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ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
VOLUME 4
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Editor: Wolfgang WIMMER
Vienna University of Technology, AUSTRIA
2007
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
ii
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
iii
Foreword
In Europe, in the last ten years, the responsible persons are concerned more and more about
sustainable development and ecodesign, as a path towards it, imposing the applying of a new
European legislation in this field. Due to it, there will be an increasing demand of engineers
educated in the field of ecodesign in the future, to allow industries to meet the standards required
by this new legislation.
Considering the labour market needs for engineers and designers with a wide eco-perspective, in
the close future, in Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania, in 2005, was made the decision to
start the enrichment of the engineering courses curricula with a module of ecodesign. The
ecodesign module was developed in an European partnership consisting by Technical University of
Vienna-Austria, Technical University of Tallinn-Estonia, Technological Educational Institution of
Athens-Greece, University of Brighton-United Kingdom and three Romanian Institutions: „Petru
Maior” University of Targu Mures, University of Bacau and Transilvania University of Brasov as
coordinator, with the financial support of the European Commission in the frame of the curricula
development project “ECODESIGN: an innovative path towards sustainable development”, with the
number 51388-IC-1-2005-1-RO-ERASMUS-MODUC-04.
The ECODESIGN Module consists in four subjects, for which the teaching aids (manuals and CD-
roms) were prepared:
Ecodesign Fundamentals;
Product Life Cycle Assessment;
Product Recycling Technologies;
Embedding Ecodesign in Product Development.
„Product Development”, the fourth volume of the book “Ecodesign for Sustainable Development”
represents, for the students, a guide for how to analyze a product, considering its environmental
impact and how to improve its design in order to be less harmful for the nature. This subject can be
included to all Industrial Design engineering courses as an advanced subject, after the study of the
other three subjects of the Ecodesign module.
The book is structured in 14 lessons, corresponding to the 14 weeks of an academic semester, from
the Romanian universities. At the beginning of each lesson, the lesson objectives are presented and
at the end of the lesson, some home exercises and additional lectures are suggested.
During the semester, the students will develop a project, supported by the information from
“Embedding Ecodesign in Product Development” volume, with the aim to improve a product,
considering the environmental constrains.
I would like to thank all those who have supported the project “Ecodesign: an innovative path
towards sustainable development”, especially to Prof.Dr.Eng. Ion VIŞA, Rector of the “Transilvania”
University of Braşov and Prof.Dr.Eng. Anca DUŢĂ, coordinator of the Department of “Management
of the research and educational projects”. I also want to express my deep gratitude to all the
colleagues and friends from the partnership team for the commitment and their inspired
contribution in preparation and development of the teaching aids of the Ecodesign Module.
Anca Barsan
Ecodesign Project Coordinator
Brasov, August 2007
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
iv
Ecodesign for Sustainable Development
Volume 1
FUNDAMENTALS
Volume
2
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE
ASSESSMENT
Volume
3
PRODUCT RECYCLING
TECHNOLOGIES
Volume
4
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
v
Book Contents
Volume 1: Fundamentals
Why Ecodesign?
Environment in product life cycle
Eco-alternatives in product life cycle
Designing Eco-products
Eco-product management
Volume 2: Product Life Cycle Assessment
Introduction
Material production, use of raw materials
Product manufacture
Transport
Product use
Product’s end of life
Life Cycle Assessments (LCA)
Environmental assessment tools
Volume 3: Product Recycling Technologies
General Aspects
Legislations and Regulations
Collection, Sorting, Disassembling
Recycling Technology
Recycling Different Materials and Products
Product Design for Recycling
Volume 4: Product Development
Introduction into Ecodesign
Modelling the Life Cycle of a Product
Evaluating the Environmental Performance of Products. Part I: Using MET-Matrix
and Energy Values
Evaluating the Environmental Performance of Products. Part II: Using the
ECODESIGN PILOT´s Assistant
Identifying of mandatory environmental requirements from EU directives
Identifying voluntary environmental requirements from eco-labelling programs
Finding improvement strategies
Improvement of raw material intensive products
Improving a manufacture intensive product
Improving of transport intensive products
Improving use intensive products
Improving disposal intensive products
Integrating Ecodesign into the product development process
Enhancing the idea of Ecodesign to Product Service Systems
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
vi
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS – VOLUME 4
DI Hesamedin Ostad-Ahmad-Ghorabi
Lessons 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
Vienna University of Technology
DI Maria Huber
Lessons 5 and 6
Vienna University of Technology
DI Rainer Pamminger
Lesson 14
Vienna University of Technology
DI Mircea Neagoe
Layout editor
University “Transilvania” of Braşov,
Romania
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
vii
CONTENTS
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION INTO ECODESIGN 1
Ecodesign – What is that? 2
Ecodesign - Why? 3
Raw Materials 4
Manufacture 6
Transport 7
Use 7
End of Life 8
Summary 8
Home Exercises 9
References 9
LESSON 2: MODELLING THE LIFE CYCLE OF A PRODUCT 11
Life Cycle Thinking 12
Product Description 12
Examples 14
Summary 21
Home Exercises 22
References 23
Additional reading material (available on CD) 23
LESSON 3: EVALUATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE OF PRODUCTS. PART I: USING
MET-MATRIX AND ENERGY VALUES 25
Evaluation with the help of the MET-matrix 26
Example 1: Juice Extractor 27
Example 2: Office Chair 32
Summary 37
Home Exercises 38
References 39
Additional links and suggested reading materials 39
LESSON 4: EVALUATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE OF PRODUCTS. PART II: USING
THE ECODESIGN PILOT´S ASSISTANT 41
Form 1 – General Data 42
Form 2 – Raw Material Data 43
Form 3 – Manufacture Data 46
Form 4 – Transport Data 48
Form 5 – Product Use Data 48
Form 6 – End of life data 49
Results form 50
Summary 52
Home Exercises 52
References 53
Additional links and suggested reading materials 53
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
viii
LESSON 5: IDENTIFYING MANDATORY ENVIRONMENTAL
REQUIREMENTS FROM EU DIRECTIVES 55
WEEE Directive 56
RoHS Directive 60
EEG PILOT 62
EuP Directive 64
ELV Directive 67
Summary 69
Home Exercises 70
References 71
Additional reading material (available on CD) 71
LESSON 6: IDENTIFYING VOLUNTARY ENVIRONMENTAL
REQUIREMENTS FROM ECO-LABELING
PROGRAMS 73
Different Types of Eco-Labels 74
Product specific requirements of the Nordic Swan – example
Juice Extractor 79
Product specific requirements of the EU Flower – example
Washing Machine 82
Product specific requirements of the NF Environment –
example Office Chair 83
Summary 86
Home Exercises 86
References 87
Additional reading material (available on CD) 87
LESSON 7: FINDING IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES 89
ECODESIGN PILOT 90
Example 94
Quality Function Deployment 96
Summary 101
Home Exercises 102
References 103
Additional reading material (available on CD) 103
LESSON 8: IMPROVING RAW MATERIAL INTENSIVE
PRODUCTS 105
Case Study: Office Chair 106
Improvement strategies for the office chair 107
Summary 112
Student’s Presentation 112
References 113
LESSON 9: IMPROVING A MANUFACTURE INTENSIVE
PRODUCT 115
Case study: Table made of wood 116
Additional note: 118
Social aspects 120
Summary 122
Student’s Presentation 122
References 123
LESSON 10: IMPROVING TRANSPORT INTENSIVE PRODUCTS 125
Case study: Flower Pot 126
Additional note: 128
Summary 129
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
ix
Student’s Presentation 129
References 129
LESSON 11: IMPROVING USE INTENSIVE PRODUCTS 131
Case Study: Electrical Toothbrush 132
Additional notes: 135
Summary 137
Student’s Presentation 137
References 137
LESSON 12: IMPROVING DISPOSAL INTENSIVE PRODUCTS 139
Repair 140
Recycling 140
Reverse manufacturing 142
Upgrading 142
Summary 146
Student’s Presentation 146
References 147
Additional reading material (available on CD) 147
LESSON 13: INTEGRATING ECODESIGN INTO THE PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 149
Product Specification 150
Developing the functional structure 151
Performing creativity sessions 151
Brainstorming 152
Brainwriting (Method 635) 153
Synectics 154
Checklists 155
Product concepts 155
Embodiment design 157
Ecodesign Decision Boxes 158
Summary 163
Home Exercises 164
References 165
Additional reading material (available on CD) 165
LESSON 14: ENHANCING THE IDEA OF ECODESIGN TO
PRODUCT SERVICE SYSTEMS 167
Example: Office Chair 170
Product examples 174
Car-Sharing 174
Leasing of copiers 175
City Bike 175
Leasing of clothing for work, textiles 176
Single-use camera 176
Laundry service 177
Energy contracting 177
Outlook 178
Summary 181
Home Exercises 181
References 182
Appendix 1: List of Figures 183
Appendix 2: List of Tables 185
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
x
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
1
LESSON 1
Introduction into Ecodesign
KEYWORDS: ECODESIGN, LIFE CYCLE STAGES, RECYCLING, REPAIR, REVERSE
MANUFACTURING
Lesson objectives
Lesson 1 will focus on some considerations how and why products cause harm to the
environment through their life cycle. The different life cycle stages of products will be
described more detailed. The focus will be turned on the interaction between the different
processes in the individual life cycle stages and the environment. You will find out that
any process in any of the life cycle stages will have an effect on the environmental
impact.
It will be pointed out why it is necessary to consider environmental aspects of products
and why it is important to integrate environmental aspects into the product development
process.
Further you will get comfort with the idea of Ecodesign. This lesson will give a definition
of Ecodesign and will describe its concept more detailed.
At the end of this lesson you will know what Ecodesign means and why it is
necessary to implement Ecodesign into the product development process.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
2
Raw
Materials
Manufacture Transport
Use
End of
Life
ECODESIGN – WHAT IS THAT?
Ecodesign is the design of products with respect to their ecological effects.
It considers the contribution of the product to environmental impact
through all of its life cycle stages. The five life cycle stages of a product
are shown in Fig.1.1.
By applying Ecodesign resources are used intelligently and therefore
benefit for all involved actors along the value creation chain is increased
and, at the same time, environmental impacts are reduced. This should
be achieved under social fair conditions.
The motivation for implementing Ecodesign can be divided into three
main groups:
Ecological reasons: to secure an intact environment for future
generations, consumptions of non-renewable resources and impacts to
the environment must be reduced now. Ecodesign is an effective
approach to translate this aim into reality.
Economical reasons: implementing Ecodesign in companies can lead to
innovative products with improved quality and optimized functionality.
This can open new consumer segments. Ecodesign also helps to build
up confidence and credibility in stakeholders and achieve better
ratings of the company. Reduced use of materials and energy helps to
save costs.
Social reasons: socially compatible conditions and quality of life as well
as job creation, which are all factors for economical and political
steadiness, can be provided by the implementation of Ecodesign.
Nowadays the idea of Ecodesign is widely spread over the different
technical disciplines such as architecture, civil engineering, mechanical
engineering or industrial design. The different disciplines use the term
‘Ecodesign’ in different ways. The approach of Ecodesign given above is
based on the approach which is used for product development. It is more
based on ecological than on economical aspects.
Innovative companies show interest in implementing Ecodesign. This is
not only because laws and directives forces them to do so. They have
realized that Ecodesign is part of future oriented technology; Ecodesign is
Fig.1.1: The five life
cycle stages of a
product
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
3
considered as an investment in a technology which allows, beneath other
advantages, saving a lot of internal costs.
Since engineers in product development are not necessarily
environmental experts, implementation of Ecodesign still is a challenging
task. Industrial projects often show that Life Cycle Thinking (LCT), this is,
according to (Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004) the holistic consideration of
environmental impacts of a product caused throughout its life cycle
stages, is still not well established among engineers in product
development. The influence of the design of a product to its
environmental performance, viz the caused impacts to the environment
by the product, is still unclear to most engineers in product development.
Therefore it will be shown in the next lessons how Ecodesign can be
embedded effectively into product design.
ECODESIGN - WHY?
When thinking about the quality of a product, what considerations do
you take into account? What qualities of a product do you evaluate before
you buy a product? What properties of a product give direction to your
decision?
By holding two products in our hands sometimes we think the heavier
product is the better one. How comes that? Is it because we think the
heavier product contains somehow ‘better’ materials by using for example
metals instead of plastics? Is it because we think the product might have
a longer lifetime then? Is it because plastics are considered as ‘cheap’ or
somehow ‘weak’? Beneath the materials used in the product its
performance, its design and its appearance are important parameters
which are considered when buying a product. Sometimes we are ready to
spend a lot of money just for a design which appeals to us. The sales
price is another important parameter to consider when intending to buy a
product.
But have you ever thought of evaluating a product from an environmental
view? Have you ever thought about the impacts a product is causing to
the environment? Have you ever considered how much impact a product
will cause until its end of life? Have you ever thought of considering the
environmental performance of a product as a quality criterion?
Imagine you want to buy an office chair: can you imagine that this
product could have caused some toxic waste (without containing any
toxic substances of course)? Have you ever considered that by using the
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
4
air conditioner of your car you contribute to global warming? Did you
know that usual jeans trousers travel about 50000 km around the world
before you can buy them in a store? Can you imagine that for the
production of a personal computer more than 14000 kg of materials and
additional 30000 litres of water are needed?
Maybe you were not familiar with such ideas? This is because you
probably have only considered the use stage of the product where you are
directly confronted with the product and where you interact with it. But
the product has passed through different stages before you can buy it in
a store and will pass different stages after you dispose it. All these stages
cause some impact to the environment. In the following these stages are
introduced and briefly explained.
RAW MATERIALS
To be able to produce any kind of products different materials are needed.
Imagine some household appliances such as a washing machine. In a
washing machine different materials such as metals (e.g. steel plates),
glass or plastics are used amongst others.
Environmental considerations must start from the point where for
example iron ore is extracted to produce steel or crude oil is extracted to
produce plastics. Raw materials are processed to materials which can be
used in products. If we want to go more into detail we should also take all
energies needed for the extraction and the further processes of the raw
materials into account. By going a level deeper into detail we should also
consider for example the land transformation which occurs by extracting
raw materials.
It was stated that the energies needed should be considered. Which kind
of energies are there and how are they obtained? Let us consider electric
energy: electric energy can be supplied by hydroelectric power plants,
solar power plants or windmills; so called “renewable sources of energy”.
But today most of the electric energy is supplied by power plants which
require fossil fuels such as coal or gas or by nuclear power plants. By
incinerating fossil fuels a lot of other co-products such as carbon black,
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) or methane (CH
4
) occur. CO
2
and CH
4
are
greenhouse gases. The emission of a huge amount of these gases into the
atmosphere is causing the phenomenon called “global warming”.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
5
For any kind of processes energy is needed and for the production of
energy mostly fossil fuels are used. As researches predict again and again
the resources of fossil fuels are limited. With the rise of industrialisation
the need to fossil fuels and other resources rises too. Tab.1.1 shows the
annual energy consumption and CO
2
emission of some selected countries.
Country Oil Electricity
CO
2
emission
Unit
Barrel per day
and 1000 inhabitant
kWh
per person
Tons
per person
United States of America 70.2 12.331 19.7
Japan 42.0 7.628 9.1
Germany 32.5 5.963 32.5
Poland 10.9 2.511 8.1
Brazil 10.5 1.878 1.8
China (without Hong Kong) 4.2 0.827 2.3
Ethiopia 0.3 0.022 0.1
It was the German forester Hans Carl von Carlowitz who introduced the
term “sustainability” in the 17
th
century. The rising need for wood and the
intense felling of trees lead to the deforestation of the woods. He stated
that for being able to prevent wood destruction the felling of trees must
be in balance with the amount of trees which grow again. The need to
wood must be either adapted to this balance or if not possible, some
other resources must be found which can satisfy the needs…the concept
of sustainability was born!
Nowadays the term “sustainability” is also present in industry, especially
in product development. Integrating the idea of sustainability as well as
environmental considerations into the product development is the guiding
idea of Ecodesign. The European Environment Agency defines Ecodesign
as “the integration of environmental aspects into the product development
process, by balancing ecological and economic requirements. Ecodesign
considers environmental aspects at all stages of the product development
process, striving for products which make the lowest possible
environmental impact throughout the product life cycle.” (European
Environment Agency, 2006)
As already stated the main problem of using fossil fuels is that during
their incineration gases such as CO
2
which are key factors for global
warming occur. The effects of global warming are various: changes in
weather and ecosystems, glacier retreat or rising of sea levels are some
effects to be pointed out here.
Tab.1.1:
Energy
consumption
and CO2
emission of
some selected
countries
(Worldwatch
Institute,
2004)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
6
It has also to be mentioned that nowadays economy is based on oil and
gas, hence fossil fuels. Each year new sources of these resources are
found but the annual need for these resources rises much faster than the
sources can supply. Since these resources are not renewable and
therefore limited, this ongoing trend means that we will be confronted
with a scarcity of these resources in future. If we want these resources to
be available for our future generations we must either reduce our
consumption which means a change in our life style or we must find
some other resources which can replace fossil fuels.
MANUFACTURE
Once materials are extracted they can be processed to parts and
components during manufacturing. The components can be assembled to
form the final product.
For manufacturing tools and machine equipment are necessary.
Machines again require energy to operate. Beneath that, process
materials such as chemical substances, coolants, glue or water are
necessary in many production steps.
If we want to go more into detail, all energies needed to lighten, warm or
cool the factory must be taken into account too. These additional energies
are called “overhead energies”. Experience shows that the overhead
energies can rise up to 200% of the energy needed for the actual
manufacturing processes.
But there is more: all energies needed to transport parts and components
of a product to manufacture sites must be considered as well.
Let us consider jeans trousers. A common pair of jeans travel more than
50000 km before a customer can buy them in Europe. What does this
“travel around the world” consists of? We have to consider that the cotton
needed for the jeans grows in Kazakhstan. The cotton is harvested and
sent to Turkey where it is yarned. In Taiwan the yarn is woven. The dye
needed to colour the textile comes from Poland, the textile itself is dyed in
Tunisia. In Bulgaria the textile is smoothened by different processes. In
China the knobs which were imported from Italy as well as the linings
which come from Switzerland were sewed on the jeans. In France the
surface of the jeans textile is processed with pumice which is imported
from Turkey. The trousers are sent to Portugal then, were a label ‘Made in
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
7
Portugal” is sewed. From Portugal the trousers are distributed all over
Europe for sale
1
.
Just imagine the huge amount of energy needed for the transport among
the different factories for the manufacture of the product and try to
imagine the amount of generated emissions! Note: the combustion of 1 kg
fuel produces approximately 3 kg of CO
2
(Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004)!
TRANSPORT
The final product needs to be packaged and delivered to the consumer or
retailer. Depending on the mode of transport, e.g. airplane, ship, train or
truck, energy is used and emissions are generated.
USE
In the use stage the product is operated. In order to provide the functions
properly, the product may require energy or secondary materials, e.g.
lubricants, water or coolants.
A product has to fulfil its functionality in the use stage. The lifetime of a
product is the time the product can fulfil its functionality properly. Most
consumers are directly confronted with the product in this stage. Some
impacts to the environment in the use stage may also cause stress for the
user: imagine products, e.g. household products, which cause high level
of noise or vibrations during use. Also imagine for example products
which need batteries to function: beneath the high environmental
impacts caused by the batteries when they are treated after reaching their
end of life, the user of such products has to spend a lot of money for the
purchase of batteries. In case of battery operated products one can see
that by reducing the need for batteries not only the environmental impact
of the product can be reduced but also the operating costs for the product
decrease.
Occurring environmental impacts as well as emerging costs also depend
on the user’s behaviour, viz how the product is used. Imagine a washing
machine which is only filled up half with laundry: The amount of water,
and electrical energy needed may be the same as it is the case when fully
filled. But the output, that is washed clothes, is just half. This means
that the costs per washing cycle and the relative environmental impact
(related to the output) are twice as high. Designers have no influence on
1
Example taken from (Praxis Umweltbildung 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
8
the way the product is used. All they can do is to provide a design which
avoids an inappropriate use of the product. In the case of a washing
machine for example the device could be provided with different programs
which optimize the amount of water used in dependence to the amount of
laundry filled in.
In the use stage of a product, the interaction between the user and
product is most important. Usually this interaction ends when the
product is not able to operate properly anymore and is disposed by the
user. The product enters another stage called the ‘end of life’ stage.
END OF LIFE
When a product is defect or is not able to provide its function anymore, it
has reached its end of life stage. There are several and different ways to
treat the product and its part in the end of life (EoL) stage. The product
can be for example disassembled. The components and the parts can be
used again or the materials used in the product can be entered into a
recycling cycle. A detailed description of this life cycle stage is given in
lesson 12.
SUMMARY
The reasons for implementing Ecodesign into the product development
process are various: occurring scarcity of raw materials in the near future,
raising consumption of energy, occurring environmental impacts through
product development processes, social as well as economic reasons.
To be able to apply Ecodesign to products it is important to take all five
life cycle stages into consideration and to keep in mind that the life cycle
stages often contain complex loops and cycles.
The next lesson further deals with the product's life cycle in the context of
Life Cycle Thinking in product development process as well as
introducing qualitative description approaches for a product by using
environmental parameters.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
9
HOME EXERCISES
Assignment of products for improvement to the students.
Presentation of the results in lesson 8-12.
