN completed the experimental confirmation of the Standard Model particle spectrum. Current theoretical insights and experimental data are inconclusive concerning the expectation of future discoveries. While new physics may still be within reach of the LHC or one of its successor experiments, it is also possible that the mass of particles beyond those of the Standard Model is far beyond the energy reach of any conceivable particle collider. We thus have to face the possibility that the age of “on-shell discoveries” of new particles may belong to the past and that we may soon witness a change in the scientists' perception of discoveries in fundamental physics. This article discusses the relevance of this questioning and addresses some of its potential far-reaching implications through the development, first, of a historical perspective on the concept of particle. This view is prompt to reveal important specificities of the development of particle physics. In particular, it underlines the close relationship between the evolution of observational methods and the understanding of the very idea of particle. Combining this with an analysis of the current situation of high-energy physics, this leads us to the suggestion that the particle era in science must undergo an important conceptual reconfiguration.
... (Millikan 1917, 230) Nonetheless, Millikan eventually changed his mind and accepted as true not only Einstein's equation but also the theoretical Einsteinian explanation associated with it. Stuewer (2006) contrasts the words just quoted with a very different version of the events offered by Millikan decades later: ...
Contrary to empiricist hopes, Chakravartty claims that science cannot escape metaphysics. According to him, in line with the theory-ladenness thesis, science necessarily includes metaphysical presuppositions and metaphysical inferences. He contends that strong empiricism provides an implausible description of what scientists do. Furthermore, he claims, empiricists should recognize that in fact they entertain metaphysical beliefs. I analyze Chakravartty’s arguments and point out some significant weaknesses. Drawing on recent experimental results in the field of experimental psychology, I question the use of an exaggerated theory-ladenness thesis and conclude that Chakravartty’s view concerning the relationship between science and metaphysics is far of successfully rebutting the empiricist proposals.
... However, there is also room for continued development. For instance, the comic also emphasizes Albert Einstein's mathematical explanation of the photoelectric effect, which expanded on the quanta developed by Max Planck [27]. ...
In the high school context, many students only solve photoelectric effect phenomena based on the equation for maximum kinetic energy and its relationship to work functions. While the story behind this phenomenon constitutes an exciting educational experience if conveyed in an attractive visual manner, many physics teachers are concerned that students will focus on the storyline rather than engaging with the formula itself. In this study, the comic titled ‘Hallwachs and the Negatively Charged Particles’ was presented as a continuation of Hertz’s comic from previous studies, specifically as a complement to scientific explanations of the photoelectric effect phenomenon. The comic was created following the ‘4D’ process, including the four components of define, design, develop, and disseminate. At the define stage, a storyline was generated as part of Wilhelm Hallwach’s story in order to highlight how related events helped explain the photoelectric effect phenomenon. The design stage then involved the production of a visual character that was displayed as a translation from the define stage. At the develop stage, experts in media and material conducted an assessment of the results (media expert validation score of 92% and material expert validation score of 96%, with very good interpretation). At the disseminate stage, the finished comics were uploaded to the online comic platform known as Webtoon. Readers were also asked to assess the results at that time. In summary, we found that the photoelectric effect could be visually presented in the e-comic format as a pedagogical intervention for explaining related scientific concepts.
... In 1909, A. Einstein, analyzing the energy and momentum fluctuations in the blackbody radiation, assumed the validity of Planck's law and showed that the expressions for the mean-square energy and momentum fluctuations split into a sum of two terms. The first is a wave term that dominates in the Rayleigh-Jeans (long wavelengths) range of the spectrum and the seconda particle term that dominates in the Wien law (short wavelengths) spectral range [88]; cited in Ref. [89]. Both terms were necessary to describe the fluctuations for the complete blackbody spectrum. ...