1. Have a look at your product:
a. What function does it have to fulfil?
b. Is your product design able to fulfil its function properly? What are
the weak points of the design? Could there be any harm or danger
in case of malfunction or abuse?
c. Give a brief description of your product, e.g. estimated purchase
price, used materials, estimated and guaranteed life time etc. You
can use the information on the packaging or the manual.
2. Environmental issues of your product:
a. Give a general qualitative description of the different life cycle
stages of your product.
b. How do you believe is your product manufactured? Which
technologies are used?
c. How do you think is your product distributed? What is the
transport distance?
d. How should this product be used? What are the environmental
impacts in the use stage?
e. How is the product disposed and how is the product treated when
it reaches its end of life? Is recycling possible? Can parts and
components be reused?
3. How do you believe could Ecodesign be applied to your product?
REFERENCES
European Environment Agency: http://www.eea.europa.eu, accessed 08.2006
Praxis Umweltbildung: http://www.praxis-umweltbildung.de, accessed 08.2006
The Worldwatch Institute 2004. State of the World 2004. W.W. Norton & Company, New York,
USA.
Wimmer, W, Züst, R., 2002. Ecodesign Pilot - Product-Investigation-, Learning- and
Optimization- Tool for Sustainable Product Development. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Wimmer, W., Züst, R., Lee, K.M., 2004. ECODESIGN Implementation - A Systematic
Guidance on Integrating Environmental Considerations into Product Development. Springer,
Dordrecht, Netherlands.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
10
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
11
LESSON 2
Modelling the Life Cycle of a Product
KEYWORDS: LIFE CYCLE THINKING (LCT), LIFE CYCLE THINKING DIAGRAM,
QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION, QUANTITATIVE MODELLING
Lesson objectives
This lesson aims at introducing different ways of modelling the life cycles of a product.
Two different approaches can be pursued: one is a qualitative and one is a quantitative
description of a product. Therefore two types of data can be differed, namely qualitative
data and quantitative data. Qualitative data can be expressed e.g. as ratings.
Considering just parts of the life cycle stages of a product (e.g. only the use stage from
the view of the consumer) is a common and wide spread mistake. In the sense of
Ecodesign, all life cycle stages, starting from raw materials, manufacture, transport over
use and the end of life stage, have to be taken into account when a product is analyzed.
To achieve an overall view of the product, the concept of Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) is
introduced in this lesson.
At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
Include Life Cycle Thinking in your considerations when analyzing your product
Give a qualitative description of your product using environmental parameters
Quantifying environmental parameters of your product
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
12
In this lesson three examples are discussed:
1. Juice extractor
In this example special attention is given to where system boundaries
have to be set and which influence the definition of system boundaries
have on the environmental profile of a product.
2. Washing machine
In the example of the washing machine different use scenarios are
investigated. The different use scenarios lead to different relative
environmental impacts in the life cycle stages. The engineer in product
development can optimize a product in view of the different use
scenarios.
3. Office chair
An office chair is introduced as an example for a product which has its
most environmental impact in the first life cycle stage, namely raw
materials.
LIFE CYCLE THINKING
Commonly, producers and users focus only on one part of the product life
cycle. The former may pay attention to the optimization of manufacture
processes whereas the latter have interest in the product use stage and
end of life stage. Life Cycle Thinking is a key for an overall attention to all
five life cycle stages of a product.
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Generally, data for product description can be divided into quantitative
data and qualitative data.
A quantitative product description is based on quantifiable data, where
quantified input and output factors are considered, e.g. amount of kg
material used. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) according to ISO 14040
requires quantifiable data.
Qualitative data may be expressed as scale ratings, e.g. 1 representing
‘best’ and 5 representing ‘worst’, or as relative rating terms such as ‘better
than’ or ‘worse than’. Qualitative data can be used in matrix LCAs,
compare module 2.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
13
A qualitative description of a product gives a first overview of the product.
This can be achieved by using general data such as, e.g.:
Name of the product
Name of components
Parts and components which has to be purchased from other
manufacturers
Use scenarios
Functionality
Functional unit
…
Qualitative product description may also include textual descriptions of
products.
For the evaluation of environmental aspects of a product by qualitative
data, so-called ‘environmental parameters’ should be addressed.
Environmental parameters related to the product life cycle are listed in
Tab.2.1.
Life cycle stage Environmental parameter
Raw materials
Materials used
Problematic materials
…
Manufacture
Production technology
Production waste
…
Transport
Packaging
Transportation
…
Use
Usability
Energy consumption
Waste, generated
Noise and vibrations
Emissions
Maintenance
Reparability
…
End of life
Fasteners and joints
Time for disassembly
Rate of reusability
Rate of recyclability
…
Tab.2.1:
Environmental
parameters related to
product life cycle
stages
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
14
EXAMPLES
In the following a juice extractor will be considered. A description results
in the following data:
General environmental parameter (qualitative and quantitative)
Name of the product Juice extractor
Weight of Product 705 g
Weight of product
incl. packaging
1.055 kg
Measures Height: 192 mm
Highest diameter (housing): 82 mm
Volumetric capacity 750 ml
Components Motor (85 g)
Press cone (135 g)
Housing (170 g)
Juice-container (190 g)
Cable (65 g)
Packaging (345 g)
External parts Cable, motor, packaging
Use scenario Use scenario: 1 time per day, 50 weeks a year over 5
years
Lifetime 5 years
Functionality The extracted juice drops directly into a container via
a sieve.
The juice extractor is switched on via a contact
during pressing the fruit against a cone and runs as
long as a contact force exists.
Considerations about the life cycle and specific environmental parameters
according to Tab.2.1 are summed up in the Tab. 2.3.
Before you go on, try to consider following questions:
Do you believe that the juice extractor is fully described by Tab.2.2 and Tab.2.3?
If not, what remains open?
What does the juice extractor need to be able to fulfil its function?
Where should system boundaries be set? What influence may different system
boundaries have on the environmental profile of a product?
Since a juice extractor needs fruits (e.g. oranges) for fulfilling its function
the fruits needed for the extraction should be also taken into
considerations.
This can be explained as follows:
To provide juice the juice extractor needs fruits. An ideal juice extractor
would extract all juice content included in the fruit and would not waste
any juice at all. Therefore it may be useful to find out how these fruits can
be quantified and what the maximum amount of juice in an orange is.
Fig.2.1: Juice
Extractor
[www.philips.at]
Tab.2.2: General
environmental
parameter of the
juice extractor
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
15
Specific environmental
parameter
Explanation (qualitative)
Use of raw materials
Materials used:
ABS, PMMA, PP, PS
Motor contains metal parts
Cable contains copper
Manufacture
Production technology:
Production waste:
Mainly injection moulding
Packaging of external parts, sprue bushes of
injection moulding
Transport
Packaging:
Transport:
Cardboard
Truck
Product use
Usability:
Energy consumption:
Generated waste:
Noise and vibrations:
Maintenance:
Reparability:
Extracting juice, collecting juice, cleaning
15 Watt
Fruit pulps (biological waste), orange peels
Gearbox is not damped, may cause noises during
operation
Washing after using, dishwashing detergent
needed
Extractor is completely exchanged in case of
damages
End of life
Fasteners and joints:
Time for disassembly:
Rate of reusability:
Rate of recyclability:
Connectors
Disassembly in less than 2 minutes possible,
motor itself is not disassembled
Motor can be reused after inspection
Approximately 40%
In the following a quantification of oranges is described briefly:
Oranges are needed for the life cycle stage ‘use’.
Explanation
Origin :
Brazil (From July to September)
Spain (Rest of the year)
Transport:
From Spain: via lorry over 3000 km
From Brazil: via ship over 10000 km
Additional 2000 km via lorry for transport
Irrigation:
1 kg of oranges need 1000 litres of water
Mix of oranges:
A mix of 75% of Spanish oranges and 25% of
Brazilian oranges is assumed
Juice:
For the extraction of 750ml orange juice 11
oranges (this is an empirical number) mixed of
oranges from Spain and Brazil are needed
Average weight of orange
150 g
Content of juice
105 g (100% of juice)
Tab.2.3: Description
of specific
environmental
parameters for the
juice extractor
Tab.2.4: Quantitative
description of
oranges
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
16
Testing of the juice extractor shows that approximately 45% (43 g) of the
juice content of an orange can be extracted. 55% are wasted.
To be able to achieve a precise environmental profile of a product it is
important to define precise system boundaries. An appropriate functional
unit must be defined at the beginning of the considerations. A functional
unit quantifies the function of a product, see lesson 4. The functional
unit of a juice extractor can be defined as: “extracting 750 ml of juice”.
By Life Cycle Thinking weak points of the product can be found. Since
the ‘oranges’ have a serious influence on the environmental profile of the
juice extractor, especially on the life cycle stage ‘use’, the optimization
criteria for the juice extractor may be its capability of extracting as much
as possible juice from the fruits. An evaluation of the juice extractor and
the fruits shows that approximately one third of the environmental
impact during the use stage can be assigned to the oranges. Therefore an
optimization of the extraction process of the juice extractor seems to be
most relevant. This optimization would minimize the contribution of the
oranges to the overall environmental impact in the use stage.
Defining proper system boundaries remains an important task. In order
to define system boundaries, the different processes, activities or
materials through the entire life cycle of a product must be evaluated.
Significant processes should be included within the system boundary;
less significant ones can be neglected.
Different decision rules for the evaluation of the significance of processes
and activities can be used. According to (Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004) a
decision rule for mass inclusion can be considered. Unit processes are
excluded if their fractional weight to the product is less than a certain
percentage. Unit processes are elements of the so called ‘product system’,
where all components, parts and materials as well as all development
activities are considered. Decision rules based on energy flows are also
possible.
System boundaries may also be chosen in a way that a compromise
between the accuracy of the product description and evaluation (e.g. LCA,
see module 2) and the time needed for description and evaluation as well
as the associated cost is achieved.
Another example explained here is a washing machine, as explained in
(Wimmer, Züst, 2002). Life Cycle Thinking leads to interesting results in
this example.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
17
Consider two different types of washing machines, one costs 500€, the
other one costs 2000€. Let’s assume that a washing machine for a
household with 50 washing cycles a year and a washing machine for a
dormitory with 2 washing cycles a day has to be purchased. Well, if the
purchasing price is the only considered parameter, the first machine is
the one to chose.
But Life Cycle Thinking leads to extended considerations. Obviously the
consumer is confronted with different use scenarios. An Input-Output
analysis where all input needed to wash clothes (energy, process
materials, etc…) as well as the output from the washing process (clean
clothes, heat, etc…) are drawn in a flow chart. This helps to describe the
use stage of the washing machine more precisely. Fig. 2.3 shows such an
Input-Output chart.
A detailed quantitative description of the use stage of a washing machine
is given in Tab. 2.5.
Machine A
Machine B
Purchasing price 500€ 2000€
Energy consumption per washing cycle
1,2kWh 1 kWh
Detergent per washing cycle 50g 50g
Water consumption per washing cycle 70l 50l
Washing cycles per year 50 600
Service life 20 years 16 years
Total washing cycles 1000 9600
Servicing per year 20€ 60€
Heat Vibration
Input
Process
Output
Washing
clothes
Sewage
Clean
clothes
Electric
energy
Water
Washing
powder
Laundry
Fig. 2.2: Typical
washing machine
[www.sem.or.at]
Fig.2.3:
Input-Output
analysis for a
washing machine
Tab.2.5: Co
st
analysis of two
different washing
machine models
(Wimmer, Züst,
2002)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
18
Portion purchase price 0,50€ 0,21€
Portion servicing 0,40€ 0,10€
Costs of water 0,21€ 0,15€
Costs of electricity 0,18€ 0,15€
Costs of detergent 0,13€ 0,13€
Costs per washing cycle 1,42€ 0,74€
Unit prices:
Costs per m
3
water 3,0€
Costs per kWh electricity 0,15€
Costs for detergent (50g) 2,50€
The results of Tab. 2.5 show that although washing machine B is four
times more expensive than machine A, the different use scenarios
implement that washing machine B is half expensive in each washing-
cycle.
0
50
100
Raw material Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact[%]
Life Cycle Thinking
and the consideration
of the different use
scenarios also lead to
different relative
environmental impact
in the life cycle
stages.
In the proposed use scenarios, washing machine B is used more
intensive than washing machine A. Since washing machine B is used up
to twice a day, its life cycle stage ‘use’ contributes most to the overall
environmental impact of the product. Fig. 2.4 shows a Life Cycle Thinking
diagram (LCT diagram) of the washing machine where the environmental
impact of each life cycle stage of the washing machine is drawn.
This view of the environmental impact of the different life cycle stages can
be obtained by Life Cycle Thinking, a way to consider environmental
aspects of all life cycle stages of the product.
Fig.2.4: Percentage
of environmental
impact in each life
cycle stage of
machine B
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
19
Fig.2.5: Percentage
of environmental
impact in each life
cycle stage of
machine A
In case of a less intensive use, the first life cycle stage, namely raw
materials, becomes significant too, see LCT diagram in Fig. 2.5.
Different scenarios can be matter of investigation in other life cycle stages
too. Imagine your product is going to be sold and used in different
countries or continents and reaches its end of life stage there. Since each
country has different waste management systems, different disposal
scenarios have to be taken into account. For example recycling rates
differ in Europe where 13% of the disposed waste is recycled, in North
America where recycling rates are not so high since most of the municipal
waste is disposed in a landfill compared to Japan where recycling rates
are very high.
The last example introduced in this lesson is an office chair, see
Fig. 2.6, which is further discussed in lesson 6 and 8.
A common office chair can be described as consisting of five main
parts, namely:
1. Base
2. Mechanism
3. Seat
4. Arm rest
5. Back
General information of the office chair is given below:
General environmental parameter
Name of the product Office chair
Weight of product 24kg
Weight of product incl. packaging 28 kg
Main components Base, mechanism, seat, arm rest, back
Lifetime 15 years
Use scenario An average person, using the chair for
eight hours a day, five days a week
over a period of 15 years
0
50
100
Raw material Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact [%]
In case of washing
machine A, which is
not used as intensive
as washing machine
B, the relative
environmental impact
of its life cycle stage
‘use’ is not as high as
washing machine B.
3
4
5
2
1
Fig.2.6: Office chair
[www.steelcase.com]
Tab.2.6: General
environmental
parameter of an
office chair
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
20
Fig. 2.7:
Percentage of
environmental
impact in each life
cycle stage of a
office chair
Specific environmental
parameter
Explanation (qualitative)
Raw materials
Materials used:
Metals: Steel, Zamak alloy
Plastics: PA, PP, PS, PU, PVC, ABS, LDPE, HDPE
Others : Cardboard, textiles, glue
Manufacture
Production
technology:
Injection moulding, welding, painting, anodising,
polishing
Transport
Packaging:
Transport:
Cardboard
Ship, over-sea
Lorry, highway
Lorry, urban
Use
Usability:
Provision of comfortable office seating
End of life
Disposal:
60% landfill, 27% incineration, 13% recycling
A
ccordingly the office chair could be seen as a “raw-material and
manufacture intensive” product.
Further improvement strategies for the office chair should focus on this
life cycle stages. The relative environmental impact of the raw material
stage is highest. In lesson 8 it will be discussed how this life cycle stage
can be improved.
Fig. 2.7 also shows that in the ‘use’ stage of the office chair no
environmental impact occurs at all.
-50
0
50
100
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact [%]
By applying Life Cycle
Thinking and evalua-
ting the product, the
life cycle stages ‘raw
materials’ and
“manufacture” of the
office chair seem to
contribute most to the
overall environmental
impact, see LCT
diagram in Fig. 2.7.
Tab.2.7: Specific
environmental
parameters of an
office chair
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
21
SUMMARY
Life Cycle Thinking is a key issue for obtaining insight into the
environmental impacts occurring along product life and is therefore a
basic requirement for implementing Ecodesign. The examples above have
shown that taking all life cycle stages into account and considering
different possible scenarios for the life cycles, the environmental profile of
a product can bring sometimes unexpected results.
Setting the right system boundaries, as shown in the juice extractor
example, is also an important factor which has to be considered. Setting
large system boundaries, too much and detailed information may be
needed to obtain an environmental profile of a product. In many cases not
all information can be gathered since either no information is available or
facts are unknown. Too small system boundaries may lead to a wrong
and insufficient description of the environmental profile of a product. In
both cases the real weak points of the product may be overlooked. This
can lead to wrong or ineffective improvement strategies of the product.
Sketching the relative environmental impact over the life cycle stages, as
done in Fig. 2.4, 2.5 and 2.7, gives a good overview of the environmental
profile of a product. Such a diagram clearly shows which life stages are
the most relevant ones and where the focus of environmental
improvement activities should lie on.
The next lesson will discuss how the environmental performance can be
evaluated.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
22
HOME EXERCISES
1. Describe your product by using environmental parameters:
d. Give general environmental parameters of your product by
following Tab. 2.2.
e. How can the function and the functionality of your product be
described? (Note: Testing may be useful)
f. Which components and materials does your product contain? (Note:
Disassembling may be required)
g. Quantify this information (e.g. by weighting, measuring, etc…)
Caution: In case of disassembling your product for analyzing, DO NOT
use the product again after re-assembling! Danger of malfunction and
serious injuries!
Perform any testing BEFORE you disassemble your product!
2. Give qualitative explanation of the environmental parameters:
f. Find information about the life cycle stages of your product.
g. How can you define system boundaries? How much information is
necessary to consider?
h. Is there any product specific data to consider?
3. Give special attention to the use stage of your product
a. Which use scenarios are possible?
b. How do these different use scenarios influence the environmental
profile of your product?
4. Which life cycle stage of your product contributes most to the
environmental impact? Estimate the possible impacts and draw a first
draft of a LCT diagram.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
23
REFERENCES
Wimmer, W., Züst, R., 2002. Ecodesign Pilot - Product-Investigation-, Learning- and
Optimization- Tool for Sustainable Product Development. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Wimmer, W., Züst, R., Lee, K.M., 2004. ECODESIGN Implementation - A Systematic
Guidance on Integrating Environmental Considerations into Product Development. Springer,
Dordrecht, Netherlands.
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL (AVAILABLE ON CD)
Wimmer, W., Bey, N., The way to do ECODESIGN in companies – installing a continuous
improvement process, Proceedings of the Design2004, D. Marjanovic, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering and Naval Architecture, Zagreb, The Design Society, Glasgow, 2004, 1565-1570.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
24
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
25
LESSON 3
Evaluating the Environmental
Performance of Products
Part I: Using MET-Matrix and Energy
Values
KEYWORDS: QUALITATIVE EVALUATION METHOD, MET-MATRIX, ENERGY VALUES
Lesson objectives
Once a product is described, the next step is the environmental evaluation of the product.
There are various evaluation methods, starting from qualitative, easy to apply evaluation
methods over very complex methods using quantitative data, e.g. EDIP-method used in
LCA, see module 2.
This lesson deals with methods which are easy to apply for product developers and
which give a reliable and good overview of the environmental performance of the product
to find appropriate Ecodesign improvement strategies.
The introduced Material-Energy-Toxicity-matrix (MET-matrix) allows a simple qualitative
as well as a quantitative evaluation of the product.
A MET-matrix contains data for the different life cycle stages of a product and gives a
first overview of the environmental situation of the product.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
26
As introduced in module 2, energy values are applied in this lesson for a more detailed
analysis. By selecting pre-calculated values from a list one can obtain a quantitative
evaluation of a product in form of LCT diagrams. The application of the energy values is
simple since no deeper insight to complex life cycle assessment theories and methods is
necessary.
At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
Evaluate your product by using:
MET-matrix or modifications of the MET-matrix
Energy values for LCT diagrams
EVALUATION WITH THE HELP OF THE MET-MATRIX
Assume you should measure “environmental impact”. How would you
proceed? There is no single value that is able to fully express this.
Obviously a combination of different parameters can lead to an
appropriate description of environmental impact. One of these
parameters is certainly the energy consumption of the product. Another
one could be resource or material consumption. Special attention has to
be paid to small quantities with large environmental impacts, i.e. toxic
substances.
The simplest and easiest way to apply environmental evaluation is
therefore the Material-Energy-Toxicity-matrix (MET-matrix.). In the
columns of the matrix the five life cycle stages are listed and the rows
contain the three parameters: material, energy and toxicity; see Tab. 3.1.
Raw materials
Manufacture Transport
Use End of Life
Material Steel,
aluminium
Glue, lubricants Packaging
Detergent
Energy Oil Oil, electricity Fuel Electricity
Environment
Toxicity Alloy PVC
The different elements of the matrix collect qualitative data of the three
parameters material, energy and toxicity in the different life cycle stages.
In case of the parameter material, the used material in the product can
be written down in the life cycle stage raw materials. In the manufacture
stage the relevant process materials such as glue, lubricants are coolants
shall be considered. In the life cycle stage transport materials needed for
packaging and safe transporting shall be listed. If additional materials are
Tab.3.1: Example
for a MET-matrix
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
27
necessary in the use stage to ensure the fulfilment of the function of the
product, these materials shall be written down in the use stage
(e.g. detergents for washing process of washing machine). Process
materials needed for the end of life processes, e.g. for recycling, should be
mentioned in the last column of the matrix.
Same shall be done for the parameters energy and toxicity. In case of the
parameter ‘energy’ the processes needing energy as well as the kind of
energy needed in the different life cycle stages, e.g. electrical energy or
fossil energy, can be mentioned.
In case of toxicity, toxic materials and emissions which occur in the
different life cycle stages shall be addressed in the matrix elements.
In general it is possible to write down any known data into the MET-
matrix, also including quantitative data, e.g. amount of material used in
the life cycle stages, amount of energy needed or amount of emissions
generated.
A MET-matrix gives a first impression of how the environmental influence
of the different life cycle stages can be evaluated and which life cycle
stages are relevant. With the help of a MET-matrix first “hot spots” of the
most significant parameters can be determined. This is done in Tab. 3.1
by marking the important life cycle stages and parameters.
Modifications of the MET-matrix may contain for example characterized
impact values used in Life Cycle Assessments (LCA), e.g. global warming
potential expressed as CO
2
-equivalent or acidification expressed as SO
2
-
equivalent, see module 2. Known quantified or qualitative data can be
written down for these parameters throughout the entire life cycle, see
Tab.3.2.
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use End of Life
CO
2
-equivalent
SO
2
-equivalent
…
EXAMPLE 1: JUICE EXTRACTOR
Let us consider the juice extractor introduced in lesson 2. As we have
already seen the juice extractor consists of different parts and different
materials.
Fig.3.1 shows the different materials in the different parts of the juice
extractor.
Tab.3.
2
:
Modified
MET-matrix
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
28
Tab. 3.3 lists the amount of materials used in the juice extractor as well
as the estimated end of life treatment of the materials.
Material Weight [g]
End of Life Treatment
Polypropylene (PP) 120
Steel + Copper 150
Recycling
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
250
Polyoxymethylen (POM) 50
Polyvinylchlorid (PVC) 30
Thermal recovery
Polyethylen (PE)
Polystyrol (PS)
Acrylnitril-Butadien-Styrol (ABS)
105 Landfill
2
Total 705
A first evaluation of the juice extractor can be obtained by establishing a
MET-matrix where qualitative data are written down, as shown in
Tab. 3.4.
Raw materials Manufacture Transport
Use End of life
Material
Metals (Cu, steel)
Plastics (e.g. PP,
PVC, ABS…)
Injection tools
Motor, Cable
Lubricants,
Coolants
Packaging
Fruits,
Water
Detergents
Process materials,
recycling of
materials
Energy
Energy for
refining or
granulating
Injection
moulding,
metal
processing
Fuel
(diesel)
Electric
energy
during
operation
Energy for recycling
Recovery of energy
Toxicity
Emissions during
extraction
Emissions Emissions - PVC, Electro-parts
Where do you believe are the “hot spots” of the MET-matrix in Tab. 3.4?
2
Remark: The materials listed here could also be recycled but in this example they are disposed to a landfill
PMMA
PP
Cu + PVC
PVC
Cu
Steel
POM
Fig.3.1: Materials of
the juice extractor
Tab.3.3: Amount of
materials used in a
juice extractor
Tab.3.4: MET
-
matrix for the
juice extractor
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
29
Additional remarks:
Some considerations about the compatibility of the different materials
could be taken into account as well. Since the end of life treatment of the
materials is different, the compatibility and mix of different materials
should also be taken into account in respect to ensure an unproblematic
separation and treatment. Tab. 3.5 shows a matrix where the
compatibilities of the materials are shown qualitatively by using
meaning ‘good compatibility’, ‘average compatibility’ and ‘bad
compatibility’.
PMMA
PP POM
PVC
ABS
PE PS
PMMA
PP
POM
PVC
ABS
PE
PS
Although a qualitative MET-matrix provides some insight, it remains
difficult to evaluate which life cycle stage contributes most to the
environmental impact of the product. Therefore it is not really known
which life cycle stages need an improvement or even where to start to
improve the product.
A quantitative evaluation is needed. Quantifying the environmental
impacts allows identifying effective strategies and tasks for an
improvement of the environmental performance of the product.
To achieve quantified environmental impacts and in order to minimize the
effort needed to obtain these data, energy values, as introduced in
module 2, are used. Tab. 3.6 lists the energies needed to obtain the
materials used in a juice extractor.
In the following Tab. 3.7 to Tab. 3.10 energy values for the other life cycle
stages of the juice extractor are listed.
Injection moulding and metal forming are applied processes to
manufacture the juice extractor. The required energies for producing one
piece of a juice extractor are listed in Tab. 3.7.
T
ab.3.5:
Compatibility of
materials used
in the juice
extractor, bad
compatibilities
marked in grey
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
30
Material [MJ/kg] Weight [kg]
Result [MJ]
Polypropylene (PP) 78 0.120 9.36
Steel 32 0.085 2.72
Copper 65 0.065 4.23
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 95 0.250 23.75
Polyoxymethylen (POM) 105 0.050 5.25
Polyvinylchlorid (PVC) 70 0.030 2.1
Polyethylen (PE)
80
0.035
2.8
Polystyrol (PS)
96
0.035
3.36
Acrylnitril-Butadien-Styrol (ABS) 100
0.035
3.5
Total 0.705 57.07
Manufacture [MJ/kg] Weight [kg] Result [MJ/piece]
Injection moulding 78 0.555 43.29
Forming metals 32 0.15 4.8
Total 0.705 48.09
The juice extractor is transported over a distance of 3.000km from the
producer to the customer. Tab. 3.8 shows the energy amount needed for
the transport of one juice extractor.
Transport of juice
extractor
Distance [km]
[MJ/ton-km]
Result [MJ/piece]
Truck 3000 1.5 4.5
Tab. 3.9 lists the results of the electrical energy demand of the juice
extractor per extracting process of 750 ml juice.
Use [kWh] per use [kWh] during lifetime
Energy consumption
8.0610
-4
4.23
[MJ/kWh]-average [MJ] during lifetime
Energy consumption
10 42.3
The energy values for the treatment of materials in the end of life stage
are given in Tab. 3.10.
End of Life Weight [kg] [MJ/kg] Result [MJ]
Recycling/Re-melting of plastics
0.555 -20 -11.1
Tab.
3.6: Energy
values for the
materials used in a
juice extractor
Tab.3.7: Energy
values for the
manufacture stage
Tab.3.8: Energy
values for the
transport of the
juice extractor
Tab.3.9: Energy
values fort he use
stage of the juice
extractor
Tab.3.10: En
ergy
values for the end
of life stage of
plastics used in the
juice extractor
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
31
As stated in lesson 2, the juice extractor is able to extract 45% of the
juice content of an orange. 55% of the juice content is wasted due to
inefficiency of the device. Thinking in terms of an Input-Output analysis
the wasted amount of the juice must be considered in the use stage of the
juice extractor since the extractor uses oranges to provide its
functionality.
The irrigation of 1kg oranges requires 1000 litres of water. Therefore fresh
water must be provided by treating saltwater. In addition the fresh water
must be pumped for irrigating the orange fields. From the five life cycle
stages, the two stages manufacture and transport of oranges are the most
important ones. Tab. 3.11 shows the energy values for the processes
needed in these two stages.
Life cycle stage
Manufacture
[MJ/m
3
] [m
3
] Result [MJ]
Oranges (saltwater treatment)
13.0 1 13.0
Oranges (water pumping) 1.8 1 1.8
Transport
Distance [km]
[MJ/ton-km]
Result [MJ/kg]
Ship, from Brazil 10.000 0.11 1.1
Truck, from Spain 3.000 1.5 4.5
Truck to customer 2.000 1.5 3.0
Using data from Tab. 2.4 where a mix of oranges is introduced, the
fractional amount of energy used for the oranges per use can be
calculated, see Tab. 3.12. According to Tab. 2.4 for each use cycle 11
oranges (150 g each) are used to achieve 750 ml of juice.
Weight /
piece
Spain (75%)
Brazil (25%)
Transport
(truck
Total
Weight 0.150g 1.2375 kg 0.4125 kg 1.650 kg
Transport 5.57 MJ 0.45 MJ 4.95 MJ 10.97 MJ
Irrigation 24.42 MJ
Total 35.39 MJ
By now, all relevant data are known and all relevant energy values are
calculated. Let us make a last calculation using the tables above to see
which amount of energy is needed over the lifetime of the juice extractor.
According to Tab. 2.2 the juice extractor is used 1 time a day, 50 weeks
over a period of 5 years. This gives a total use of 1750 times. Tab. 3.13
sums up the results for the different life cycle stages of the juice extractor
Tab.3.11: Data for
manufacture and
transport stage of
oranges
Tab.3.12: Data for
mix of oranges
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
32
and the oranges. (Note: only the wasted amount of the oranges were
taken into account)
Raw Material
Manufacture Transport Use
EoL Total
Juice
extractor
Energy
[MJ]
57.07 48.09 4.5 42.3
-11.1
141
Oranges
Energy
[MJ]
-
1750x0.55x24.42=
23504.25
1750x0.55x10.97=
10558.625
- - 34063
Total
Energy
[MJ]
34204
When analyzing the juice extractor the wasted amount of oranges
(including their two most important life cycle stage manufacture and
transport) must be added to the use stage of the juice extractor since this
waste is generated in the use stage of the extractor, see Tab. 3.14.
Raw Material
Manufacture
Transport
Use EoL Total
Juice
extractor
Energy
[MJ]
57.07 48.09 4.5 42.3 + 34063
-11.1
34204
As it can be seen from the results in Tab.3.14 the wasted oranges
contribute most to the environmental impact of the juice extractor.
By now the environmental impacts of the juice extractor are calculated. How do
you think the juice extractor can be improved? How can the environmental impact
of the juice extractor be reduced?
EXAMPLE 2: OFFICE CHAIR
Now we want to evaluate the office chair
introduced in lesson 2 more precisely by
using again a MET-matrix, a modified
MET-matrix and energy values. Fig. 3.2
shows the materials used in the
components of the office chair.
To obtain a first evaluation of the office
chair, a MET-matrix as introduced in the
previous sections is established, see
Tab. 3.15.
Tab.3.13: Final
results of energy
amount needed for
the juice extractor
and oranges
Tab.3.14: Data for
the juice extractor
including oranges
ASt35, PP (Base)
ABS, ASt35, C45
(Mechanism)
PU, PP (Seat)
PP (Arm rest)
PU, Polyester (Back)
Fig. 3.2: Materials used in the
components of an office chair
[www.steelcase.com]
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
33
Raw materials Manufacture Transport
Use
End of life
Material
Steel, Aluminium,
Plastics
Glue, lubricants,
varnish
Packaging -
Recycling of
materials (steel,
aluminium)
Energy
Electric energy (e.g.
aluminium)
Fuel
Electric energy for
processing (e.g.
welding)
Fuel
(lorry)
-
Recovery of
energy
Toxicity
Toxic materials
needed for anodising
Emissions Emissions - Emissions
As already mentioned, a MET-matrix does not really indicate which life
cycle stage contributes most to environmental impact. Therefore it
remains difficult to choose adequate strategies for the improvement of the
environmental performance of the product. But the MET-matrix contains
all known and available data of the product and gives therefore a first
impression of the environmental performance of the product.
If quantified data are known, e.g. the weight and amount of materials
from a list of materials or list of parts or if the amount of energies needed
is known from e.g. measuring, the values can be registered in the MET-
matrix too.
To obtain quantified data for the evaluation of the environmental
performance of the product, we use energy values as done for the juice
extractor.
Tab.3.16 lists the materials and their amount used in the office chair as
well as the corresponding energy values.
Material [MJ/kg]
Weight [kg]
Result [MJ]
ABS 100 0.1 10
Cardboard (Packaging)
28 4 112
PA 115 2.3 264.5
Polyester 98 0.4 39.2
Polypropylene (PP) 78 1.2 93.6
PS 96 0.1 9.6
PU 115 1.4 161
Steel 32 14.5 464
Wood 22 2.1 46.2
Zinc alloy 90 1.5 135
Total 27.6 1335.1
Tab.3.15: MET
-
matrix for an
office chair
Tab.3.16: Energy
values for the
materials used in
an office chair
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
34
The tables 3.17– 3.19 give the energy values for the other life cycle stages
of the office chair.
Manufacturing [MJ/kg] Weight [kg] Result [MJ/piece]
Injection moulding 78 5.1 397.8
Pressure Die Casting
134 1.5 201
Forming metals 32 14.5 464
[MJ/m
2
]
Surface [m
2
]
Result [MJ/piece]
Anodising 39 0.33 12.87
[MJ/m] Surface [m] Result [MJ/piece]
Welding steel 2 0.5 1
Total 1076.67
Transport Distance [km] [MJ/ton-km] Result [MJ/kg]
Ship 20000 0.11 2.2
Truck 2000 1.5 3.0
Total 5.2
The office chair does not need any energy (or any process and auxiliary
materials) in its use stage and therefore no environmental impact occurs
in the use stage. The use stage is neglected further on.
End of Life [%] of total weight
Weight [kg]
[MJ/kg]
Result [MJ]
Landfill 61 16.836 0* 0
Incineration
(50% recovery of energy)
26.5 7.314 -115**
-420.5
(50%)
Recycling 12.5 3.45 -16*** -55.2
Total -475.8
* This value for landfill means that no energy is needed to put waste on a
landfill and no energy can be recovered. This does not mean that no
impact occurs at all. In case that the materials put on the landfill are not
inert the may start chemical reactions which can be toxic and cause
harm to the environment.
** Here the energy value for the material PA is taken, since PA is used
most amongst plastics in the office chair.
*** This is an averaged value for the recycling of metals and the recycling
of plastics.
Tab.3.17 Energy
values for the
relevant
manufacture
processes of an
office chair
Tab.3.18: Energy
values for the life
cycle stage
transport of the
office chair
Tab.3.19:
Energy values
for the end of
life stage of
the office chair
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
35
In case of recycling or recovery, energy is recovered again which means a
reduction of energy consumption and a benefit for the environment since
less energy must be produced later on. Therefore a negative value is given
for incineration and recycling in Tab. 3.19.
The final results in Tab. 3.20 indicate that the first and second life cycle
stage, namely raw materials and manufacture are most energy
consuming and therefore contribute most to the environment impact.
Fig. 3.3 shows an LCT diagram achieved by using the results of Tab. 3.20.
Raw Material Manufacture Transport Use End of Life Total
Energy [MJ] 1335.1 1076.67 5.2 - -475.8 1941.2
-50
0
50
100
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact [%]
The negative value in the end of life stage indicates that in this stage
energy recovery is possible due to recycling processes (which can be
interpreted as a benefit for the environment).
If results of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are available a modified MET-
matrix can be established showing the characterized environmental
impacts of each life cycle stage. There is no need to fill out each element
of the matrix but only the known data are registered. Tab. 3.21 shows
such a modified MET-matrix where quantified data of a full LCA
according to ISO 14040 are registered.
In case a LCA was performed for a similar product and quantified data
were generated these data can be used as a rough estimation and
evaluation for the considered product. Differences between the products
must be mapped carefully by using e.g. a conventional MET-matrix.
Tab.3.20: Final
results of energy
amount needed for
the office chair
Fig.3.3: LCT diagram
for the office chair
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
36
Category Unit Materials
Manufacture
Transport
Use
Disposal
Total
Global warming [g CO2-eq] 66100 14500 7390 - 3550 91540
Acidification [g SO
2
-eq] 545 45 66 - -11 645
Eutrophication [g NO
3
-eq] 543 43 110 - -1 695
Photochemical Smog
[g C
2
H
4
-eq] 60 10 7 - -1 76
Fig.3.4 shows a diagram where the environmental profile of the office
chair is drawn by using quantified data gained by LCA. The diagram
shows the global warming potential of each life cycle stage expressed in
gCO
2
-equivalent.
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use Eol
g CO2-equivalent
Note: Although energy can be recovered in the end of life stage, see
Fig. 3.3, the recycling processes may cause some emissions which can be
expressed as CO
2
-equivalents. Speaking in terms of emissions, the end of
life stage of the office chair has a (positive) contribution to the
environmental impact at this stage.
Question: Try to explain why the bars of the other life cycle stages in Fig. 3.3 and
Fig. 3.4 differ from each other.
Tab.3.21: Modified
MET-matrix using
quantified data
Fig.3.4:
Environmental
profile of the office
chair expressed in
CO
2
-equivalent
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
37
SUMMARY
After describing the product by applying Life Cycle Thinking and
considering the environmental parameters described in lesson 2, the
MET-matrix and its modifications introduced in this lesson provide a
quick evaluation of the product. The elements of the MET-matrix can
contain qualitative data as well as quantitative data or any known data of
the considered parameters during the different life cycle stages of the
product. The MET-matrix helps to identify “hot spots” of a product.
Quantitative data can be obtained easily by using energy values. For
practical use, energy values are already calculated for different materials,
processes, transportation modes, use and end of life scenarios and
available in a list.
The appropriate use of energy values indicates the most energy
consuming life cycle stages. High energy values are an indication for a
high environmental impact.
In case of toxic substances the dose of the substance determines whether
the substance is dangerous for environment or not. There are substances
which cause a high environmental impact even when used in small
quantities. These substances should be identified during the
environmental evaluation of a product and be seriously considered when
aiming at finding environmental improvement strategies for the product.
In lesson 4 the environmental performance of the washing machine is
evaluated by using the ECODESIGN PILOT’s Assistant.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
38
HOME EXERCISES
Consider your product.
1. Try to evaluate your product:
h. Establish a MET-matrix
i. List all relevant materials, processes, transport-parameters as well
as use and end of life parameters. Note: you may get the necessary
information in the manual of your product, in the parts and
material list if available, at the webpage of the producer etc…
j. Identify “hot spots”
k. Generate quantitative data by using energy values
l. Draw a LCT diagram
2. Consider different scenarios for the different life cycle stages of your
product:
a. Establish MET-matrixes for different scenarios (e.g. different
materials and different manufacture processes, different transport
modes, different use scenarios or different end of life scenarios).
What are the differences in the results?
b. Consider the life cycle stage which contributes most to
environmental impact: compare the quantitative data obtained by
energy values of the different scenarios.
c. How does the relative amount of the energy values change in the
different scenarios?
d. What do these differences mean in case of an intended product
improvement?
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
39
REFERENCES
CES EduPAck 2006 (software), Granta Design Limited, Cambridge, UK. (used for generating
energy values)
SimaPro 7.0, 2006 (software), Pre Consultants, Netherlands. (used for generating energy
values)
ADDITIONAL LINKS AND SUGGESTED READING MATERIALS
Thrane, M., Schmidt, J., 2004. Life Cycle Assessment- Chapter 4A. Published in:
Environmental Planning and Management – Tools for Sustainable Development. Red. Kørnov
L, H. Lund and A. Remmen, Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University.
http://www.plan.aau.dk/~thrane/Publications/Personal%20publications.htm, accessed
01.2007
Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M., Alting, L., 1997. Environmental Assessment of Products, Vol.1:
Methodology, tools and case studies in product development. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
40
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
41
LESSON 4
Evaluating the Environmental
Performance of Products
Part II: Using the ECODESIGN PILOT´s
Assistant
KEYWORDS: ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE, ECODESIGN PILOT’S ASSISTANT
Lesson objectives
In this lesson the ECODESIGN PILOT’s Assistant, further just named as ‘Assistant’, is
introduced. The Assistant helps to identify the most relevant life cycle stage of a product
and to find appropriate Ecodesign strategies and improvement tasks.
Different from a formal Life Cycle Assessment or Life Cycle Thinking with energy values
where absolute numbers are derived, the Assistant only calculates relative
environmental impacts by comparing the occurring impacts of the different life cycle
stages of the product.
The Assistant contains a sequence of six forms where product data such as product
mass, energy consumption, transport distance, the kind of packaging or the waste
treatment can be entered. Based on these data, the Assistant gives detailed guidelines
how the product can be improved by proposing strategies which are directly linked to the
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
42
ECODESIGN PILOT, see lesson 7. The Assistant is a kind of expert system advising
appropriate improvement options for a certain product.
At the end of this lesson you will be able to identify the life cycle stage of a
product which contributes most to environmental impact by using the ECODESIGN
PILOT’s Assistant available on the Austrian Ecodesign Platform under:
www.ecodesign.at/assist.
The Assistant asks for product specific data with the help of six forms
which will be described more detailed in the following. The washing
machine will be analyzed with the help of the Assistant more detailed.
FORM 1 – GENERAL DATA
In the first form general data of the product have to be entered. Starting
with the description of the product name and the quantification of the
product lifetime, the functional unit of the product can also be registered
in this form, see Fig. 4.1.
What is the difference between function and functional unit?
A function is what the product provides to the user. It is something
abstract and may depend on the viewpoint and the expectance of the
user. It is important to define a basic function for the product. Imagine
some different models of mobile phones. The basic function may be
providing the possibility to make phone calls. But there is more to it than
Fig.4.1: General
data form of the
Assistant (Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
43
that: some models of mobile phones include a photographing camera, a
radio or a MP3-player. Some provide an internet access or contain a high
tech organizer.
The question to answer is: what is the basic function? Is the product an
organizer with phoning possibilities or a mobile phone which also
provides a good organizer?
In case of multifunctional products, such as the mobile phone, the
complication of defining an exact function is obvious. But what about
other products which seem to have just one function?
Imagine an office chair which should provide ‘comfortable seating’. How can the
term ‘comfortable’ be defined? Which additional functions to the basic function
(seating) are needed to provide comfort?
The questions above show that functions are something abstract. The
functional unit quantifies the function. The main question is which
measurable metric to choose to quantify the function. Since the function
of the washing machine is providing the possibility to wash clothes, the
functional unit of the washing machine was chosen as ‘washing 5 kg of
clothes (per use), see Fig. 4.1. The lifetime of the washing machine is
assumed to be 20 years.