Brief history of terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) science and technology, for learning lessons by historical evolution is presented and discussed identifying important (from Author’s point of view) steps for their development. THz still is the not well-known region of electro-magnetic science, even it has been lightened by starting of scientific and technological knowledge, since the end of 19th century. As concerning history of IR science and technology, it took many years since 1800 (W. Hershel) to reach the level of use that is recognized today. The link between IR and thermal science and applications was so strong that IR was for a long time synonymous of thermography. THz science and technology are showing a rapid growth. IR and, especially THz technologies, now have become one of the major fields of applied research. Nowadays, they become widely spread in their use in astrophysics, security, biomedicine, detection of hidden objects, food and art inspection, etc. The increasing requirements for fast transmission of large amounts of data will lead to the extension of operation frequencies in communications toward the THz frequency range. IR and THz medical imaging can provide guidance for surgeons in delimiting the tumor margins, help clinicians visualize diseased area, etc. A few decades ago, IR technologies were mainly the domain of military ones. In recent two decades, due to widespread of lowcost thermal uncooled arrays there were realized many IR technology advances in civil and military applications. A large amount of THz technologies mass-market applications can’t be highlighted, as these technologies do not meet yet the user requirements, especially in easiness of use and costs. Still, many of THz applications that we have now are emerging and showing their applicability in some implementations, where other methods can’t give any comprehensive information, e.g., in dry food inspection for dielectric inclusions, skin tumour margins control, THz astronomy, package and envelope inspection, etc. The brief lessons given by historical highlights in THz and IR science and applications can be important for the future developments in these directions as history frequently opens routes for new thinking. In this brief review, the missed important steps can happen. Author apologizes for these possible faults. © 2019, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.
... In 1909, A. Einstein, analyzing the energy and momentum fluctuations in the blackbody radiation, assumed the validity of Planck's law and showed that the expressions for the mean-square energy and momentum fluctuations split into a sum of two terms. The first is a wave term that dominates in the Rayleigh-Jeans (long wavelengths) range of the spectrum and the seconda particle term that dominates in the Wien law (short wavelengths) spectral range [88]; cited in Ref. [89]. Both terms were necessary to describe the fluctuations for the complete blackbody spectrum. ...
Brief history of terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) science and technology, for learning lessons by historical evolution is presented and discussed identifying important (from Author’s point of view) steps for their development. THz still is the not well-known region of electro-magnetic science, even it has been lightened by starting of scientific and technological knowledge, since the end of 19th century. As concerning history of IR science and technology, it took many years since 1800 (W. Hershel) to reach the level of use that is recognized today. The link between IR and thermal science and applications was so strong that IR was for a long time synonymous of thermography. THz science and technology are showing a rapid growth. IR and, especially THz technologies, now have become one of the major fields of applied research. Nowadays, they become widely spread in their use in astrophysics, security, biomedicine, detection of hidden objects, food and art inspection, etc. The increasing requirements for fast transmission of large amounts of data will lead to the extension of operation frequencies in communications toward the THz frequency range. IR and THz medical imaging can provide guidance for surgeons in delimiting the tumor margins, help clinicians visualize diseased area, etc. A few decades ago, IR technologies were mainly the domain of military ones. In recent two decades, due to widespread of low-cost thermal uncooled arrays there were realized many IR technology advances in civil and military applications. A large amount of THz technologies mass-market applications can’t be highlighted, as these technologies do not meet yet the user requirements, especially in easiness of use and costs. Still, many of THz applications that we have now are emerging and showing their applicability in some implementations, where other methods can’t give any comprehensive information, e.g., in dry food inspection for dielectric inclusions, skin tumour margins control, THz astronomy, package and envelope inspection, etc. The brief lessons given by historical highlights in THz and IR science and applications can be important for the future developments in these directions as history frequently opens routes for new thinking. In this brief review, the missed important steps can happen. Author apologizes for these possible faults.
... whole?duality?as? "unnecessary"? (Roger H Stuewer, 2006); but his suggestion lead into two lines: The electromagnetic waves/particles by Einstein-de Broglie-Schr?dinger and the quantization of the structure of atoms by Bohr-Heisenberg-Born (Yang, 2004), here one can ask is this misinterpretation of data, or the other phase of nature? Both lines developed intensively during the past hundred and ten years, to the extent most people currently forgot how vigorously Einstein photon idea was rejected and opposed, by prominent contemporary scientists like Millikan, Lorenz and Planck (Millikan, 1916), but the contested voices of Bohr, Kramers and Slater, that rejected light quanta and worked on counter theoretical programs lowered by Compton decisive experiment in 1923 (Campos, 2004), when he affirmed? ...