FORM 2 – RAW MATERIAL DATA
Fig. 4.2 shows the second form, namely the raw material data form, of
the Assistant.
In the second form of the Assistant data about the product parts as well
as the packaging must be defined, see Fig. 4.2. It is important to identify
the most important parts and components. A first approach for
identifying the most relevant components is to take those with highest
mass into account. Beneath the definition of the mass and materials of
each part and component, the materials must be assigned to a class. The
materials are grouped into eight different classes: materials of class I
cause little environmental impact whereas materials of class VIII cause
high environmental impact with small quantities. Another approach to
identify the most important components is to take into account those
materials which have a high environmental impact when used in small
quantities. Tab. 4.1 gives an overview of the material classes and the
related materials.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
44
Material
Class
Metals Plastics Other materials
I
- Concrete
- Wood, solid
- Plaster
II
- Electric steel (secondary)
- Aluminum (secondary)
- Steel plate (90% recycled)
- Porcelain
- Glass, bottles etc. (100%
recycled)
- Glass, bottles etc. (88% recycled)
- Sheet glass (float glass)
- Glass fiber
- Glass, bottles etc., brown (61%
recycled)
- Glass, bottles etc., green (99%
recycled)
- Glass, bottles etc., clear (55%
recycled)
- Linoleum
- Cardboard
- Paper (100% recycled)
- Glass, bottles etc. (primary)
III
- Steel (80% primary)
- Steel (83% primary)
- Paper (65% recycled)
- Leather
Tab.4.1: Material
classes as defined
in the Assistant
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.2: Raw
material data form
of the Assistant
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
45
Material
Class
Metals Plastics Other materials
- Steel (89% primary)
- Steel, top-blown (primary)
- Steel, low-alloy
- Rubber, green, raw
- Paper, free from chlorine
- Coolant R134a
- Ammonia NH3
- Fuel oil
- Gasoline, unleaded
IV
- Cast iron
- Sheet steel, galvanized
- Cast steel
- PVC, non-rigid
- PVC
- PVC, rigid
- PVC, high impact
- HDPE
- PP
- LDPE
- PPE/PS
- PS (EPS), expandable
- PS (HIPS), high impact
- PS (GPPS), general
purpose
- PET, resin
- PET
- PET, foils
- PET, for bottles
- SAN
- Rubber
- Rubber, polybutadiene
- Rubber, EPDM
- Rubber, natural
- Rubber, SBR
V
- Copper (secondary)
- Lead (50% primary)
- Ferrochromium (53% Cr)
- PB
- ABS
- PE, foam
- PUR, HR foam
- PVDC
- PU, non-rigid
- PUR, flexible foam
- PUR, semi-rigid foam
- PUR, energy absorbing
- PMMA (acrylic)
- PC
- PA 6.6 (nylon)
- EP (epoxy resin)
- PA (nylon)
- Glass fiber reinforced plastics.
(GRP)
- Technical ceramic material
VI
- Steel, V2A: 18%Cr, 9%Ni
- Steel, V4A: 17%Cr, 12%Ni
- Ferronickel (33% Ni)
- Zinc alloys
- Aluminum (58% primary)
- Aluminum (70% primary)
- Aluminum alloys
- Aluminum (primary)
- Steel, high-
alloy (stainless)
- Chromium
- Carbon fiber
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
46
Material
Class
Metals Plastics Other materials
- Magnesium alloys
- Copper (50% primary)
- Copper (60% primary)
- Copper (65% primary)
- Copper, cables
- Copper (primary)
- Copper alloys, brass
- Metal powder
VII
- Titanium alloys
- Copper alloys
- Zinc
- Copper alloys, bronze
- Nickel and nickel alloys
VIII
- Silver
- Palladium
- Platin
- Gold
- Rhodium
For the example of the washing machine the components motor, housing
and oscillating system were taken into account since these components
have the highest mass amongst the other parts of the product.
Additionally some parts which contain glass and are heavy as well were
considered.
The last input in this form needed deals with the question whether the
product contains hazardous substances which need special attention in
the end of life. The question can be simply answered by “yes”, “no” or
“unknown”. In the example of the washing machine it is assumed that
the content of hazardous substances is unknown.
FORM 3 – MANUFACTURE DATA
The third form of the Assistant requires data of the manufacturing stage
of the product. It is assumed that the manufacture of one washing
machine needs 15 kWh of electric energy.
“Thermal energy” is additional fossil fuel energy which is needed for
manufacturing processes (e.g. burning of natural gas). Since the
manufacture of the washing machine does not require this kind of
energy, this field is left blank.
Another kind of energy which has to be taken into account is the so
called “overhead energy”. The overhead energy of a factory includes for
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
47
example the energy needed to warm or cool the manufacturing halls or
for their lightening. This kind of energy consumption should not be
neglected since experience shows that this energy consumption may rise
up to 200% of the energy needed for the manufacturing of the product
itself. It is clear that the overhead energy must be allocated to the total
energy consumption of the product for manufacture. The Assistant does
not require a specific amount of the overhead energy but asks whether
the overhead energy is included in the manufacture energy
considerations or not and if that is not case what the estimated value
may be (100% or 200% of the manufacture energy).
In the next point the waste which is generated during manufacturing
must be defined and quantified and the materials must be again related
to a material class.
The third form of the Assistant requires some additional rough defined
information: one is the approximate production volume which is a rough
selection between the options “less than 10”, “10-10000”, “10000-
100000” and “over 100000”. Next is the definition how much toxic,
auxiliary and process materials are used during manufacturing. Again,
no quantitative but only qualitative data are needed. By choosing one of
Fig.4.3:
Manufacture data
form of the
Assistant (Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
48
the options “few”, “rather few”, “rather more” or “more” this question is
answered.
In the next steps the percentage of external parts in the product as well
as the transport distance of the external parts must be entered.
FORM 4 – TRANSPORT DATA
In the fourth form of the Assistant transport data for the product are
collected. In this form different means of transportation (e.g. ship,
railroad, truck or aircraft) are listed. For each of these means the
transportation distance can be entered.
The washing machine is transported over a distance of 1000 km from the
manufacturer to the customer, see entry in Fig. 4.4.
The last input deals with the question whether the packaging of the
product is disposable or returnable. The packaging of the washing
machine is disposable.
FORM 5 – PRODUCT USE DATA
In the fifth form of the Assistant data about the use stage of the product
are asked. According to Tab.2.5 it is assumed that the washing machine
(machine A) is used for 50 washing cycles a year over 20 years.
Fig.4.4: Transport
data form of the
Assistant (Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
49
Although water and detergents are needed during the use phase but
since they can not be classified in the Assistant so far they will be
neglected here.
It is assumed that the washing machine needs approximately 1.2 kWh
per washing cycle.
The last question in this form asks for the potential of hazard to the
environment in case of malfunctions or improper use. In case of the
washing machine this is impossible.
Fig. 4.5 shows the completed form for use data of the washing machine.
FORM 6 – END OF LIFE DATA
The end of life data sheet requires just little input. Except for the disposal
field, see Fig. 4.6, all other fields are already completed since the data
defined in the previous forms are adopted.
Fig.4.5: Product
use data form of
the Assistant
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
50
The disposal method can be selected from a list. The available disposal
scenarios defined in the Assistant are described in Tab. 4.2.
Selection Disposal method
Reuse Reuse of parts and components
Recycling Recycling of extracted materials
Incineration Generation of (thermal) energy
Landfill Dumping
Hazardous waste
Special treatment of hazardous substances
Also select in the following cases:
- Dumping of hazardous substances without special
treatment
- Incineration of PVC or glass
- etc ...
RESULTS FORM
In the result form, see. Fig. 4.7, the product is related to one of the basic
types A – E where
Basic type A is a raw material intensive product
Basic type B is a manufacture intensive product
Basic type C is a transportation intensive product
Basic type D is a use intensive product and
Basic type E is a disposal intensive product
Tab.4.2: Description
of disposal and
recycling methods
defined in the
Assistant
(Austrian Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.6: End of life
data sheet of the
Assistant (Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
51
The washing machine is identified as a use intensive product, which
means that the use stage of the product causes the most environmental
impact. Based on the classification of the product type, the Assistant
suggests different improvement strategies, which are gained from the
ECODESIGN PILOT, see lesson 7.
The improvement strategies are divided into main strategies which should
be applied immediately with a high priority to obtain an improvement of
the product. The Assistant suggest “reducing consumption at use stage”
as the main strategy to improve the product.
Further there are strategies which can be realized at a later date. The
Assistant suggests “optimizing product functionality”, “ensuring
environmental safety performance” and “improving maintenance” for
further improvement.
A product developer can now focus on finding improvement tasks for the
realization of the suggested strategies. The proposed strategies are linked to
improvement tasks and checklists of the ECODESIGN PILOT which can help
the product developer in finding the appropriate product improvement
tasks. The ECODESIGN PILOT will be introduced in lesson 7.
Fig.4.7: Result
form of the
Assistant (Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
52
SUMMARY
The ECODESIGN PILOT’s Assistant allows identifying the life cycle stage
of a product which contributes most to the environmental impact. It does
not give any absolute numbers but allows comparing the relative
environmental contribution of products. By linking the results of this
evaluation with improvement strategies of the ECODESIGN PILOT
specific improvement tasks for a product can be obtained.
But before those tasks and strategies are realized and put into action it is
necessary to know which legal requirements from directives and laws
exist. Improvement tasks for the product must be selected with respect to
these requirements. Therefore some legal requirements affecting product
development are introduced in the next lesson.
HOME EXERCISES
1. Evaluate your product:
m. Evaluate your product and identify which product type it is by
using the ECODESIGN PILOT’s Assistant.
n. Establish an environmental profile of your product.
o. Think about the improvement strategies the ECODESIGN PILOT’s
Assistant suggests for your product: how can these strategies be
put into the design? How can they be realized?
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
53
REFERENCES
Austrian Ecodesign Platform: http://www.ecodesign.at, accessed 01.2007.
ADDITIONAL LINKS AND SUGGESTED READING MATERIALS
Goedkoop, Spriensma, 2001. The Eco – indicator 99 A damage oriented method for Life Cycle
Impact Assessment. Methodology Report, Pre- Consultants b.v., Amersfoort, Netherlands.
http://www.pre.nl/download/EI99_Manual.pdf, accessed 12.2006
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
54
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
55
LESSON 5
Identifying Mandatory Environmental
Requirements from EU Directives
KEYWORDS: DIRECTIVES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION, WEEE, ROHS, ELV, EUP, EEE
PILOT
Lesson objectives
In this lesson some legal stakeholder requirements which are important and relevant for
the product development and product improvement process are introduced. This chapter
focuses on following four directives of the European Union:
1. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)
2. Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS)
3. Energy Using Products (EuP)
4. End of Life Vehicle (ELV)
An adaptation of the ECODESIGN PILOT where detailed information about the WEEE
directive as well as the RoHS directive is provided will also be introduced in this lesson.
At the end of this lesson you will get familiar with the content of four important
directives of the European Union. You will know which issues must be considered
when optimizing an electronic product (example washing machine) respectively
automobile.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
56
In the previous lessons qualitative and quantitative evaluation methods
for the environmental performance of a product were introduced. This
evaluation gives an environmental profile of the product or helps to
determine which life cycle stage, and within the life cycle which
parameters have to be improved to gather an improvement of the
environmental performance of a product. Before attempts for product
optimization based on environmental considerations are put into action,
one should envision other stakeholder requirements on product design as
well (compare lesson 7 QFD). What do customers expect from a product?
Which legal requirements have to be considered (see Fig.5.1)?
If we consider the example of the washing machine, the environmental
assessment shows that the environmental impact is dominant in the use
stage because of the energy and water consumption during usage. If we
would ask customers about their expectations on a washing machine we
might hear: easy to use, long life time, low energy consumption, low sales
price etc. These requirements should be taken into consideration as well
as legal frameworks.
WEEE DIRECTIVE
The directive 2002/96/EC on “Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment” of the European Parliament and of the Council aims at
preventing the waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE, 2003).
The directive provides a basic legal setting for the collection, recycling
and disposal of the waste of electrical devices and should also evoke a
reduction of the final disposal amounts applying reuse, material recycling
or other forms of recovery. Another goal of the WEEE directive is to
reduce the amount of hazardous substances in waste. The underlying
purpose is to promote the avoidance, recovery and risk-free disposal of
waste of electrical and electronic equipment.
Fig.5.1: Inputs to
the Ecodesign
process (Institute
for Engineering
Design, 2007)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
57
The WEEE directive became European law in February 2003 and since
August 2005 the member states of the European Union have had to put
the directive into national legislation. The main aim of the directive is to
extend the responsibility of the manufacturers concerning:
Financing the collection, treatment and recovery
Labeling
Information for users, treatment facilities and government
Product design
Re-use of the products
The WEEE directive is valid for electrical and electronic equipment which
fall into the following ten categories:
1. Large household appliances
2. Small household appliances
3. IT & telecommunication equipment
4. Consumer equipment
5. Lighting equipment
6. Electrical & control equipment
7. Toys, leisure and sports equipment
8. Medical devices
9. Monitoring and control systems
10. Automatic dispensers
Selected product examples for the ten product categories are listed in
Tab. 5.1. below.
Product category Selected product examples
Large household appliances refrigerators, washing machines
Small household appliances toasters, kitchen scales
IT & telecommunication
equipment
notebooks, printers
Consumer equipment radio sets, TV sets
Lighting equipment fluorescent lamps, discharge lamps
Electrical & control equipment
saws, drilling machines – with the exception of large-scale
stationary industrial tools
Toys, leisure and sports
equipment
electric model railroads, computerized home trainers
Medical devices
cardiology, dialysis – with the exception of implanted and
infected products
Monitoring and control systems smoke detectors, heating regulators
Automatic dispensers automatic dispensers for hot drinks or for money
Tab.5.1: Selected
product examples
for the ten product
categories
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
58
The member states of the European Union should encourage the
producers of electric and electronic equipment towards product design
and production which facilitate dismantling, recovery, reuse and
recycling of the products. It must be ensured that the features of the
product do not inhibit reuse and recycling. The member states must also
ensure that the return of the waste of electrical and electronic household
appliances is free of charge for the end user, e.g. in case of take back
systems.
Furthermore authorized collection facilities for the WEEE must be
established. The directive aims at a minimum rate of WEEE collection of
4 kg/inhabitant/year from private households by 31 December 2006 at
the latest.
Companies putting electric and electronic equipment into circulation -
manufacturers, retailers and importers - have financial responsibility for
a separate collection of the waste from electric or electronic equipment.
They are required to establish a minimum of one collection facility per
administrative district. In order to comply with the directive’s
requirements, there is the option of joining a collection and treatment
system which overtakes these duties. When participating in a collective
system, the obligation to establish collection facilities is transferred onto
the collective collection and treatment system. Private end-users must
have the possibility to return waste equipment free of charge.
Consequently, this collection and treatment fees will be added on the
products’ sales price. A disassembly-friendly device design is very likely to
reduce the cost of selective treatment substantially and as a consequence,
the price for the end customer as well.
Manufacturers and importers shall bear the financial responsibility for
transportation from the collection points to the treatment facilities, and
for the actual treatment of waste equipment from private households.
Furthermore, they are responsible for the systems' adherence to quality
standards. Treatment facilities must also set up systems to provide the
best available treatment, recovery and recycling techniques. The
treatment operation itself requires a permit from government. By regular
inspections, the type and quality of the waste as well as the general
technical requirements of the treatment operations are ensured.
Furthermore, the safety precautions of the treatment facility are
evaluated as well.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
59
Before the treatment of WEEE, following materials and components must
be removed and treated separately as a minimum pre-treatment:
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)
mercury containing components, such as switches or backlighting
lamps
batteries
printed circuit boards of mobile phones generally and those bigger
than 10 cm²
toner cartridges, liquid and pasty, as well as colour toner
plastic containing brominated flame retardants
asbestos waste and components which contain asbestos
cathode ray tubes
hydro/chloro/fluorocarbons: CFC, HCFC, HFC, HC
gas discharge lamps
liquid crystal displays and all those back-lighted with gas discharge
lamps
external electric cables
The targeted recovery and reuse/recycling rates in the WEEE directive
are summed up in Tab.5.2. The term “Recycling” includes material
recovery only whereas the term “Recovery” also includes thermal recovery.
Category Recovery
Reuse/Recycling
Large household
80% 75%
IT & Consumer 75% 65%
Others 70% 50%
Additionally, the Article 7 of the WEEE directive sets the reuse and
recycling rate for the components, materials and substances in gas
discharge lamps to an overall 80% of average weight per lamp.
Let us consider the example of the washing machine, which was introduced in
lesson 2. What has to be considered for the washing machine to be in accordance
with the WEEE directive?.
The washing machine falls into the category “large household appliances”.
1. Remove harmful substance, e.g. condenser (PCBs), switches (Hg) in
older machines, printed circuit boards in newer machines
2. Reuse e.g. electric motor
3. Recycle steel sheets, plastic parts, …
4. Recovery and reuse rates: According to Tab.5.1: min. 75%
reuse/recycling, min. 5% thermal recovery, max. 20% disposal
Ta
b.5.2: Targeted
recovery and reuse
rates by average
weight
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
60
The WEEE directive also requires that appropriate information is given to
users, treatment facilities and the government. The user must be
informed what to do with the equipment when it reaches its end of life;
the treatment facilities must be informed about how to dismantle the
product and which hazardous substances it contains and how to remove
it before shreddering. Finally, the government must be informed about
the amount of equipment sold, collected and recycled.
Manufacturers shall supply information what facilitates the reuse and an
adequate, environmentally sound treatment of waste electrical and
electronic equipment. This treatment should encompass maintenance,
upgrade, refurbishment and recycling. Producers must provide details
about the various components and materials contained in a product and
also specify those parts which contain hazardous substances and
preparations.
In addition producers must mark their product with a crossed wheel bin
symbol, see picture. It indicates that the user is obliged to bring back the
device to a collection point and not discard it in a bin. In exceptional
cases (e.g. small size), the symbol shall be printed on the packaging, on
the instructions for use and/or on the warranty of the product. For
medical devices the WEEE symbol must be printed on the packaging, etc.
of such devices.
ROHS DIRECTIVE
As one may have realized, even if the waste of electrical and electronic
equipment is collected and submitted to treatment facilities, there are
still harmful and toxic substances in the waste which must be separated
and removed before treatment. Substances such as heavy metals and
brominated flame retardents like polybrominated biphenyls - PBB and
polybrominated diphenyl ethers - PBDE pose risks to human health and
the environment. Restricting the use of these hazardous substances is
likely to enhance the possibilities and economic profitability of recycling
of WEEE and decreases the negative impacts both on workers in recycling
plants and the environmental.
The directive 2002/95/EC on the “Restriction of the Use of Certain
Hazardous Substances” (RoHS) of the European Parliament and of the
Council therefore aims at eliminating and reducing certain hazardous
substances in the production, treatment and disposal of electrical and
electronic equipment (RoHS, 2003). This directive also aims at reducing
the waste of electrical and electronic equipment as well as improving and
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
61
maximizing the recycling, reuse and other forms of recovery of waste of
these appliances.
The RoHS directive became European law in February 2003. Furthermore,
by 1
st
July of 2006 new electrical and electronic equipment which are put
on the EU market shall not contain more than 0.1 percent by weight
(% w/w) of the following substances per homogenous material:
Lead
Mercury
Cadmium (exemption: not more than 0.01 % w/w)
Hexavalent chromium
Polybrominated byphenyls (PBB)
Polybrominated dyphenyl ethers (PDBE)
Homogeneous material means a unit that can not be mechanically
disjointed into separate single materials. Examples of "homogeneous
materials" would be individual types of plastics, ceramics, glass, metals,
alloys, paper and coatings.
Take an electrical cable, for example. It has a metal core, a plastic
insulation and perhaps tinned terminations. The cable as a whole is not
homogenous as it can obviously be separated by cutting, crushing etc.
The metal core, even though it may be an alloy of more than one element,
is still considered homogeneous, as mechanical disjointing cannot
separate these alloys. The same applies to the plastic insulation. So the
metal conductor, the plastic insulation and the solder used to tin the
terminations are each homogeneous elements and must all comply
individually with the requirements of the RoHS directive. In essence, the
legislation applies to the lowest common denominator of an item of
uniform composition (Lead free Info, 1/2007).
Presumably, the RoHS directive will affect logistics and change it - from
semi-finished products down to the consumer. Lead-containing and lead-
free components must at all times be identifiable as such. The retail
package might feature a logo, such as Pb-free, or the RoHS logo.
Additionally, conformity declarations must be obtained from suppliers of
materials and components in order to provide for legal protection of
devices which are declared to be RoHS-compliant.
With measuring methods like X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) the
identification of the contained elements and their concentration is
possible. However, there is no standardized procedure given for
complying the restriction of the substances according RoHS and no
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
62
product checks supervised by government are existing so far. Standard
testing procedures for RoHS compliance are under development (draft
IEC TC111 WG3). Manufacturers have the possibility to make labor tests
themselves or have to rely on their component suppliers for being RoHS
compliant which bears a certain uncertainty. Communication along the
supplier chain is very much important! RoHS does NOT apply to
suppliers, the legal responsibility lies within the producers.
EEG PILOT
Since the new directives of the European Union introduced above affect
different kind of products and since it is still not clear for some
manufacturers, retailers and importers if and how the directives applies
to their products, the ECODESIGN PILOT which will be introduced in
detail in lesson 7, was adapted to become an information basis for the
detailed information about the two directives WEEE and RoHS.
This PILOT, called EEG PILOT (from German: Elektro- und
Elektronikgeräte – means electric and electronic devices), can be found
on http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/eeg/ENGLISH/INDEX.HTM. PILOT
stands for Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool for
sustainable product development. Fig. 5.1 shows the home page of the
EEG PILOT.
Fig.5.2: Home page
of EEG PILOT (EEG
PILOT, 2004)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
63
Upon general information about the directives a validity check is offered.
With this validity check it can be found out whether the directives are
relevant for an organization or not. Additionally, there are two other
accesses, the RoHS and the WEEE. By entering the EEG PILOT by these
two approaches, detailed information about how, when and what to
implement as well as who has to implement the requirements of these
directives are provided. Improvement strategies for the product design
and examples for the different aspects of the directives are given.
Fig.5.3:
Improvement
measure for
replacing lead with
other substances
(EEG PILOT, 2004)
Fig.5.4: Improvement measure for
selective treatment – WEEE access
(EEG PILOT, 2004)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
64
For the improvement strategy “Replacing all lead with other substances”
(RoHS access) the following improvement suggestions are given:
Buying lead-free components
Buying lead-free solders
Adjusting logistics to different order specifications and customer
requirements
Choosing an alternative joining technology
Choosing lead-free PCB surfaces
Inspecting the existing soldering system as to its suitability for lead-
free production
Setting your system to a new soldering profile
Redesigning modules
Adjusting logistics to different order specifications and customer
requirements
EUP DIRECTIVE
Another important directive to be mentioned is the directive 2005/32/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council on “Establishing a
Framework for the Setting of Ecodesign Requirements for Energy Using
Products” (EuP, 2005).
As it can be concluded from the name, an energy using product is a
product which needs energy input to work as intended. It does not matter
which kind of energy is used, it could be for instance electricity, fossil or
renewable fuels.
The objective of this directive is to establish a framework for the
integration of environmental aspects into the product design as well as
improving the overall performance of energy using products. As a
framework, manufacturers are not affected by the directive directly;
environmental considerations into product design are given in general
and not yet binding. For the following product categories preparatory
studies have been financed by the European Union to investigate their
environmental performance along the whole life cycle and the resulting
need for action:
Boilers and combi-boilers (gas/oil/electric)
Water heaters (gas/oil/electric)
Personal Computers and Monitors
Imaging equipment – copy and fax machines, printer, scanner, multi-
functional devices
Consumer electronics, TV sets
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
65
Stand-by and off-mode losses of EuPs
Battery chargers and external power supplies
Office lighting
(public) street lighting
Residential room conditioning appliances
Electric motors 1-150 kW, pumps, circulators in buildings and
ventilation fans
Commercial refrigerators and freezers
Domestic refrigerators and freezers
Domestic dishwashers and washing machines.
The studies are expected to be finished in 2007. The studies for the
battery chargers and street lighting are predicted to be finished in March
2007, the majority in December 2007: boilers, water heaters, copiers,
conditioning appliances, electric motors, commercial refrigerators and
freezers. With the input of the gained results, detailed Ecodesign
requirements for the specific product categories will be developed with the
so called “implementing measures” by the European Union. By then,
specific requirements for the product design of the mentioned product
categories will be established.
In general, specific Ecodesign requirements will be developed for products
which
have a sales volume of more than 200.000 pieces for the whole
product category, not for single producers
cause considerable environmental impact
present considerable potential for improving the environmental
performance without causing exceeding costs
Before putting energy using products on the market the manufacturer
shall perform a conformity assessment. The main procedures here for are
design control and environmental management systems (EMS).
The conformity of the product with the EuP directive is documented with
the “CE” marking. Any new electrical or electronic equipment put on the
European market must have its environmental impact measured using
life cycle analysis and have followed Ecodesign principles before it can be
“CE“-marked and sold in Europe. The CE marking should then also
ensure that the energy using product complies with the defined
Ecodesign requirements.
How can Ecodesign requirements be set?
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
66
The EuP directive suggests therefore an assessment of the environmental
aspects considering the whole life cycle. During this assessment the
following should be assessed:
predicted consumption of materials, energy and other resources (e.g.
fresh water)
anticipated emissions to air, water or soil
anticipated pollution through physical effects such as noise, vibration,
radiation or electromagnetic fields
expected generation of waste material
possibilities for reuse, recycling and recovery (in accordance with
WEEE)
Based on the results of the assessment, an environmental profile of the
energy using product can be established. The environmental profile helps
to identify those factors which are capable of being influenced in a
substantial manner through product design. Alternative design solutions
should be evaluated in which a reasonable balance between
environmental and other considerations (e.g. technical, economic …)
should be achieved.
The EuP directive intends to reduce energy consumption throughout the
entire life cycle of the product. Further materials issued from recycling
activities should be used as well as substances which were classified as
hazardous should be avoided (in accordance with the RoHS directive).
Furthermore following improvements are intended by the EuP directive:
ease for reuse and recycling (disassembly time, number of parts, ...)
incorporation of used components
extension of lifetime, modularity, upgradeability
reduction of the amount of waste generated
reduction of emissions (to air, water and soil)
Companies are supposed to use European standards to meet the
requirements of the directive.
It is to be expected, that products marked with voluntary environmental
labels, in particular with the EU eco-label “EU flower”, are in conformity
with the EuP directive. Details about environmental labels are provided in
chapter 6.
As there are no binding requirements set so far, there is uncertainty
about the needed actions for gaining conformity with the EuP in detail.
Implementing measures are currently under development and EU wide
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
67
information campaigns offer help for especially small- and medium-size
enterprises (Awareness raising campaign for SMEs, 2005).
ELV DIRECTIVE
The directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
on “End of Life Vehicles” aims at minimizing the impact of end of life
vehicles on the environment, thus contributing to the protection,
preservation and improvement of the quality of the environment and
energy conservation. By obtaining this directive waste from end of life
vehicles should be prevented. Parts or components of end of life vehicles
should be reused or recycled.
The directive shifts the responsibility for cars at their end of their life
cycle to the producers. By making the producer financially responsible for
the reuse, recycling, recovery, and the environmentally-sound treatment
of their products, producers will design new products to minimize the
activity costs.
The objectives of the directive are:
prevention of waste from vehicles
reuse, recycling, and other forms of end of life vehicles recovery and
their components to
reduce the disposal of waste
improvement of the environmental performance of all economic
operators involved in the life cycles of vehicles; especially operators
directly involved in end of life vehicle treatment
Producers as well as importers must ensure that the materials and
components of vehicles put on the market after 1st July 2003 do not
contain:
lead
mercury
cadmium
hexavalent chromium
The following materials and components are excepted from of the
directive:
Lead as an alloying element
o Steel (including galvanised steel) containing up to 0,35 % lead
by weight
o Aluminium containing up to 0,4 % lead by weight
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
68
o Aluminium (in wheel rims, engine parts and window levers)
containing up to 4 % lead by weight
o Copper alloy containing up to 4 % lead by weight
o Lead/bronze bearing-shells and bushes
Lead and lead compounds in components
o Batteries
o Coating inside petrol tanks
o Vibration dampers
o Vulcanising agent for high pressure or fuel hoses
o Stabiliser in protective paints
o Solder in electronic circuit boards and other applications
Hexavalent chromium: Corrosion preventative coating on numerous
key vehicle components (maximum 2 g per vehicle)
Mercury: Bulbs and instrument panel displays
Furthermore the design of the vehicle should take into full account and
facilitate dismantling, reuse and recycling of end of life vehicles, their
components and materials respectively.
The producers of vehicles must guarantee that the vehicles are designed
and manufactured in a way that the targeted reuse, recycling and
recovery rates can be achieved. In January 2006 it is law to reuse or
utilize 85 % of the mass of a vehicle at its end of life. In the year 2015 the
quote for reusing and utilizing will grow up to 95 % by mass.
The targeted rates for reuse, recovery and recycling are summed up in
Tab.5.3.
until
01/01/2006
01/01/2015
Reuse and recovery 85% 95%
Reuse and recycling
80% 85%
Producers should use component and material coding standards, in
concert with material and equipment manufacturers, in particular to
facilitate the identification of those components and materials which are
suitable for reuse and recovery.
Tab.5.3: Targeted
reuse, recovery and
recycling rates of the
ELV directive by an
average weight per
vehicle and year
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
69
SUMMARY
The introduced EU directives contain requirements which have to be
fulfilled by the product design of the affected branches respectively in the
near future. The electric and electronic industry and the automotive
industry are in the focus of recently released EU directives.
The directives have in common, that they address the producers
responsibility for their marketed products directly.
Before realizing any improvement strategy or improvement task these
requirements must be investigated and put into action. There are
different means of aid for companies for implementing the mentioned
requirements: information sites and campaigns, easy to use tools etc.
However, it is still a challenge for the companies to be in line with the
requirements. Keeping an eye on the current developments in the
branches and new releases of the requirements and involving the
responsible person in time help gaining conformity.
Beneath the legal requirements, the product developer might consider
voluntary stakeholder requirements from eco-labeling programs. Fulfilling
criteria from eco-labels leads to a better environmental performance as
well as to a better performance on the market. Eco-labels provide
environmental information for interested customers and present a
decision support based on a certified label. The application of different
types of eco-labels will be introduced in the following lesson.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
70
HOME EXERCISES
1. Consider your product:
p. Which of the directives apply to your product?
q. Investigate the detailed design requirements for your product.
r. How can the requirements of the directives be implemented in your
product design?
s. Prepare a comparison between the stakeholder requirements
coming from the directives and the requirements from
environmental assessment you derived in the previous chapters.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
71
REFERENCES
EEG PILOT, 2002: http://www.Ecodesign.at/pilot/eeg/ENGLISH/INDEX.HTM.
Lead free Info: http://www.pb-free.info/jargon.htm#homogeneous accessed 1/2007.
Awareness raising campaign for SMEs, 2005: http://www.EcoDesignARC.info accessed
2/2007.
Summaries of legislation of the EU: http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/s15000.htm accessed
2/2007.
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL (AVAILABLE ON CD)
RoHS (2003), DIRECTIVE 2002/95/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE
COUNCIL of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in
electrical and electronic equipment.
WEEE (2003), DIRECTIVE 2002/96/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE
COUNCIL of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment.
EuP (2005), Directive 2005/32/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on
“Establishing a Framework for the Setting of Ecodesign Requirements for Energy Using Products” .
End-of-Life Vehicle directive (2000), 2000/53/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF
THE COUNCIL of 18 September, 2000.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
72
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
73
LESSON 6
Identifying Voluntary Environmental
Requirements from Eco-Labeling
Programs
KEYWORDS: ENVIRONMENTAL LABELING PROGRAMS, ECO-LABELING, ISO 14020
SERIES STANDARDS
Lesson objectives
Aside mandatory legal requirements there are voluntary environmental measures
concerning the product design, so called environmental labeling programs. All types of
environmental labels and declarations have the same goal: encouraging the demand for
and supply of products that cause less stress to the environment, thereby stimulating the
potential for market driven continuous environmental improvement (ISO 14020, 1998). The
objective of eco-labeling is to provide information to consumers, to enable them to select
products that are the least harmful to the environment within the certain product category.
It is aimed at encouraging customers to select a product because it causes less
environmental impact compared to those without a label. Eco-labeling is intended to
stimulate environmental concern in product development and a sustainable society.
In this lesson selected eco-labels and their requirements for environmentally sound
product design are introduced. The chapter focuses on eco-labels according to ISO 14020
series:
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
74
5. Type I: environmental labeling - eco-labeling (ISO 14024, 1999)
6. Type II: self-declared environmental claims (ISO 14021, 1999)
7. Type III: environmental product declaration (ISO 14025, 2003)
Selected labels and their requirements are presented and their different characteristics
are shown with examples from office furniture and electronic equipment.
At the end of this lesson you will get familiar with different types of voluntary eco-
labeling programs and you will know which requirements and advantages they
have. The requirements of three different eco-labeling programs applicable on our
example products juice extractor, washing machine and office chair will be
investigated.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ECO-LABELS
Eco-labels, also called Type I environmental labeling according to ISO
14024, are awarded to products which fulfill certain environmental
requirements defined in the specific eco-label program. The certification
process is verified by an authorized third party. Product specific
requirements can be related to more general product characteristics like
product functions or to more specific criteria like energy consumption,
percentage of recyclable materials etc. Product specific requirements of
selected eco-labeling programs will be introduced in chapters 6.1 to 6.3
with practical examples. For the different national eco-labeling programs
there are criteria for several product groups set by experts from industry,
consumer organizations, environmental protection agencies etc. ISO
14024 includes the requirements that criteria should be objective,
reasonable and verifiable, that interested parties should be given the
opportunity to participate and that their comments are evaluated. If there
is the need for action, interested parties can also trigger the development
for new criteria for a product group not yet covered by an eco-labeling
program. The criteria are based on evaluation of the environmental
impacts during the products’ whole life cycle by an independent third
party.
Upon approved application all products meeting the criteria are awarded
the environmental label. Eco-labeled products cause less environmental
impact within the particular product category. Products that cannot
obtain the label, or choose not to apply, may have disadvantages in
competing against products that do have the label in the same market.
Applying for an eco-label by the producer is voluntary. However, since the
environmental awareness of consumers is rising, eco-labels help putting
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
75
the product on the market and present a decision support for the retail
customers.
Tab. 6.1 shows an excerpt of product categories the selected wide spread
national eco-labels are awarded to. National eco-labels also exist in
Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovac Republic and in Poland (EU-Eco-label,
1.2007):
Name Blue Angel Nordic Swan
NF
Environment
EU Flower Eco Mark
Country Germany
Nordic
countries
France EU Japan
Appliance
(Excerpt)
Products made of
wood and paper
Sanitary paper
products made of
recycling paper
Textiles
Vehicles
Construction
machinery
Biodegradable
lubricants and
forming oils
Low-emission wall
paint
Products made from
recycled plastics
Photovoltaic
products
Reusable packaging
Electric
household
appliances
Rechargeable
batteries
Textiles
Detergents
Building and
decorating
products
Car products
Domestic
chemicals
Domestic
heating
Machinery
Office
equipment
Office
products
Paper and
pulp products
Services
Coolants in
vehicles
Office
furniture
Furniture
Refuse bags
Paint
Interior
fittings and
decorative
profiles
Textiles
Electric
household
appliances
Vehicles
Products
made of
wood and
paper
Cleaning
products
appliances
Paper
products
Home and
garden
Clothing
Lubricants
Textiles
Office
appliances
Copying
devices
Printer
Printer ink
Hot water
supplies
using solar
systems
Water saving
equipment
Products from
thinned wood
and reused
wood
Building
Products
using
recycling
materials
As there are many different eco-labeling programs, the single national
eco-labels are rather unknown beyond the national borders. The listed
labels in Tab. 6.1. though, are widely used even outside of the labeling
nation. The EU flower is an attempt towards harmonization of the
different national eco-labels. A manufacturer, retailer or service provider
who meets the criteria for a product group and who applies for the award
of the EU Eco-label, can market the eco-labeled product throughout the
Tab.6.1: Selected
national eco-labels
and product category
examples
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
76
25 Member States of the European Union (EU-Eco-label 1. 2007/2). In
contrast, the type II self-declared environmental claims may be
internationally used and known in different countries.
Type II self-declared environmental claims use text and symbols
emphasizing a particular environmental aspect of a product or service on
the product or in product advertisements. It does not cover the
environmental impacts along the life cycle of a product. There are no
criteria set for selected product groups, the ISO 14021, however, lists
vague or unspecified terms which are not allowed to be labeled on a
product (ISO 14021, 1999):
Environmentally sound
Environmentally friendly
Clean
Green
Nature friendly
Ozone friendly
A specific and clear declaration of the labeled environmental aspect is
required. For the manufacturing process terms like the following are
widely used:
Content of recycling material used in the product
Reduced amount of resources
Reduced amount of energy
Recovered energy
Reduction of waste
For the use phase terms like reduced energy or water demand and long
life time are permitted labeling terms. The end of life phase is often
described with reusable, refillable, recyclable, demountable into single
parts for disposal or separate recycling and biodegradable.
The purpose of this type of label is to increase market share by promoting
the environmental features of a product to the environmentally conscious
retail consumers.
Environmental claims made by the company (self-declared environmental
claims), however, are often difficult to verify and not easy to compare.
This can lead to marketplace confusion for the consumer. These
environmental claims may be unsupported and thus counter-productive
to helping consumers make informed environmental choices among
products and services. For this reason, regulations regarding the use of
environmental terms and symbols have been introduced in many parts of
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
77
the world. Many of these regulations are now based on the international
standard, ISO 14021. These regulations are not only applicable to
domestic products but also to imported products and thus common on
the global market (Lee, K.-M., 2003).
Examples from the furniture industry for a single aspect type II labeling
are the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) which focuses on the
production process and the ECO-Tex Standard 100 which focuses on the
product characteristics e.g. content of harmful substances of the labeled
textiles (Forest Stewardship Council, 1.2007; Oeko-Tex Standard 100,
1.2007). Fig.6.1 shows the labels of the two mentioned self-declared
environmental claims.
The advantage of an environmental claim lies in the less complexity of the
labeling procedure, as the companies do not have to go through the
rather long application and certification process. On the other hand,
some companies use self-declared environmental claims for misleading
information about their “green” products.
The self-declared environmental claim of the Siemens Metro in Oslo
presents a reliable and profoundly researched example. This
environmental claim refers to more than one single aspect and includes
data about the material composition and recycling potential, the total
energy consumption and the derived global warming potential. The
product declaration was performed in the course of a dissertation at the
Institute for Engineering Design, Vienna. (Environmental Product
Declaration Metro Oslo, 2006).
The third labeling system in the ISO series, Type III according to ISO
14025: environmental product declaration (EPD) is defined as "quantified
environmental data for a product with pre-set categories of parameters
based on the ISO 14040 series of standards (ISO 14025, 2000).
The key feature of an EPD is the identification and reporting of the total
environmental impact of products along their life cycle. The aim of an
EPD is to inform about environmental performance of products and
services with key environmental characteristics. The target group of
environmental product declarations is industry as well as retail
customers. The quantified data are based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
according to ISO 14040f. This may be run by a practitioner as a third
party program or operated on a self-declared basis. The type III
declaration is based on preset categories of parameters that are
determined from LCA results. Environmental loads and impacts accrued
Fig.6.1. Examples for
type II labeling in
the furniture
industry
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
78
from the life cycle of a product are cataloged according to these preset
categories of parameters. Preset environmental parameters (e.g. CO
2
) are
linked to the following impact categories:
Global warming potential – greenhouse gases (CO
2
, CH
4
…)
Ozone depleting gases - CFCs
Acidification
ground level ozone
Eutrophication - Oxygen consumption
The type III environmental declaration presents the quantified
information of the product’s environmental load through its entire life
cycle and consists of four parts:
1. product description
2. material description along the life cycle – inventory data
3. scientifically verified impact categories
4. certificate
The content of an environmental declaration is based on scientific
research data on the total environmental impact of the investigated
product. An EPD is a highly reliable, independently verified and a
comparable mean for communicating environmental information. The
system is applicable to all products and services, it is non-selective. As
additional reading material, the EPD of an office chair manufactured by
Steelcase in France is provided (Environmental Product Declaration,
Steelcase, 2004)
Completely confused? Tab. 6.2 and 6.3 give you an overview of the differentiation
between the three types of eco-labeling. Key information on the characteristics and
advantages as well as disadvantages of the eco-labels will help you finding an
appropriate label for your home exercise.
Table 6.2 shows the three types of environmental labels and declarations
according to the ISO 14020 series standards and their main distinctive
features.
Item Type I Type II Type III
Name Eco Labeling
Self-declared
Environmental Claim
Environmental Prod
uct
Declaration
Target Audience
Retail Consumer
Retail Consumer
Industrial/Retail
Consumer
Communication
Method
Environmental
Label
Text & Symbol
Environmental Profile
Data Sheet
Tab.6.2:
Comparison of
different types
of
environmental
labels and
declarations
(according to
Lee, K.-M. and
Uehara, H.
2003)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
79
Item Type I Type II Type III
Scope Whole life cycle Single aspect
*
Whole life cycle
Criteria Yes
**
None None
Use of LCA No No Yes
Practitioner Third party First party Third/First party
Certification Yes Generally No Yes/No
Effort of
procedure
High Moderate High
Governing body
Eco-Labeling
Body
Consumer Bureau Accreditation Body
* A specific aspect of a life cycle or a single environmental attribute
** Environmental and functional product criteria
Tab. 6.3. gives an overview of the advantages and disadvantages and
special features of the mentioned eco-labels.
Type I Type II Type III
Advantage Easily identified
Quick decision
Credibility
through third
party
Market oriented
Flexible approach to
market needs
Tool for business
competition
Detailed data via
common method
Credibility via scientific
quantitative data
Disadvantage
Uses only a
symbol
No detailed
information
High effort
procedure
Relatively low
credibility
Need to face directly
to consumers
Claim is a single
parameter or limited
Complicated LCA
analysis
Insufficient back
ground data
Difficult to comprehend
Special
features
Home use
products
Simple function
products
Low priced
products
Retail consumers
Products in general
Retail consumers/
Industrial
purchasers
Products for Industrial
use/ relatively
complicate and high
priced
products/durable goods
Industrial
purchasers/consumers
In the following chapters product specific requirements for household
appliances and office furniture will be discussed with three examples: a
juice extractor, a washing machine and an office chair. Three different
Type I eco-labeling programs will be introduced more in detail.