A relationship has been established between the magnetic part of Electromagnetic Radiation (EM-R) and radiation frequency, in which a Radiation Magnetic Force (F_mR) formula is derived, this frequency controlled Magnetic forces, perform in a manner similar in nature and mechanism to the Magnetic Radiation Energy (E_mR) or the Planck’ formula (hf); the forces and energies derived by both F_mR and E_mR controlled the interatomic forces and energies; it also helped identified the Excited Force (F_Ex) and Energy (E_Ex), the Interatomic Resistance Force (F_IR) and Energy (E_Ex), or the work function of the atom, the Photoelectric Effect Force (F_P) and Energy (E_P), all of which a realization of forces and energies bestowed in EM-wave and integrated within Plank’ formula and F_mR; this Radiation Magnetic Force (F_mR) enabled the establishment of the Orbital Magnetic Force (F_Om), for interatomic electrons in all elements, which helped in producing various interatomic parameters, with a given example of potassium atom, and the related spectral line for each of the 19th electrons; regulated by formulas deriving all stages, the paper helped in reestablishing the wave nature of EM-R, which could forged the way for a better understanding to the microscopic-world.
... whole?duality?as? "unnecessary"? (Roger H Stuewer, 2006); but his suggestion lead into two lines: The electromagnetic waves/particles by Einstein-de Broglie-Schr?dinger and the quantization of the structure of atoms by Bohr-Heisenberg-Born (Yang, 2004), here one can ask is this misinterpretation of data, or the other phase of nature? Both lines developed intensively during the past hundred and ten years, to the extent most people currently forgot how vigorously Einstein photon idea was rejected and opposed, by prominent contemporary scientists like Millikan, Lorenz and Planck (Millikan, 1916), but the contested voices of Bohr, Kramers and Slater, that rejected light quanta and worked on counter theoretical programs lowered by Compton decisive experiment in 1923 (Campos, 2004), when he affirmed? ...
A Radiation Magnetic Force (F_mR) frequency controlled formula is derived, signifying the embaddement of magnetic force in Electromagnetic Radiation (EM-R) similar in nature to Radiation Magnetic Energy (E_mR) or Planck’ formula (hf); both formulas derived and identified the Excited Force (F_Ex) and Energy (E_Ex), the Interatomic Resistance Force (F_IR) and Energy (E_Ex), (or the work function), the Photoelectric Effect Force (F_P) and Energy (E_P); this identifications is the realization of forces and energies bestowed in EM-wave expressed by F_mR and E_mR; the F_mR derived Orbital Magnetic Force (F_Om) and established the interatomic forces and energies for different atoms; both formulas produced various interatomic parameters, an example of potassium atom is given, also the related spectral line for each of the 19th electrons, regulated by formulas deriving each stage; the paper helped in reestablishing the wave nature of EM-R, which could forged the way for a better understanding to the microscopic-world.
... The earlier discovered break down of EM-R into discrete jumps, or quanta [8] which can be detected as a click by detector and interpreted as a photon [27], and the Compton effect experiment thought to proved the existence of the photon [5] and the discrete detection of light in the Anti-bunching experiment [28], all these can easily be explained as the resulted energetic CMF-EF produced within the discrete Flipping Time ( ) [29], therefore the repetition of CMF-EF transformation as it gives a series of , it also gives the above discrete flickers, or what was interpreted as quanta of EM-R energy, without any photon, and since no any trace of photon was detected within the above EM-R transformation mechanism and related equations, hence as Albert Einstein had stated before "Every physicist thinks that he knows what a photon is, I spent my life to find out what a photon is and I still don't know it." If Einstein the founder of the quanta/photon failed to know it, hence what and where are the photons? ...
The components of Electromagnetic Radiation (EM-R) mechanism are analyzed; these includes the Flipping Time 〖(t〗_F), and the Flipping Frequency 〖(f〗_F); the condition initiating F-F and the formation of EM-R is suggested with a new formula for the speed of light c; the energy is classified into the input Kinetic Energy 〖(E〗_k) and the output Radiation Energy 〖(E〗_R), with a new formula derived for the output Radiation Energy 〖(E〗_R), this formula is compared with the input Kinetic Energy 〖(E〗_k); different structural formulas for Planck’ Constant and its relations to Flopping Time 〖(t〗_F) and Flopping Frequency 〖(f〗_F) are derived and analyzed, and a relationship is establish between the two Flip-Flop Times 〖(t〗_F1 & t_F2) and the combined energies of Circular Magnetic Field (CMF) and Electric Field (EF), as this relation produced EM-R, it also gives the products of Flipping Times 〖(t〗_F2) and both CMF-EF, forming the Planck’ Constant (h).