PRODUCT SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE NORDIC SWAN – EXAMPLE JUICE EXTRACTOR
In this section criteria for the eco-labeling of the juice extractor
introduced in lesson 2 will be investigated. The Nordic Swan label
contains criteria for kitchen appliances and equipments. The
Tab.6.2:
Comparison of
different types
of
environmental
labels and
declarations
(according to
Lee, K.-M. and
Uehara, H.
2003)
Tab.6.3:
Advantages and
disadvantages
and special
features of
Type I, Type II
and Type III
environmental
labels (based
on Lee, K.-M.
and Uehara, H.
2003)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
80
environmental requirements of this label will be viewed more detailed and
will be combined with the mandatory requirements from WEEE and
RoHS directive.
The Nordic Swan's criteria vary between the different products. Criteria
common to all product groups is the attention to the product's impact on
the environment from raw materials to waste through the product’s life
cycle. These design criteria apply to all household appliances:
Modular design
Disassembly without difficulty
Housing contains max. four types of plastic
No permanent bonds in the form of glue or welding
Labels/Stickers of the same material as the component to which they
are attached
The juice extractor can be assigned to the product category “food
processors” for which the noise level during normal operations should be
notified with the application. Further, the Nordic Swan labeling program
requires a modular design of the product. A module is defined as “a part
of the product that can be separated from the product and reused as a
single unit”. The design of the module must facilitate reuse of the module
in common recycling systems when separated from the product.
Disassembly as well as possibilities for repairing the module must be
ensured. The following requirements must be fulfilled by the product
design (Nordic Eco-labeling, 2005):
Modules must be separable and reassembled without difficulty.
Points of attachment or disassembly points must be easily accessible
with tools.
The connections between different materials must be easy to locate
(e.g. with the aid of visible labels on the product or by means of
information from disassembly data sheets).
No permanent bonds in the form of glue or welding between different
types of materials must be used.
Housings may contain a maximum of four different types of plastic or
plastic alloys, and these must all be separable from one another.
Plastic parts (>25g) must be capable of identification in accordance
with ISO 11469 or an equivalent labeling system.
Plastic parts must not be painted or varnished in any way that might
reduce the reusability of the material.
Labels/tabs/stickers must be made of the same material as the
components to which they are attached to.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
81
The Nordic Swan defines some requirements to the materials used in the
product. The requirements do not apply to reused parts in case of
plastics (Chlorinated plastics, haloginated flame retardants and metals),
but to primary and recycled materials.
In case of plastics the use of chlorinated plastics is not permitted. In
addition, it is not permitted to add halogenated flame retardants to
plastic parts since halogenated flame retardants may
cause cancer,
cause heritable genetic damage,
impair fertility or
cause harm to the unborn child.
The use of some phthalates (softener) in the product, such as Dicylohexy
phthalate or Benzylbutyl phthalates and many more are prohibited.
The use of chlorinated plastic in the packaging is not allowed. The
products must be designed and labeled so it is possible to identify,
separate and recycle the components and modules in accordance with
the WEEE-directive. For food processors it is demanded that the noise
level during normal operations should be notified with the application.
Therefore the producer must enclose test results from measurement of
noise according to European standards.
In case of heavy metals, cadmium, lead, hexavalent chromium and
mercury compounds must not be added. This requirement is in
accordance with the RoHS directive (RoHS, 2003).
The criteria of the Nordic Swan make an effort to comply with the
mandatory requirements of the EU-directives WEEE and RoHS (compare
lesson 5).
Requirements for category 2: small household appliances according to
WEEE (WEEE, 2003)
rate of recovery of 70 % of average weight per appliance
reuse and recycling rate of 50 % of average weight per appliance for
components, material and substances
Before the treatment of the juice extractor, following materials and
components must be removed and treated separately as a minimum pre-
treatment:
mercury containing components, such as switches
printed circuit boards bigger than 10 cm²
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
82
plastic containing brominated flame retardants
external electric cables
PRODUCT SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE EU FLOWER – EXAMPLE WASHING MACHINE
In this section criteria for the labeling of the washing machine introduced
in Lesson 2 will be investigated. The EU Flower label contains criteria for
electric household appliances including washing machines. The
environmental requirements of this label will further be viewed more
detailed.
The key criteria for washing machines are (http://www.eco-
label.com/ 12/06):
1. Energy efficiency: use less than or equal to 0,17 kWh per kg of
wash load (standard 60°C cotton cycle)
2. Water consumption: use less than or equal to 12 liters of water
per kg of wash load
3. Spin drying efficiency: achieve a residual moisture content of less
than 54%
4. Noise: < 56dB(A) during washing, <76 dB(A) during spinning
5. Prevention of excessive use of detergent: provide volumetric or
weight related markings on the detergent dispenser allowing the
user to adjust the detergent quantity used according to the type
and amount of load and its degree of soiling.
Additional criteria:
6. Appliance design: for identifying the appropriate settings
according to fabric type and laundry code and energy and water
saving programs and options.
7. User instruction manual shall provide advice on the correct
environmental use and recommendations for optimal use of
energy, water and detergent
8. Take-back and recycling: has to be free of charge
- Identifying the material: permanent marking for plastic parts
heavier than 50 grams
- Plastic parts heavier than 25 grams shall not contain flame
retardants that are or may be assigned any of the risk
phrases R45 (may cause cancer), R46 (may cause heritable
genetic damage), R50 (very toxic to aquatic organisms), R51
(toxic to aquatic organisms), R52 (harmful to aquatic
organisms), R53 (may cause long-term adverse effects in the
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
83
aquatic environment), R60 (may impair fertility) or R61 (may
cause harm to the unborn child)
- Design for disassembly: joints are easy to find and accessible,
electronic assemblies are easy to find and to dismantle, the
product is easy to dismantle by using commonly available
tools, incompatible and hazardous materials are separable
9. Lifetime extension
- guarantee to ensure that the washing machine will function
for at least two years
- availability of compatible replacement parts shall be
guaranteed for 12 years from the time that production ceases
PRODUCT SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE NF ENVIRONMENT – EXAMPLE OFFICE CHAIR
In this section criteria for a different product group will be discussed in
detail: The NF Environment label contains criteria for office furniture.
Therefore the product specific criteria for the office chair introduced in
Lesson 2 will be indicative for the environmental requirements of this
label.
The ecological criteria of the technical regulation “NF Environment” eco-
label for furnishings consist of overall furniture characteristics as well as
criteria affecting specific items of office furniture. A major difference lies
in the requirements for parts of the manufacturing process, i.e. not only
the product itself is investigated but also the amount and character of
manufacturing waste. The criteria for the French eco-label for furniture
address a variety of aspects. In the following the criteria exemplary office
chair (NF Environment Mark for Furnishings, 2000):
Overall furniture characteristics relevant for the exemplary
office chair (NF Environment Mark for Furnishings, 2000):
Criterion 1 Possibility of separation, at end of service life, of any item
whose weight is bigger than 50 grams.
Criterion 2 Optimization of space requirements during transportation
and storage
Criteria affecting specific constituent items
Criterion 6 Marking of plastic parts for their upgrading/utilization
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
84
Case 1: For any item whose weight is bigger than 50 grams, the applicant
must carry out permanent marking on the plastic parts; example office
chair: arm rests
Case 2: Permanent marking on a part of the product for plastic parts
whose unit weight is less than 50 grams but whose total weight (added
together per kind and per product) is greater than the weight of the
product by 10%; example office chair: small plastic parts of the main
compounds
Criterion 7 Ban on use of CFCs during manufacture of foams used in
the composition of the end product; example office chair:
PU foam of the back rest
Relative to finishing and gluing
Criterion 8 Elimination of manufacturing wastes which have not been
upgraded in situ
Criterion 9 Finishing products in the paint family
Criterion 10 Limitation of quantity of VOCs discharged in natural
surroundings, for solvent-base finishing
Criterion 11 Limitation of discharges and arrangements necessary for
products affected by the certification
Limitation of specific energy for the relevant office furniture
items - Criterion 12
The specific energy consumption necessary to obtain and transform the
material used in the office chair is limited to 700 MJ in total for the whole
chair for work-seats (compare Example 2: office chair, lesson 3). When
applicable, the actual or average recycling rates (aluminum, for example),
consumption of energy necessary to transform the raw material (primary
aluminum) and second-life material (recycled aluminum) has to be taken
into account. The energy values are listed exemplary in the APPENDIX A
of the criteria document (NF ENVIRONMENT MARK for FURNISHINGS,
2000).
Information and Services for the user
Criterion 13 Information for user:
1. NF-Environment marking and information
2. Information on the furniture’s end of service life (general information,
pointing out that used furniture must be taken to the place best
suited for its upgrading/utilization (solid-waste reception centers,
specific dismantling centers...).
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
85
3. Information on maintenance of the furniture
Criterion 14 Services for the user - Durability of supply
The possibility of acquiring products per unit item throughout the actual
period of their industrial manufacturing has to be ensured. The
manufacturer commits the supplement of the original functional items or
items fulfilling equivalent functions for a period of 5 years from the date
when production of the relevant range is stopped.
Packages
Criterion 15 Package system
The packaging of the office chair has to make use of readily recyclable
materials and/or materials taken from renewable resources. The use of
complex compounds which are not recyclable in actual fact is authorized
if multi-use packages are involved. This requirement applies both to
packages for end products and to packages of supplies or subassemblies
used in its composition (supplier packages). The manufacturer must
ensure that his package supplier complies with these requirements.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
86
SUMMARY
The World Trade Organization (WTO) recognized that environment related
regulations and practices and environmental terms and symbols could be
potential trade barriers and communicate misleading information about a
products environmental performance. This lead to a standardization of
the environmental evaluation process and labeling by the International
Standardization Organization (ISO). Thus, three types of environmental
labeling have been defined by ISO: Type I: third party verified eco-labeling
programs, Type II: self-declared environmental claims by companies and
Type III: environmental product declaration based on life cycle analysis
(LCA).
Taking part in an environmental labeling program helps to decrease the
environmental impact of the product through its life cycle and raises the
value of the product on the market. Eco-labeling is intended to stimulate
environmental concern in product development and customer behavior.
The requirements of the eco-labeling programs show big differences both
in effort and demand. The distinctive features as well as the advantages
and disadvantages of the environmental labels according to the ISO
14020 series are worked out. Three different examples of type I eco-
labeling program (Nordic Swan, EU Flower and NF Environment) were
investigated for their application on the mentioned product examples
juice extractor, washing machine and office chair. The examples present
the basis for the home exercise in this chapter.
Now that the legal and voluntary requirements are investigated further
improvement tasks for the product design can be found by using the
PILOT which is introduced in the next lesson.
HOME EXERCISES
1. Consider your product:
t. Which type of eco-labeling program applies to your product?
u. Which product specific requirements do apply to your product in
particular?
v. How do the requirements influence the design of your product?
w. What are the advantages and disadvantages of eco-labels in
general? Which type of label would you favor?
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
87
REFERENCES
ISO 11469, Plastics – Generic Identification and Marking of Plastics Products, ISO, 2000.
ISO 14020, 1998, Environmental labels and declarations - Principles and procedures, ISO.
ISO 14021, 1999, Environmental labels and declarations – Self-declared environmental claims,
ISO.
ISO 14024, 1999, Environmental labels and declarations - Type I environmental labelling -
Principles and procedures, ISO.
ISO 14025, 2000, Environmental labels and declarations - Type III environmental labelling,
ISO.
RoHS (2003), DIRECTIVE 2002/95/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL
of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical
and electronic equipment.
WEEE (2003), DIRECTIVE 2002/96/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE
COUNCIL of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
Lee, K.-M. and Uehara, H. (2003): Best Practices of ISO 14021, Self-declared environmental
claims, Center for Ecodesign and LCA, Ajou University, Korea for the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC).
Web links:
Nordic Swan:
http://www.svanen.nu/eng/, accessed 1.2007.
EU-Eco-label:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel/other/int_ecolabel_en.htm, accessed 1.2007/1.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel/whats_eco/scheme_en.htm, accessed 1. 2007/2.
http://www.eco-label.com/, accessed 12.2006.
Forest Stewardship Council – FSC:
http://www.fsc.org/en/, accessed 1.2007.
Oeko-Tex Standard 100:
http://www.oeko-tex.com/OekoTex100_PUBLIC/index.asp?cls=02, accessed 1.2007.
EPD:
http://www.environdec.com/page.asp?id=301&menu=3,6,0, accessed 1.2007.
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL (AVAILABLE ON CD)
Nordic Ecolabelling, 2005, The Ecolabelling of Kitchen Appliances and Equipment, Criteria
Document, Version 1.0, 17 December 2002 – 17 December 2005.
NF ENVIRONMENT MARK for FURNISHINGS (2000), Appendix I - Criteria Document, AFNOR
identification n°: 217, Association Française de Normalisation Tour Europe, January 21st 2000.
Environmental Product Declaration Steelcase, 2004, Think, Office Chair, Strasbourg, France.
Environmental Product Declaration Metro Oslo, 2006, according to ISO 14021, Siemens
Transportation Systems, Vienna, Austria.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
88
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
89
LESSON 7
Finding Improvement Strategies
KEYWORDS: ECODESIGN PILOT, IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES, ECODESIGN TASKS,
QFD
Lesson objectives
In the previous lessons products have been described by using environmental parameters,
qualitative as well as quantitative data. Based on these data, environmental profiles of
products were established.
Based on the results of the environmental evaluation of the product the life cycle stage
contributing most to the environmental impact of the product as well as relevant
parameters and processes could be identified.
Lesson 5 introduced the legal requirements which have to be fulfilled by a product.
Considering the environmental profile of the products and keeping the legal requirements
in mind it is now possible to search for improvement strategies for the product.
To be able to find specific strategies for the improvement of products, the Ecodesign -
“Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool for sustainable development”
(PILOT) is introduced in this chapter (Wimmer, Züst, 2002). The PILOT allows finding
suitable tasks for the implementation of the strategies into the product improvement
process.
Further, Quality Function Deployment (QFD) (Akao, 1990) will be introduced in this
chapter. This methodology is used to consider customer, or in general, stakeholder
requirements in the product development and product improvement process.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
90
It will be discussed how environmental considerations and stakeholder requirements can
be brought together to achieve a product that on the one hand has a good environmental
performance and on the other hand fulfils customer, respectively stakeholder
requirements.
At the end of this lesson you will be able to:
Find specific improvement strategies for your product by using the Ecodesign
PILOT
Consider stakeholder requirements in your product improvement process by
applying Quality Function Deployment
Combine environmental considerations and stakeholder requirements
ECODESIGN PILOT
The Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool (PILOT) which
is available under www.ecodesign.at/pilot helps product developers to
find specific improvement strategies and suitable Ecodesign tasks to
improve products.
Fig. 7.1 shows the navigation bar of the PILOT. At the left side the
entrance to the PILOT and the Assistant can be found.
By clicking on the PILOT button you get access to the core of the tool. The
PILOT defines five types of products, depending in which life cycle stage
the most environmental impact occurs. These five product types are:
Type A: Raw material intensive product
Type B: Manufacture intensive product
Type C: Transportation intensive product
Type D: Use intensive product
Type E: Disposal intensive product
A raw material intensive product needs different types or a huge amount
of materials or materials which need different, complex and/or energy
intensive extraction processes. The office chair described in the previous
lessons is an example for a raw material intensive product.
The manufacture intensive product needs different manufacture
technologies or needs lots of process and auxiliary materials during
Fig.7.1:
Right
:
Entrance for
PILOT and
Assistant
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
91
manufacture. An example for a manufacturing intensive product would
be a desk which is made of wood. It contains of a material which can be
easily “extracted”, can be produced locally and sold in a local area, does
not need any energy or additional process materials during use and can
be incinerated in its end of life stage. Therefore the only relevant life cycle
stage is the manufacturing stage, which, compared to the other life cycle
stages, contributes most to the environmental impact.
A transportation intensive product needs different means of transport
(e.g. plane, train, truck etc…). Large distances have to be covered to
distribute a transportation intensive product from the producer to the
customer.
A use intensive product needs a lot of energy during its use stage or a
high amount of auxiliary materials to function properly. A washing
machine is an example for a use intensive product.
A disposal intensive product causes its most environmental impact
during its end of life stage. Either complex waste treatment processes due
to e.g. special connection techniques used in the different parts and
components of the product are necessary or the product contains
problematic or hazardous materials which need special treatment.
Depending on which of the five product types the concerned product
belongs to, different improvement strategies for the product are necessary.
The ECODESIGN PILOT defines 19 different strategies which help to
improve the different product types. These strategies are listed in Tab. 7.1.
The appropriate strategies for the different product types are selected as
well.
Strategy Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Type E
Selecting the right materials
Reducing material inputs
Reducing energy consumption in production
processes
Optimizing type and amount of process materials
Avoiding waste in the production process
Ecological procurement of external parts
Reduction of packaging
Reduction of transportation
Optimizing product use
Optimizing product functionality
Increasing product durability
Tab.7.1 Strategies
defined in the
ECODESIGN PILOT
and their assignment
to the different
product types
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
92
Strategy Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Type E
Ensuring environmentally safe performance
Reducing consumption at use stage
Avoidance of waste at use stage
Improving maintenance
Improving reparability
Improving disassembly
Reuse of product parts
Recycling of materials
For each of the product types described above the suitable strategies are
listed and linked to Ecodesign checklists in the ECODESIGN PILOT.
Fig. 7.2 shows the allocated strategies for improving a use intensive
product.
By clicking on the “learn” button (which can be found on the right upper
corner of the navigation bar) additional information about the allocated
Ecodesign strategies can be found.
There are different approaches how a specific strategy can be realized.
By entering the learning site for e.g. the strategy “optimizing product
functionality” one can find up to six different suggested tasks. The
ECODESIGN PILOT provides additional detailed information about each
of these tasks and the given examples.
Fig.7.2:
Improvement
strategies for a
use intensive
product (product
type D)
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
93
Fig. 7.3 shows part of the site where information is provided for the task
“prevent environmentally harmful abuse of product”. Beneath this task,
the following tasks can be pursued to fulfil the concerned strategy:
Indicate consumption of product along use stage
Minimize energy consumption at use stage by increasing efficiency of
product
Minimize energy demand at use stage by choosing an adequate
principle of function
Make possible use of renewable energy resources at use stage
Design product for minimum consumption of process materials
Make possible use of environmentally sound process materials
Make possible use of process materials from renewable raw materials
Not all of the strategies and within the strategies not all of the tasks may
be useful for a product at same time. Therefore the team which works on
the product and the product improvement has to evaluate the individual
tasks individually.
To help the product development team in evaluating the tasks, the
ECODESIGN PILOT provides checklists, see Fig. 7.4. For each task an
assessment question can be found. First, the team has to evaluate the
relevance of the assessment question by choosing between “very
important” (10 points), “less important” (5 points) and “not relevant” (0
points). In a second step the fulfilment of the concerned task can be
evaluated by simply choosing “yes” (1 point), “rather yes” (2 points),
“rather no” (3 points) and “no” (4 points). The priority of the task is
achieved by a multiplication of relevance and fulfilment. The Ecodesign
tasks showing a high priority should be chosen for product improvement.
The checklists help to identify systematically those improvement tasks
showing high improvement potentials which help to improve the product
significantly and are not realized yet.
F
ig.7.3:
Additional
information for
Ecodesign tasks
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
94
Further, first ideas for the realization of the task can be noted in the
checklists, see Fig. 7.5. Switching to the learning pages of the
ECODESIGN PILOT may be useful that for.
Beneath the ideas, a first estimation about the additional costs for
putting the improvement tasks into action and the feasibility of the task
has to be evaluated. Also deadlines and the responsible department or
person for putting the task into action can be defined in the checklists,
see Fig. 6.5.
EXAMPLE
In lesson 4 the Ecodesign Assistant was used to identify the most
relevant life cycle stage of a washing machine. Based on the product type
classification the Assistant suggested the most effective strategies for the
improvement of the product which will be further described in this
example.
The main strategy for the improvement of the washing machine is the
“reduction of consumption at use stage”. The PILOT suggests eight
different tasks for this strategy. Not all of them are useful for the washing
Fig.7.4:
Evaluation of the
assessment
question
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.5: Further
evaluation
measures for the
Ecodesign tasks
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
95
machine. The associated checklist helps to identify the most important
ones.
The first suggested task is: “Prevent environmentally harmful abuse of
the product”. This task is relevant for the washing machine. In average
50 l of water is needed for washing 5 kg of clothes. The current washing
machine is not able to differ between different amounts of clothes in the
machine. This means that if the washing machine is only filled up half it
will need the same amount of water. Since for each washing process all
the water has to be heated up to 40°C or 50°C, no optimization of energy
consumption of the washing machine is realized yet. The idea is to
provide intelligent software which is able to adapt the amount of water
needed to be heated up to the amount of clothes in the machine.
Fig. 7.5 shows the checklist which is filled out for this task. The
information input helps to evaluate the priority of the task. The relevance
of this task is “very important” and it is not fulfilled yet since the machine
does not provide different washing programs. The priority for this task is
40 points which is highest possible (highest priority).
Further a first idea for the realization of the task can be noted. It is
expected that a new electronic device which contain the software will help
Fig.7.6:
Completed
checklist for
washing machine
(Austrian
Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
96
to optimize energy consumption of the washing machine. The costs are
pretended to rise since new electronic devices have to be designed and
manufactured. The redesign should be implemented at once since the
environmental improvement potential of the new design is expected (and
evaluated) to be very high.