... It is against this context that we must judge Einstein's paper on light quanta [35][36][37][38][39] and his explanation of the cut-off frequency observed in Lenard's experiments [40,41]. Einstein was boldly reviving Newton's old and discredited idea but gave it a new twist. ...
This article is aimed at provoking a critical discussion of the meaning of an "energy quantum", as defined in physics, to lay the ground for another kind of "quantum", after some additional empirical observations (on wealth generation among billionaires) become available in the days (following March 17, 2014, the date of this writing), weeks and months ahead. No electrons are produced even with very bright red light shining on sodium metal. A weak blue light, however, immediately, starts to release electrons. Although these facts are well known one seems to think in terms of a "universal" value for an energy quantum in physics, akin to the universal value for the elementary quantum of electrical charge (on a single electron), demonstrated in Millikan's famous oil drop experiments.
... So, now we will turn our attention from Vodoo Economics to Vodoo Physics and attempt a critical test of the idea of a work function that was revealed in the analysis of many different problems. Is it some kind of "voodoo" theory or is it really something that is a true and a broader manifestation of Einstein's photoelectric work function [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]? ...
Einstein’s photoelectric law, K = E – W = hf – W = h(f – f0), which fetched him the Nobel Prize in Physics, is a simple linear law, which can be generalized as y = hx + c = h(x – x0). This is the only know law of nature which suggests a movement of our (x, y) observations along a family of parallel lines with a fixed slope h and varying values of the nonzero intercept c. More generally, such a movement of our empirical observations, in problems outside physics, along very nearly perfect parallel lines can be taken as a broad generalization of the same idea of a work function that was conceived by Einstein, in 1905. This is confirmed here with the net worth-time data for Zuckerberg.
... The origin and early development of the idea of the photon, in the sense of a localized quantum of electromagnetic radiation, is well known and described in an extensive literature [e.g., Kidd, Ardini and Anton 1989;Pais 1982, pp. 372-388, 402-414;Stuewer 2006]. To summarize, in his classic paper in Annalen der Physik of 1905 Einstein proposed that free monochromatic radiation of frequency ν was composed of "energy quanta" given by E = hν, an expression he only wrote down in this form the following year. ...
After G. N. Lewis (1875-1946) proposed the term "photon" in 1916, many
physicists adopted it as a more apt name for Einstein's light quantum. However,
Lewis' photon was a concept of a very different kind, something few physicists
knew or cared about. It turns out that Lewis' name was not quite the neologism
that it usually has been assumed to be. The same name was proposed twice before
1926, and in both cases in connection with the study of visual perception and
stimulus. Priority belongs to the American physicist and psychologist L. T.
Troland (1889-1932), who coined the word in 1916, and five years later it was
independently introduced by the Irish physicist J. Joly (1857-1933). Neither of
the two versions of "photon" was well known and they were soon forgotten.
Internationally, the need to modernize school curricula and introduce the concepts of modern physics into schools has been accepted in recent years. Research on introducing Einsteinian physics (EP) to the most effective school age is lagging. The present study aims to evaluate a short intervention in Einstein’s physics and determine the school level at which the concepts of EP are optimally comprehended. Therefore, a teaching intervention was carried out to 325 Greek students; 83 students in 6th grade (11–12 years old), 116 students in 9th grade (14–15 years old), and 126 students in 11th grade (16–17 years old). All students completed pre—and post—conceptual and attitudinal questionnaires. According to data analysis, the conceptual performance of students concerning EP improved significantly. In concrete, students of 11th grade have exceeded the conceptual scores, compared with general changes identified to the majority of school grades. Moreover, the study participants had a positive attitude towards science, mostly towards Einstein’s physics, before the teaching intervention, which remained at a high level after the intervention. The study generates useful results for introducing modern physics in primary and secondary education.
The aim of this study is to introduce the changing perspective of particle-wave dualism. The method of this research is library research through books and related papers from 1828-2021. The result of the study is a brief history of the development of new wave mechanics. It is based on particle-wave dualism. De Broglie's argument for viewing particle-wave dualism as a natural symmetry was the first step in the development of wave mechanics. The mysterious wavelength, or de Broglie wavelength, is a quantity that combines the properties of a particle and a wave. The de Broglie wavelength specifically describes the wave property of a constituent particle of matter, such as an electron. The Schrödinger equation (1926) is based on one of them, the de Broglie wavelength, an equation that describes the condition or wave behavior of the constituent particle of matter. The Schrödinger equation was a further step in the development of wave mechanics. The wave property was then observed by Davisson, Germer, and GP Thomson in 1927. This discovery then validates two things: the de Broglie wavelength and the Schrödinger equation. The impact of this study is to reveal concrete facts about the development of new wave mechanics.
Dualisme partikel-gelombang menjadi dasar perkembangan mekanika gelombang baru (new wave mechanics). Argumentasi de Broglie dalam memandang dualisme partikel-gelombang sebagai simetri alami menjadi langkah awal perkembangan mekanika gelombang. Panjang gelombang misterius (mysterious wavelength) atau panjang gelombang de Broglie adalah besaran yang menyatukan properti partikel dan gelombang. Panjang gelombang de Broglie secara spesifik menyatakan properti gelombang dari suatu partikel penyusun materi, seperti elektron. Lahirnya persamaan Schrödinger (1926) didasarkan salah satunya oleh panjang gelombang de Broglie, persamaan yang menjelaskan kondisi atau perilaku gelombang dari partikel penyusun materi. Persamaan Schrödinger menjadi langkah lanjutan dalam perkembangan mekanika gelombang. Secara tidak sengaja, properti gelombang elektron teramati oleh Davisson, Germer, dan GP Thomson pada 1927. Penemuan ini kemudian memvalidasi dua hal sebelumnya, yaitu Panjang gelombang de Broglie dan Persamaan Schrödinger. Kata kunci: Dualisme Partikel-Gelombang, Panjang Gelombang de Broglie (de Broglie Wavelength), Persamaan Schrödinger PENDAHULUAN Bila saja terdapat sebuah kegusaran mendasar yang mempengaruhi perkembangan teori kuantum pada dua dekade awal, kegusaran itu berkaitan dengan konsep dualitas gelombang-partikel. Konsep dualitas ini muncul akibat fakta-fakta eksperimen yang menunjukkan cahaya bersifat gelombang (Eksperimen Double Slit oleh Thomas Young (1801)) dan cahaya muncul bersifat partikel (Eksperimen Fotolistrik Gold Leaf Electroscope oleh Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1887)). Albert Einstein (1879-1955) adalah yang pertama menghadapi misteri dualitas ini. Walaupun bukti eksperimental dan teoretis telah lama ada terkait dengan cahaya bersifat sebagai gelombang, Einstein mengusulkan teori partikel cahaya untuk menjelaskan kebingungan yang selama ini terpendam pada efek fotolistrik. Relasi Einstein-Planck = ℎ untuk energi dari sebuah partikel cahaya atau foton menjadi kata pengantar untuk tema dualitas tersebut. Persamaan mengandung E sebagai properti dari cahaya sebagai partikel, dan frekuensi sebagai properti dari cahaya sebagai gelombang. Dari sudut pandang logika, hal ini adalah sebuah paradoks, yang di mana pada saat itu sulit diterima oleh para ahli teori, tetapi Einstein tetap berani untuk menyuguhkan pemikirannya. Bagaimana cahaya bisa menjadi dua hal yang pada dasarnya berbeda, gelombang dan partikel, pada saat yang sama? Dualitas ini tampak menjadi sebuah ancaman pada saat itu, sebuah "fundamental blemish" atau "cacat mendasar" yang mungkin terpikir oleh seorang ahli teori, jika didorong terlalu jauh, akan membuat seluruh tatanan teoretis fisika runtuh.
Renewable and sustainable sources of light on Earth are usually associated with energy from the sun. However, scientists predict that, in about 5 billion years, this source of light, which is now about 4.6 billion years old, will no longer be sustainable and extinguish when its own energy produced by nuclear fusion in its core due to hydrogen atoms converting into helium will no longer burn hydrogen. The sun at that time will glow redhot rather than white-hot due to the cooling of its surface and become a full-blown red giant star (Figure 1) instead of a yellow dwarf star, as it is today. As it cools, it will eventually become a white dwarf star and no longer produce energy by fusion. The sun will grow significantly in size since gravitational forces will no longer be balanced in its core energy conversion process, causing it to expand.