Beneath the task above, another task, namely “design product for
minimum consumption of process materials” seems to be important. The
amount of water and detergents needed should be taken into
consideration as well. As stated above, the amount of water is related to
the amount of (electrical) energy needed to heat up the water for the
washing process. The more efficient the washing process is (e.g. optimal
use of water, of detergents etc…) the lower the need to process materials
(and energy) will be.
The checklist helped to find the most relevant improvement tasks of the
concerned strategy. Further the different suggested strategies by the
Assistant can be worked through to find more improvement tasks for the
product.
QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT
By now strategies with high improvement potential have been determined
and some ideas for the realization for the improvement strategies have
been formulated.
The next question now is how to consider stakeholder requirements in
the product improvement process and in the product design?
Before being able to consider these customer demands it is necessary to
“translate” these demands into a technical language. This is achieved
with the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) method (Akao, 1990).
The concept of QFD was invented by Yoji Akao in Japan back in 1966.
The break through of the concept was in 1972 when Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries began to use this concept. It was not until 1987 when QFD
found its way to Europe. Nowadays QFD is an important method to
integrate stakeholder requirements into the product development process.
QFD asks for customer demands which are translated to technical design
parameters.
The idea of Environmental Quality Function Deployment (EQFD) is
similar to that of QFD. According to (Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004) EQFD
links stakeholder requirements to environmental parameters.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
97
Environmental parameters were defined in lesson 2. EQFD helps to
identify the most relevant environmental parameters among the various
customer demands and stakeholder requirements respectively.
Tab. 7.2 shows a list of possible environmental stakeholder requirements.
Environmentally safe
Free of hazardous substances
Lightweight
Durable
Less transportation
Energy saving
Easy to use
Easy to maintain
Easy to repair
Easy to recycle
Easy to disassemble
Easy to reuse
Not all of the requirements listed in Tab. 7.2 may fit to a specific product.
The stakeholder requirements are weighted by using a scale of 0-10
where 0 indicates that the requirement is not important and 10 that it is
very important. Any number between 0 and 10 can be chosen to express
an importance.
Let us continue with the example of the washing machine, see Tab.7.3
Environmental stakeholder
requirements
Weight
factor
Explanation
Environmentally safe 0 No emissions during use expected
Free of hazardous substances 10 Very important due to RoHS
Lightweight 3 No important design specification
Durable 7
Important for business to business customers
(e.g. laundry services)
Less transport 3 Not really important
Energy saving 10 Very important for end user, eco-labelling
Easy to use 5 Usability important for end user
Easy to maintain 3 Less important
Easy to repair 7 Important for end user
Easy to recycle 10 Important due to WEEE
Easy to disassemble 10 Important due to WEEE, eco-label
Easy to reuse 7 Important due to WEEE
Tab.7.2:
Environmental
stakeholder
requirements
(Wimmer, Züst,
Lee, 2004)
Tab.7.3: Weighting
factors of
environmental
stakeholder
requirements of a
washing machine
(Wimmer, Züst, Lee,
2004)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
98
To relate the environmental stakeholder requirements with environmental
parameters a relation matrix is established, see Fig. 7.7. In this matrix
the environmental stakeholder requirements are written in a column and
the design parameters in a row. To indicate how strong the relation
between the stakeholder requirements and the environmental parameters
is, relation factors are used. A weak relation is expressed with 3, a
medium relation expressed with 6 and a strong relation is expressed with
9.
The matrix in Fig. 7.7 shows the (quantified) relations between the
stakeholder requirements and the environmental parameter. The relative
importance of the environmental parameter is achieved by multiplying
the weight factor (stakeholder importance) by the relation factor and
summed up for every environmental parameter.
Fig. 7.7 shows that the relative importance of the environmental
parameter “supply parts” is 12% and highest due to the stakeholder
requirements of WEEE and RoHS to the parts and components of the
washing machine. Among this parameter, following environmental
parameters are rated as important:
Supply parts (12%)
Materials used (9%)
Time for disassembly (8%)
Rate of recyclability (8%)
Again, these parameters are important due to the WEEE and RoHS
directive. The appropriate stakeholder requirements were weighted high,
see Tab. 6.3.
Now that stakeholder requirements have been weighted and most
important environmental parameters have been identified, improvement
strategies for the environmental parameters can be found by using the
ECODESIGN PILOT. Tab. 7.4 shows appropriate improvement strategies
for the different environmental parameters by following (Wimmer, Züst,
2002) and (Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004).
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
99
Fig.7.7. Matrix
showing relation
between stakeholder
requirements and
environmental
parameters for a
washing machine
(Wimmer, Züst, Lee,
2004)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
100
Environmental
parameter
Improvement strategies proposed by
ECODESIGN PILOT
General
Weight Reducing material inputs
Volume Reduction of packaging
Supply parts Ecological procurement of external components
Reuse of product parts
Lifetime Increasing product durability
Functionality Optimizing product functionality
Raw materials
Materials used Selecting the right materials
Problematic materials Selecting the right materials
Manufacture
Production technology Reducing energy consumption in production
process
Optimizing type and amount of process materials
Production waste Avoiding waste in the production process
Transport (Distribution)
Packaging Reduction of packaging
Transportation Reduction of transportation
Use
Usability Optimizing product use
Energy consumption Reducing consumption at use stage
Generated waste Avoidance of waste at use stage
Noise and vibrations Optimizing product functionality
Emissions Ensuring environmental safety performance
Maintenance Improving maintenance
Reparability Improving reparability
End of life
Fasteners and joints Improving disassembly
Time for disassembly Improving disassembly
Rate of reusability Reuse of product parts
Rate of recyclability Recycling of materials
Tab.7.4: ECODESIGN
PILOT’s improvement
strategies for the
environmental
parameters
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
101
SUMMARY
After describing and evaluating the product in the previous lessons,
specific improvement tasks and strategies were identified in this lesson
by using the PILOT and by applying EQFD to consider customer demands
in the product design and development. In the next lessons a product
example for each product type is analyzed more detailed by using
approaches and tools introduced so far.
The situation now is as follows: we know what to do and which strategies
to follow to obtain a product improvement but we do not exactly know
how to realize and to put into action of what is known.
Idea generation methods and approaches of how certain ideas can be
realized in the product will be discussed in lesson 13.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
102
HOME EXERCISES
1. Consider your product:
x. Try to find improvement tasks for your product by using the PILOT
and select the appropriate strategies.
y. Determine the priority of the improvement tasks by applying the
Ecodesign checklists.
2. Consider possible stakeholder requirements for your product:
a. Use a matrix as shown in Fig. 6.7. Perform Environmental Quality
Function Deployment and identify the important environmental
parameters.
b. Find appropriate strategies for the improvement of the
environmental strategies.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
103
REFERENCES
Akao, Y., 1990. QFD – Quality Function Deployment. Productivity Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Ecodesign Pilot, Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool, Institute for
Engineering Design- Ecodesign, Technical University of Vienna.
http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot, accessed 12.2006.
Praxis Umweltbildung: http://www.praxis-umweltbildung.de, accessed 08.2006.
Wimmer, W, Züst, R., 2002. Ecodesign Pilot - Product-Investigation-, Learning- and
Optimization- Tool for Sustainable Product Development, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Wimmer, W., Züst, R., Lee K., 2004. Ecodesign Implementation – A Systematic Guidance on
Integrating Environmental Considerations into Product Development, Springer, Netherlands.
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL (AVAILABLE ON CD)
Wimmer W., Strasser Ch., Pamminger R., 2003, Integrating environmental customer
demands in product development – Combining Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and the
ECODESIGN Product- Investigation-, Learning and Optimization-Tool (PILOT), Proceedings of the
CIRP seminar on life cycle engineering Copenhagen, Denmark
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
104
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
105
LESSON 8
Improving Raw Material Intensive
Products
KEYWORDS: IMPROVEMENT, STRATEGIES, RAW MATERIAL INTENSIVE PRODUCTS,
ECODESIGN PILOT
Lesson objectives
Through the previous lessons different product description methods as well as evaluation
methods were introduced. In lesson 2 the idea of Life Cycle Thinking was discussed as
well as qualitative product description and quantitative modeling. In lesson 3 the MET-
matrix was used to find hot spots for product improvement. By introducing energy values
the environmental impact of each life cycle stage of the product could be quantified.
Starting along with the ECODESIGN PILOT’s Assistant in lesson 4 the most relevant life
cycle stage of the product could be identified. An environmental profile of the product was
established as well.
In the following lessons 8 – 12 selected product examples will be discussed in more detail.
These lessons aim at finding improvement potentials and strategies for the different
product types such as raw material intensive, manufacture intensive, transportation
intensive, use intensive or disposal intensive, by using the tools and approaches
introduced in the previous chapters.
In this lesson an office chair is considered. Different ideas for the improvement of the raw
material stage of this product will be developed and evaluated. The ECODESIGN PILOT
will be used to derive appropriate improvement strategies.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
106
By the end of this lesson you will know about the characteristics of raw material
intensive products and you will be able to find and evaluate improvement
strategies for this product type.
CASE STUDY: OFFICE CHAIR
As shown in lesson 2 and lesson 3 the office chair causes most
environmental impact in its raw material stage.
Tab. 3.20 shows the energy values for each life cycle stage of the office
chair. The first life cycle stage needs the highest amount of energy. This
indicates that the environmental impact in the raw material stage of the
office chair is highest among the other life cycle stages.
Fig. 8.2 shows an LCT diagram of the office chair. In this profile the
relative environmental impact of each life cycle stage of the chair is
shown.
-50
0
50
100
Raw
materials
Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact [%]
Fig. 8.2 indicates that 46% of the environmental impact of the office chair
occurs in the first life cycle stage followed by the manufacture stage
which contributes approximately 37%. The occurring environmental
impact during transport is negligible. During the use stage no impacts
occur at all. Due to end of life processes such as recycling and thermal
recovery up to 16% environmental impact can be saved (indicated
through a negative bar in Fig. 8.2 which can be interpreted as a benefit
for the environment).
A look on the energy values of the raw materials used in the office chair
helps to identify energy intensive materials and therefore materials which
contribute significantly to the environmental impact, see Tab. 8.1.
Fig.8.
1
:Office chair
[www.steelcase.com]
Fig.8.
2
:
Environmental impact
of each life cycle
stage of the office
chair
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
107
In Tab. 8.1 some materials are highlighted. Those materials have high
energy values and contribute significantly to the environmental impact
when used already in small amounts. PA6 and PU are two of those
materials: already 2.3 kg of PA (which is approximately 8% of the total
weight) causes 20% of the environmental impact; 1.4 kg of PU (which is
5% of the total weight) is responsible for 12% of the total energy amount.
In other words, 13% of the material weight of the chair causes 1/3 of the
total environmental impact.
Material [MJ/kg]
Weight [kg]
% of total weight
Result [MJ]
% of total
energy
PA 115 2.3 8.3 264.5 19.8
PU 115 1.4 5 161 12.1
ABS 100 0.1 0.4 10 0.8
Polyester 98 0.4 1.5 39.2 2.9
PS 96 0.1 0.4 9.6 0.7
Zinc alloy 90 1.5 5.4 135 10.1
Polypropylene (PP) 78 1.2 4.4 93.6 7
Steel 32 14.5 52.5 464 34.8
Cardboard (Packaging) 28 4 14.5 112 8.4
Wood 22 2.1 7.6 46.2 3.5
Total 27.6 1335.1
The question to address now is: which strategies will lead to an optimal
product improvement? Is there a possibility to substitute the materials
which cause high environmental impact with environmental sound
materials?
The ECODESIGN PILOT will be used to gain appropriate improvement
strategies for the office chair.
IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES FOR THE OFFICE CHAIR
Since the first life cycle stage of the office chair causes most relative
impact the ECODESIGN PILOT with its improvement objectives and
strategies for a “Type A: material intensive product” is used to obtain
improvement strategies for the product (Austrian Ecodesign Platform,
2006):
Use alternative materials
Strategy: Selecting the right materials
Target: Reduction of environmental impact by using environmentally
sound materials, recycled materials, renewable materials...
Tab.8.1: Energy
values for materials
used in the office
chair
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
108
Use less of a given type of material
Strategy: Reducing material inputs
Target: Reduction of amount of material by design aiming at optimum
strength, integration of functions...
Make intensive use of resources
Strategy: Optimizing product use
Target: Improved usability of products through adaptability,
ergonomics...
Strategy: Optimizing product functionality
Target: Improved functionality by means of upgrading, multi
functionality...
Strategy: Improving maintenance
Target: Improving maintenance through wear detection...
Use resources as long as possible
Strategy: Increasing product durability
Target: Durability through dimensioning, surface design...
Strategy: Improving reparability
Target: Improving access to, disassembling, and exchange... of parts
Reuse materials contained in the product
Strategy: Improving disassembly
Target: Make possible product take back and ease of disassembling
(fastness...)
Strategy: Reuse of product parts
Target: Make possible reuse of parts (access, remanufacturing...)
Strategy: Recycling of materials
Target: Make possible recycling of materials (separation, labelling...)
Not all of the strategies listed above may be useful for product
improvement. Each strategy should be discussed in the team of involved
actors to find out whether it is appropriate for the product. Obviously the
strategy “improving maintenance” is not a useful strategy for the office
chair since maintenance is not an issue. But the strategy “selecting right
materials” is important as the energy values listed in Tab. 8.1 show. This
discussion process should be done for all strategies. The strategies must
be evaluated to assign them a priority for implementation. By doing so, a
final selection of most appropriate strategies for product improvement
can be done. The priority of the improvement strategies can be
determined by using Ecodesign checklists of the ECODESIGN PILOT.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
109
The material list of the office chair in Tab. 8.1 contains some materials
which have high energy values (e.g. PA, PU…) and therefore contribute a
lot to environmental impact. A good approach for product improvement
would be either to avoid these materials or to use alternative materials
instead or at least reduce the amount used.
The improvement objective “Use alternative materials” therefore seems to
be one appropriate objective. The strategy “Selecting the right materials”
includes different tasks which give guidance to the product developer in
selecting materials. By analyzing the environmental profile of the office
chair and by discussing the strategy in the team a high priority was
assigned to this strategy. The proposed tasks are:
Use of materials with view to their environmental performance: by
using environmental evaluation methods and comparing the
environmental performance of materials.
Avoid or reduce the use of toxic materials and components: toxic
materials contribute a lot to environmental impact even if used in
small quantities. Attention should be focussed on the identification
and replacement of such materials. The office chair does not contain
toxic materials. This task can be neglected for this example.
Prefer materials from renewable raw materials: which are not of fossil
origin but mostly from plants (e.g. wood, corn…).
Prefer recyclable materials: to reduce the need to virgin raw material.
Avoid inseparable composite materials: which are difficult to separate
for end of life treatment (e.g. recycling).
Avoid raw materials, components of problematic origin: e.g. unknown
production processes of raw materials…
Another appropriate improvement objective is “Use less of a given type of
material”. The corresponding strategy here is “Reducing material inputs”
which suggests following tasks for product improvement:
Prefer the use of recycled materials (secondary materials)
Preferably use single material components and/or reduce number of
different types of material: which could make possible closed recycling
loops.
Reduce material input by design aiming at optimum strength: which
allows a targeted use of materials.
Reduce material input by integration of functions: which would also
ease assembly and disassembly.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
110
Let us consider a certain component of the office chair for improvement.
As described in lesson 2 a common office chair consists of following five
main parts:
6. Base
7. Mechanism
8. Seat
9. Arm rest
10. Back
Let us take a look at the component “back” of the chair. It mainly
consists of polypropylene (PP), polyester and polyurethane foam (PU).
Compared to PP, polyester and PU have higher energy values.
The question to address based on the suggestions of the ECODESIGN
PILOT is: can alternative materials be used instead or can the amount of
the used materials be reduced?
A detailed analysis of the design process shows that for example polyester
can not be avoided and will be needed in small quantities. But through
re-thinking the design of the component, a new design could avoid the
use of PU. Additionally the new design looks modern and very attractive
to customers. Fig. 8.3 shows at the left side a conventional design of the
back containing PU and the right side an improved design which does not
contain any PU.
Improved design
The improved design of the back has two stiff profiles at the right and left
which are connected with steel wires. The back has a transparent textile
mesh.
This new design of the back component reduces the weight of the
component by approximately 3% whereas environmental impact of the
component is reduced by approximately 11%.
Fig.8.3: left:
conventional back
design, right:
improved design
[www.steelcase.com]
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
111
In addition to the strategies discussed above some more strategies can be
realized to gain more improvement ideas, e.g. “Use resources as long as
possible”. The suggested strategies here are:
Increasing product durability
Improving reparability
Especially the first strategy seems to be important. Increasing the
product life time of raw material intensive products will reduce the
relative significance of the environmental impact in the raw material
stage over lifetime. The ECODESIGN PILOT gives amongst others
following ideas for the realization of this strategy:
Realize a timeless product design
Ensure high appreciation of the product: appreciated products will not
be disposed easily by the user. The engraving of a personal name may
raise appreciation among users.
Design product for long service life: a product which fulfils its function
properly and is not defect will probably be used for a longer time (i.e.
in combination with a timeless design)
Realize a sturdy product design: which can ensure a long service life.
…
The new design of the back of the office chair is modern and attractive. It
is unique amongst other office chairs which may raise appreciation of the
product. It is designed in a way to withstand high level of stress and
strain. It does not contain polyurethane (PU) at all. This new design
reduces environmental impact of the office chair approximately by 30%.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
112
SUMMARY
Products needing different materials or containing toxic materials which
contribute a lot to the environmental impact may be considered as raw
material intensive products. The ECODESIGN PILOT provides ideas,
strategies and tasks for improvement of these kinds of products.
The other components of the office chair can be optimized the same way
as shown for the back. In lesson 13 the office chair example will be
treated again to demonstrate a methodology that allows taking
environmental aspects into considerations in the early decisive design
stages.
STUDENT’S PRESENTATION
In this lesson students will have the opportunity to present their
products assigned at the beginning of the module and analyzed and
described through the different lessons.
Student presentation (1hour)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
113
REFERENCES
Austrian Ecodesign Platform: http://www.ecodesign.at, accessed 01.2007.
ECODESIGN Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool (PILOT) for sustainable
product development.
http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/ONLINE, accessed 01.2007.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
114
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
115
LESSON 9
Improving a Manufacture Intensive
Product
KEYWORDS: IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES, MANUFACTURE INTENSIVE PRODUCTS,
ECODESIGN PILOT
Lesson objectives
Some products may need many different and complex manufacturing steps during
production. Any production processes requires energy and/or additional input materials:
e.g. water for cooling, lubricants or glue. All energy and material inputs during
manufacturing must be considered when evaluating a product and when defining the
product type.
For being more precisely not only the energies which are used directly for the production
but also those energies which are needed indirectly such as lightening the factory, cooling
or warming the production halls must be take into account as well and must be allocated
to the product. These indirect energies are called “overhead energies”.
In this lesson different improvement strategies for a manufacture intensive product will be
investigated by using the ECODESIGN PILOT. A table made of wood will be taken as case
study and will be further discussed.
At the end of this lesson you will know more about the properties of manufacture
intensive products. You will also know which strategies are appropriate for the
improvement of those products.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
116
CASE STUDY: TABLE MADE OF WOOD
A table made of wood represents a manufacture intensive product.
Fig. 9.2 shows an environmental profile of a wooden table.
As it can be seen from the environmental profile the manufacture
stage of the table made of wood has a significant contribution to
the environmental impact of the table.
-50
0
50
100
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact [%]
Wood is the only raw material used in the product. Wood is a renewable
resource and its extraction (if no excessive deforestation assumed) does
not contribute significantly to environmental impact.
Let us assume that the table is a regional product. That means that the
carpentry which produces this wood gets its material from a local
supplier and delivers its product to local markets and customers. That is
the reason why the transport stage does not contribute significantly to
environmental impact.
During the use stage of the wood table some substances are needed to
maintain the wood such as special oils for the wood. These substances
may cause some environmental impact.
In the end of life stage of the wooden table energy can be recovered. By
incinerating wood thermal energy can be gained.
Most environmental impact is caused during manufacture processes of
the wooden table in the carpentry. For product improvement attention
should be paid to the manufacture life cycle stage.
Using the ECODESIGN PILOT to gain ideas for improvement strategies for
a “Type B: manufacture intensive product” results in the following
proposed objectives:
Fig.9.
1
: Table made of wood
Fig.9.
2
: Environmental impact
of each life cycle stage of a
table made of wood
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
117
Use less energy and material in the production process
Strategy: Reducing energy consumption in production process
Target: Reduction of energy consumption throughout production by
means of optimized processes, renewable energy...
Strategy: Optimizing type and amount of process materials
Target: Reduction of environmental impact caused by consumption of
process materials in production process (closed cycles...)
More efficient use of materials used in the production process
Strategy: Avoiding waste in the production process
Target: Reduction of waste in production through material efficiency,
recycling..., Purchase of external materials/components
Strategy: Ecological procurement of external components
Target: Environmentally sound procurement of product parts
Use the product as intensively as possible
Strategy: Optimizing product use
Target: Improved usability of products through adaptability,
ergonomics...
Strategy: Optimizing product functionality
Target: Improved functionality by means of upgrading, multi
functionality...
Strategy: Improving maintenance
Target: Improving maintenance through wear detection...