Mostramos que la explicación de Einstein del efecto fotoeléctrico es una explicación causal que posee claras ventajas epistemológicas sobre otras explicaciones rivales. Señalamos la fertilidad heurística de esta hipótesis y los problemas que suscitó la aceptación de la realidad de los cuantos de luz. Concluimos que la realidad de los cuantos de luz ha resultado históricamente afectada por el problema general de la realidad de las entidades cuánticas y no ha podido resolverse independientemente de él. Por ello el componente causal de la explicación de Einstein no ha logrado mantenerse en el contexto de una teoría cuántica referida al movimiento de partículas. No obstante, el valor heurístico original de la hipótesis del cuanto de luz de Einstein ha mantenido su vigencia.We show that Einstein's explanation of photoelectric effect is a causal explanation that has clear epistemological advantages with respect to other rival explanations. We point out the heuristic fertility of this hypothesis and the problems brought about by the acceptance of the reality of light-quanta. We conclude that the reality of light-quanta has been historically affected by the general problem of the reality of quantum entities and that the former cannot be solved independently of the latter. For that reason, the causal component of Einstein's explanation cannot be retained in the context of quantum theory of particle motion. In any case, the original heuristic value of Einstein's hypothesis of light-quanta is not affected by the aforementioned considerations.
Hydrogen has a central role in the story of the universe itself and also in the story of our efforts to understand it. This paper retells the story of the part played by hydrogen and its stable isotope deuterium in the primordial synthesis of the elements, then goes on to describe how the spectrum of atomic hydrogen led to insights into the laws governing matter at the most fundamental level, from the quantum mechanics of Schrödinger and Heisenberg, through quantum electrodynamics, to the most recent work investigating the underlying structure of the proton itself. Atomic hydrogen is unique among the elements in that the concept of isotopy--atoms having the same nuclear charge but different masses--is stretched to its limit in the isotopes of hydrogen, ranging from the well-known isotopes deuterium and tritium to exotic species such as muonium, muonic helium, and positronium. These atoms, or atom-like objects, have much to tell us about fundamental aspects of the universe. In recent years the idea of utilizing hydrogen either as an energy source (through nuclear fusion) or as an energy storage medium (bound in hydrides or other materials) has attracted much attention as a possible avenue to a post-oil energy future. Some of the more interesting recent developments are described here. Dedicated to the memory of Brian C. Webster (1939-2008).
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Nuestro objetivo es determinar por qué Einstein no mencionó su artículo de marzo de 1905 sobre el quantum de luz, referido al carácter corpuscular de la luz, en el artículo en el que introduce la relatividad especial, escrito sólo tres meses después. Las razones principales que hemos encontrado son: las diferentes actitudes de Einstein frente a la existencia del espacio absoluto y del éter; su permanente compromiso con la primacía ontológica del campo electromagnético; las características no clásicas que debió atribuirle al cuanto de luz; su ambivalencia respecto de la electrodinámica de Maxwell como representación completa y definitiva de la realidad física a la vez que la sospecha de que una eventual dualidad onda/partícula no resultaría una dificultad insalvable; su poco comprometida e inestable actitud frente al atomismo; el carácter más conservador aunque menos intuitivo de la relatividad especial; la diferente interpretación del status epistemológico de las hipótesis y las marcadas diferencias en la presentación de las respectivas teorías.We attempt to determine why Einstein did not mention his article on light-quanta hypothesis, written in March 1905, in his formulation of Special Relativity, devised just three months later. The main reasons we have found are the following: Einstein's different attitudes towards the existence of ether and absolute space; his permanent commitment to the ontological primacy of the electromagnetic field; the non-classical properties he ought to attribute to light-quanta; his hesitant stance about Maxwell electrodynamics as a complete and definitive representation of physical reality and at the same time, his suspection that a possible wave/particle duality would not lead to an unsolvable difficulty; his unstable and uncompromised attitude with respect to atomism; the more conservative, though less intuitive, character of Special Relativity; the different interpretation of the epistemological status of both theories and the marked differences in their formulation.
This paper introduces a novel strategy for teaching physics: using the Nobel Physics Prize as an organizational theme for
high school or even first year university physics, bringing together history, social contexts of science, and central themes
in modern physics. The idea underlying the strategy is that the glamour and glitter of the Nobel Prize story may attract and
motivate high school students to open-up to scientific topics and thus be spurred to pursue science. The two major arguments
for the method are that if presented in story form Nobel Prizes naturally incorporate the philosophical and historical aspects
of science and therefore enable teaching about science as well as teaching science itself; and that such instruction implements
case-based teaching principles, which is how humans naturally think, learn, and remember. Finally, the paper presents the
storycase of the Nobel Prize Einstein received for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect as a concrete illustration
of classroom implementation.
It is little known that during the birth of quantum mechanics Walther Bothe (1891–1957) published from mid-1923 to the end of 1926, partly together with Hans Geiger (1882–1945), as many as 20 papers, all dealing with light quanta (photons). Around half of the publications (11) are of experimental nature; the rest deal with theoretical problems. This paper presents Walther Bothe's experimental and theoretical contributions to the understanding of the particle-wave duality of light in the mid-1920s, for which the interplay between experimental and theoretical ideas plays an essential role.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.7.355
Relation between the direction of a recoil electron and that of the scattered x-ray quantum.-It has been shown by cloud expansion experiments previously described, that for each recoil electron produced, an average of one quantum of x-ray energy is scattered by the air in the chamber. If the quantum of scattered x-rays produces a beta-ray in the chamber, then a line drawn from the beginning of the recoil track to the beginning of the beta-track gives the direction of the ray after scattering. Using a chamber 18 cm in diam. and 4 cm deep traversed by a carefully shielded narrow beam of homogeneous x-rays, with exploded tungsten wires as sources of light, nearly 1300 stereoscopic cloud expansion photographs were taken. Of the last 850 plates, 38 show both recoil tracks and beta-tracks. The angles projected on the plane of the photographs were measured and it was found that in 18 cases, the direction of scattering is within 20° of that to be expected if the x-ray is scattered as a quantum so that energy and momentum are conserved during the interaction between the radiation and the recoil electron. This number 18 is four times the number which would have been observed if the energy of the scattered x-rays proceeded in spreading waves, that is if the direction of production of a beta-ray was unrelated to the direction of the recoil track. The chance that this agreement with theory is accidental is about 1/250. The other 20 beta-rays are ascribed to stray x-rays and to radioactivity. This evidence seems a direct and conclusive proof that at least a large proportion of the scattered x-rays proceed in directed quanta of radiant energy.
Es wird eine Versuchsanordnung angegeben, welche erlaubt, zwischen der bisherigen Auffassung vom Comptoneffekt und der von Bohr, Kramers und Slater vorgeschlagenen zu entscheiden. Nach der bisherigen Vorstellung mte gleichzeitig mit jedem Streuquant ein Rckstoelektron beobachtbar sein. Nach Bohr wre der Zusammenhang viel loser und mte bei der hier benutzten Versuchsanordnung praktisch verschwinden. Das Wesentliche der Anordnung luft darauf hinaus, mit zwei Spitzenzhlern (e-Zhler undh v-Zhler) die Rcksto- elektronen und die Streustrahlung eines sehr kleinen Volumens Wasserstoff getrennt zu registrieren, und zu untersuchen, ob Koinzidenzen zwischen den registrierten Ausschlgen auftreten. Die Versuche ergaben, da etwa jeder elfteh v-Ausschlag mit eineme-Ausschlag zeitlich zusammenfiel. Dies ist nach der Bohrschen Vorstellung nicht verstndlich, ist aber nach der lteren Vorstellung zu erwarten, wenn man die nicht zu vermeidende Unvollkommenheit der Versuchsbedingungen in Betracht zieht.—Der scharfe Nachweis der Koinzidenzen war zuerst dadurch sehr erschwert, da. wie sich spter herausstellte, die Spitzenzhler mit variablen Verzgerungen bis zu 1/100 Sekunde arbeiteten. Erst als diese Verzgerungen dadurch praktisch behoben waren, da dem Spitzenfeld ein homogeneres Feld berlagert wurde, konnte die Genauigkeit der Zeitmessung, welche im Laufe der Versuche auf 1/10000 Sekunde stieg, voll ausgenutzt werden.