Use the product for a longer period of time
Strategy: Increasing product durability
Target: Durability through dimensioning, surface design...
Strategy: Improving reparability
Target: Improving access to, disassembling, and exchange of parts
Reuse components and/or the product
Strategy: Improving disassembly
Target: Make possible product take back and ease of disassembling
(fastness...)
Strategy: Reuse of product parts
Target: Make possible reuse of parts (access, remanufacturing...)
By keeping in mind the environmental profile of the table made of wood
and considering that the manufacture stage contributes most to
environmental impact, putting into action those strategies which aim at
optimizing the manufacture stage of the product seem to be most relevant.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
118
By weighting the different strategies proposed by the ECODESIGN PILOT
in the team of involved actors (e.g. by using checklists) the two
objectives ”Use less energy and material in the production process” and
“More efficient use of materials used in the production process” seem to be
the most effective ones.
The reason for giving these two strategies a high priority for realization
will be explained in the following.
The first objective proposes the following improvement strategies:
Preferably use process materials from renewable raw materials: by
avoiding process materials made from e.g. petrochemicals.
Recycle process materials whenever possible
Use environmentally acceptable auxiliary and process materials and
avoid hazardous materials: to minimize hazards to employees and
environment.
In case of the table made of wood attention should be paid to which
process materials are used to impregnate the wood, to varnish the table
or to veneer the surface.
Some varnishes contain formaldehyde which is toxic and tend to volatilize
easily when used in products. Although mostly restricted and prohibited
environmentally unacceptable auxiliary and process materials can still be
found in many products which in some cases are not only a threat to the
environment but also to the health of the consumer. Producers should
seriously rethink their manufacture technologies to be able to avoid the
use of such materials.
The second objective “More efficient use of materials used in the
production process” contains an important strategy namely “Avoiding
waste in the production process”. Consider the table made of wood is
made in a traditional carpentry: the fulfilment of this strategy depends on
the craft and expertise of the carpenter, on how he saws the wood or on
how “much table” he is able to make out of a piece of wood.
In case of industrial production of tables the considered strategy would
mean to use the production machines properly and effectively, i.e. how these
machines are programmed, how the material input is managed etc….
ADDITIONAL NOTE:
A manufacture intensive product may also require a lot of transport
during manufacture, e.g. in case different parts and components are
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
119
produced in different countries. An example introduced here are jeans
trousers.
The “around the world journey” of jeans trousers is illustrated in Fig. 9.3.
The black path with the circles in Fig. 9.3 shows the path of the product
which is sent from one country to the other. The blue path with the
squares shows the additional material flows which are necessary for the
production of the trousers. The journey starts in Kazakhstan (indicated
by the number 1) were cotton is harvested. The harvested cotton is sent
to Turkey were it is yarned. From Turkey the journey continues to Taiwan
were the yarn is woven. The woven textile is sent to Tunisia were it is
dyed. The dye itself comes from Poland (indicated by a blue path with
squares). From Tunisia the dyed textile is sent to Bulgaria were it is
smoothened. The journey continues to China were knobs and linings
were sewed on the jeans. In Fig. 9.3 two additional material flows can be
seen to China: one is for the knobs which come from Italy and one for the
linings which come from Switzerland. From China the trousers are sent
to France where the surface of the jeans is processed with pumice. Here
one additional material flow is needed since the pumice needed for the
surface processing comes from Turkey. From France the jeans are sent to
Portugal (indicated by the number 8). In Portugal a label with “Made in
Portugal” is sewed on the jeans. Furthermore, the final product is
distributed to all Europe from Portugal. 45% of the jeans are sent to
Africa after they are used in Europe as second hand clothes (Praxis
Umweltbildung, 2006).
Fig.9.3: The complex
and long journey of
jeans
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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The distance covered by the journey described above is approximately
50000 km; as a comparison: the perimeter of the earth is approximately
40000 km.
As described above for the jeans trousers many different suppliers
situated in different countries contribute to the manufacture of the
product. These suppliers ship their components over long distances, e.g.
linings from Switzerland to China to be sewed or pumice shipped from
Turkey to France to be used for surface processes.
Since all the described transport is need to manufacture the product and
since all the transport cause a lot of environmental impact jeans trousers
are manufacture intensive products.
A first idea for improving the environmental performance of the product
would be optimizing the logistics concept of the product by reducing or
even cutting off the material flows. For example: the knobs are sewed in
China, whereas the knobs were imported from Italy. The question to
address is: is there a possibility to use Chinese knobs instead? Using
Chinese knobs would cut off the material flow from Italy to China. If the
surface process could be shifted to Turkey were the pumice comes from,
another material flow, namely from Turkey to France, would be cut off.
But unfortunately it is not as easy as that. Any change in any of the
parameters would influence global economy. Why is the textile sewed in
China and not in Europe? The answer is clear: manpower is very cheap in
China. Same considerations can be done for the dying process: it seems
to be cheaper to dye the textile in Tunisia and import dye from Poland
than to dye the textile in Poland.
Jeans trousers can be found in the market starting from 20 Euros, which
is not much considering all the transport and process steps needed to
produce the trousers. The more important question which should be
addressed is: what are the real costs of the low cost? Who is paying the
real costs?
SOCIAL ASPECTS
Beneath technical considerations also social aspects should be taken into
account as well when talking about sustainable product development.
In Manila (this is the capital of the Philippines) women working as sewer
earn only 2 cents for each shirt they sew. They work between twelve and
fifteen hours a day. Talking is prohibited in some factories.
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Women in China working as sewers live with 50 Euros salary a month.
Women which become pregnant are sometimes fired from their jobs.
For the dyeing processes of cotton formaldehyde and other carcinogenic
substances are used.
Are you aware how the price composition of usual jeans trousers is put
together? Keep in mind that:
(only) 1% of the final price is the salary of the sewers and workers
13% are material costs
11% are transport costs and customs dues
25% are costs for advertising, research and development by the brand
company
50% are costs for retail sales staff, rental fee for the stores,
administration and profit
The question everyone has to answer for himself is: do we want to
encourage and tolerate these kinds of economics by our consumption
habits and consumption patterns? Is it the engineer alone who can lead
towards sustainable product development or is it also the consumer who
has the power to direct technology and economy towards sustainability as
well as social fairness?
Further one should think which other actors can have key roles in
leading towards sustainability and sustainable product development.
Government and politics could be a key actor by releasing legislations to
force product developers towards sustainability and environmental
friendly production. Some of the legislations put into action in the
European Union were introduced in lesson 5.
The discussions about the social aspects of sustainability are too complex
to be addressed here. It was aimed to give some impulses towards this
direction as well as rising awareness that there are many different
parameters to consider when thinking and acting towards sustainable
product development. Be aware that sustainable product development is
an interaction of different actors, e.g. producer, customer, politics etc…!
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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SUMMARY
A manufacture intensive product causes most environmental impact
during its manufacture stage. Various (energy intensive) manufacture
processes or environmental harmful process materials may be necessary
to manufacture these products.
As shown with the jeans trousers example parts and components which
are needed for the manufacture and are transported over long distances
also contribute to the environmental impact of the manufacture stage.
The ECODESIGN PILOT could help to find appropriate improvement
strategies for manufacture intensive products.
STUDENT’S PRESENTATION
In this lesson students will have the opportunity to present their
products assigned at the beginning of the module and analyzed and
described through the different lessons.
Student presentation (1hour)
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REFERENCES
CES EduPAck 2006 (software), Granta Design Limited, Cambridge, UK.
ECODESIGN Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool (PILOT) for sustainable
product development.
http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/ONLINE, accessed 01.2007.
Praxis Umweltbildung: http://www.praxis-umweltbildung.de, accessed 08.2006.
SimaPro 7.0, 2006 (software), Pre Consultants, Netherlands.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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LESSON 10
Improving Transport Intensive Products
KEYWORDS: IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES, TRANSPORT INTENSIVE PRODUCTS,
ECODESIGN PILOT
Lesson objectives
Transport intensive products cause most environmental impact in their transport stage.
Large transport distances must be covered from the producer to the consumer. Another
characteristic of transport intensive products is the high amount of packaging they may
require. Since the packaging of products is only used during transport and usually has no
additional function than preventing the product of being damaged during transport,
packaging must be considered in this life cycle stage of the product (and not in the e.g.
materials stage). Keep in mind that heavy packaging will raise the total product weight
which will raise the amount of energy needed for transport, hence the raised amount of
environmental impact.
In this lesson improvement strategies for transport intensive products will be discussed
and evaluated. A heavy flower pot will be discussed as a case study.
The ECODESIGN PILOT will be used again to gain ideas for product improvement.
At the end of this lesson you will know about the properties of transport intensive
products and you will be able to find and evaluate improvement strategies for
these types of products.
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CASE STUDY: FLOWER POT
A flower pot made of clay which is made in Vietnam and is sold in Vienna
represents a transport intensive product. Clay is the only material needed
to produce the pot. Electrical energy is the only input during
manufacture stage. The distance between Vietnam and Austria is
approximately 9000km. The flower pot is transported to Austria by plane.
Additionally 500km of transport with trucks is need for distribution. The
packaging of the flower pots consists of cardboard. After use the flower
pots are incinerated.
The use stage does not cause any environmental impact. Since the pot is
incinerated at its end of life stage energy can be recovered.
Tab.10.1 sums up data for the flower pot.
Life cycle Explanation
Raw materials
Pots made of clay
Weight: 2.5kg
Manufacture 1kWh per pot electrical energy for manufacture
Transport From Vietnam to Austria by plane, distribution by truck
Packaging: Cardboard, weight: 250g
Use No environmental impact
End of life Thermal recovery by incineration
Different means of transport cause different impact to the environment.
The energy value expresses the energy needed for the transportation of
1 ton over 1 km, expressed as [tkm]. Tab. 10.2 gives the energy values for
different means of transport.
Mean of transport Energy value [MJ/tkm]
Air, Freight in Europe 33
Truck 2.7
Freight train 0.8
Transoceanic freight ship
0.17
As it can be seen from Tab. 10.2 transport with airplane causes most
environmental impact among the other means of transport.
Fig. 10.2 shows the environmental profile of the flower pot.
As it can be seen from the environmental profile, the transport stage of
the flower pot is most significant. The contribution to environmental
Fig.10.1: Flower Pot
Tab.10.1:
Data for
the flower pot
Tab.10.2: Energy
values for different
means of transport
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impact of the other life cycle stages can be completely neglected. The
flower pot is a transport intensive product.
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use Eol
Relative environmental impact [%]
How do you believe this product can be environmentally improved?
By using the ECODESIGN PILOT two improvement objectives for a
“Type C: Transportation intensive product” can be achieved:
Change packaging
Strategy: Reduction of packaging
Target: Optimization of packaging by taking into account material
characteristics, renewability, closed cycles...
Change transportation
Strategy: Reduction of transportation
Target: Reduction of the overall requirement for transportation
Packaging is not a significant concern of the flower pot. Approximately
10% of the impact of the transport stage can be assigned to the
packaging.
Therefore the second objective is further investigated. The strategy
“Reduction of transportation” includes several tasks which are listed in
the following:
Minimize transportation for distribution of product: by e.g. improving
logistics concepts
Choose environmentally acceptable means of transportation for the
distribution of the product: different means of transport cause different
environmental impacts; see Tab.11.2.
Fig.1
0
.2:
Environmental
profile of the flower
pot
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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Prevent shipping damage: by taking precautions (e.g. fixing moving
parts…)
Use stackable product packaging: to reduce the volume of cargo to be
transported.
Since the flower pot is produced locally and since the product does not
contain any problematic materials and no additional problematic process
materials are necessary to manufacture the pot, the most important and
effective strategy which should be put into action is: Choose
environmentally acceptable means of transportation for the distribution of
the product”. Shipping the pots to Europe instead of sending them via
airfreight could reduce the environmental impact about a factor of 190.
ADDITIONAL NOTE:
It is the consumer who can decide whether to buy products which are
sent from the other side of the world or to search for the same or similar
products which are produced locally. By taking (environmental)
responsibility, the consumer’s behaviour can signalize whether certain
products are appreciated or not.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
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SUMMARY
Large distances for the distribution and high amount of packaging are
two important properties of transport intensive products.
With the help of the ECODESIGN PILOT appropriate improvement
strategies for a transport intensive product could be found.
STUDENT’S PRESENTATION
In this lesson students will have the opportunity to present their
products assigned at the beginning of the module and analyzed and
described through the different lessons.
Student presentation (1hour)
REFERENCES
CES EduPAck 2006 (software), Granta Design Limited, Cambridge, UK, (used for generating
energy values).
ECODESIGN Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool (PILOT) for sustainable
product development.
http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/ONLINE, accessed 01.2007.
SimaPro 7.0, 2006 (software), Pre Consultants, Netherlands, (used for generating energy
values).
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LESSON 11
Improving Use Intensive Products
KEYWORDS: IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES, IMPROVEMENT IDEAS, USE INTENSIVE
PRODUCTS, ECODESIGN PILOT
Lesson objectives
In this lesson an electrical toothbrush will be investigated. This electrical toothbrush
represents a use intensive product. Use intensive products cause most of their
environmental impact during their use stage.
These kinds of products may need a lot of additional materials for proper operating (e.g.
lubricants) which may cause harm to the environment. They could also release emissions
to the environment, i.e. to the air. Think of a car which combusts fuel and releases carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide or carbon black amongst others to the air to be able to fulfill its
function, namely to provide transport.
Use intensive products may also need a lot of energy to work properly. Think of electronic
devices which need batteries. In case of rechargeable batteries consider all electric energy
needed to recharge the batteries. In case of electrical devices such as household
appliances, e.g. washings machines, think of the electrical energy needed for each use
cycle, i.e. washing cycle. In case of a washing machine also consider that for each
washing cycle detergents and water is needed and don’t forget that after each washing
cycle beneath clean clothes you also have a non negligible amount of waste water which
must be treated afterwards to gain clean water again. The environmental impacts of such
a product during use will rise by the frequency of use and the lifetime of the product: the
longer the product is used, the more the relative contribution to environmental impact of
the use stage of the life cycle will increase.
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At the end of this lesson you will know more about the characteristics of use
intensive products. By using the ECODESIGN PILOT you will learn about
improvement strategies for these kinds of products.
CASE STUDY: ELECTRICAL TOOTHBRUSH
In this lesson an electrical toothbrush is taken as an example for a use
intensive product. It will be investigated how this device can be optimized.
Fig.11.2 shows the environmental profile of an electrical toothbrush.
As it can be seen from the environmental profile the relative
environmental impact of the use stage is most significant.
Let us have a more detailed look at this product: the product consist of a
device for recharging the battery. This device contains a transformer. The
body contains an on/off switch and a rechargeable battery. The brush
device which is attached contains a gear transmission. The brush itself
needs to be replaced every second month. The lifetime of the product is
approximately five years; this means 30 brush devices for every person
during the lifetime of the product.
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Raw materials Manufacture Transport Use End of life
Relative environmental impact [%]
The product has a total weight of 440g and additionally 100g of
cardboard, paper and plastic foils for packaging is needed.
Before continuing: how do you believe the high contribution in the use stage is
composed? What factors and parameters do you believe have to be considered
during use stage?
The main contribution results from the stand-by energy demand of the
recharge device. This device needs 1.15 W energy. It is usually plugged in
Fig.11.1: Electric
toothbrush
Fig.11.2:
Environmental profile
of each life cycle stage
of a electric
toothbrush
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to electric energy 24 hours a day. This gives a total amount of 43800
hours of electric energy consumption during five years. The charging
process of batteries takes only one hour a day. Depending on the energy
mix (e.g. hydropower, nuclear power, etc…) a different amount of energy
is needed to provide 1kWh of electrical energy in different countries.
Tab. 11.1 lists energy values for different European countries.
Country Energy value [MJ/kWh]
Austria 6.3
Denmark 11.3
France 12.3
Germany 12
Switzerland 8.1
Netherlands 11.5
Europe average
10
Considering that in Europe on average 10 MJ of energy are needed to
produce 1kWh of electrical energy, the electrical toothbrush will need
503.7 MJ of energy during its lifetime to be able to charge the batteries of
the toothbrush, where only 20.9 MJ are needed for the charging process.
The rest is lost due stand-by consumption.
Fig.11.3 shows the environmental impact of the use stage of the electrical
toothbrush more detailed.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Stand-by Charging Brushes
Relative environmental impact [%]
Compared to the energy demand during the use stage all other energy
demands occurring at the other life cycle stages are negligible. The
significance of stand-by energy consumption is often underestimated
whereas this stand-by consumption may be the most significant part of
energy consumption of electrical devices. According to (Wien Energie, 2007)
the sum of stand-by consumptions of different electrical devices in homes
cause surplus costs of 85 euros in every single household every year.
Tab.11.1:
R
equired
energy for the
production of 1kWh in
different European
countries and
European average
Fig.11.3:
Environmental impacts
during the use stage
of the electrical
toothbrush over its
lifetime
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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When we look at electrical and electronic devices most of them nowadays
are designed in a way they need stand-by power: this is due to guarantee
that the device keeps information in its memory, that software is booted
up more easily or that the user is able to switch on and off the device
with a remote controller. Even though a device seems to be switched off,
some electronic and electrical parts, such as the transformer, may still
use energy. This is because some producers do not install a full switch off
button in the device to keep production costs of the device low.
The electrical toothbrush is no exception. As calculated above most
energy consumption of this product occurs during its use stage due to
energy demand for the recharge device. It can be expected that most
consumers will not unplug the device every time the battery of the
toothbrush is charged. Another problem may be that there is no adequate
display to show the status of the batteries. The user can not really find
out if the batteries need to be reloaded or not.
To find appropriate improvement strategies and ideas for the toothbrush
the ECODESIGN PILOT is used again.
The ECODESIGN PILOT suggests following improvement objectives and
strategies for a “Type D: use intensive product”:
Realize a high degree of functionality
Strategy: Optimizing product functionality
Target: Improved functionality by means of upgrading, multi
functionality...
Strategy: Improving maintenance
Target: Improving maintenance through wear detection...
Ensure safe use of the product
Strategy: Ensuring environmental safety performance
Target: Risk minimization
Reduce energy and material input at use stage
Strategy: Reducing consumption at use stage
Target: Reducing the consumption of energy and process materials
during product use
Strategy: Avoidance of waste at use stage
Target: Avoiding waste during product use
By evaluating the product by using e.g. the Ecodesign checklists of the
ECODESIGN PILOT and discussing the product in the team of developers,
a high priority was assigned to the following two objectives: “Reduce
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
135
energy and material input at use stage” and “Realize a high degree of
functionality”. These two objectives contain strategies for the
improvement of the use stage of the toothbrush. Their realization leads to
significant improvement of the product.
The strategies suggested by the first objective which are important for the
toothbrush are:
Indicate consumption of product along use stage: The current design of
the toothbrush does not indicate the status of the battery. The user
can not find out if the batteries need to be charged or not. To make
sure the toothbrush is working properly all time he is forced to charge
the batteries permanently.
Minimize energy consumption at use stage by increasing efficiency of
product: The efficiency of the charging process is very low. On the one
hand there is no turn off once the batteries are fully charged. That
means that the batteries are charged permanently. On the other hand
the design of the electronic connection between batteries and charging
device is not optimal which causes a low efficiency of charging.
The second objective contains following improvements which are relevant
for the toothbrush:
Ensure high functional quality of product and minimize influence of
possible disturbances: the toothbrush should be able to fulfil its
function even the user is not using it in a proper way.
Design product for possible upgrading: this is almost fulfilled since the
brushes can be changed easily
Realize simple principle of functioning: the brush device contains a
gearbox which has to be changed along with the brush. The brush
device seemingly has no simple principle of functioning.
Considering these strategies above obtained by the ECODESIGN PILOT a
more efficient charging process may be needed to gain a significant
environmental improvement of the product.
Additionally some considerations could be taken into account of how the
brush device can be designed in a way that the gear transmission can be
used more often and how only the brush itself can be changed.
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
There are also electrical toothbrushes which work with non-rechargeable
batteries which are not integrated in the product but can be changed
easily.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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Do you believe that using non-rechargeable batteries will reduce the
environmental impact of the toothbrush?
Let us assume that the toothbrush is used on average 20 minutes a day
in a four member family. This gives in total 608 hours of use during the
lifetime of the toothbrush. Here fore approximately 120 batteries are
necessary.
The energy value for a standard AA-size alkaline battery is 4 MJ/battery.
This result is achieved by applying Life Cycle Assessment. The energy
value for 120 batteries is 480 MJ. Additionally, batteries are difficult to
treat in their end of life stage and cause harm to the environment if
disposed improperly. These problems are discussed in lesson 12.
These simple considerations show that using batteries instead of a
charging device is not an effective way to reduce the environmental
impact of the toothbrush. Quite the contrary, the disposal of the batteries
cause harm to the environment.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
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SUMMARY
Use intensive products cause most environmental impact during their
use stage. The may require a lot of energy or additional operating
materials which may cause environmental impact.
The toothbrush example showed a common problem of electrical and
electronic devices nowadays: the high amount of energy losses due to
stand-by consumption.
By using the ECODESIGN PILOT appropriate improvement strategies and
ideas for the electrical toothbrush could be found.
STUDENT’S PRESENTATION
In this lesson students will have the opportunity to present their
products assigned at the beginning of the module and analyzed and
described through the different lessons.
Student presentation (1hour)
REFERENCES
ECODESIGN Product Investigation, Learning and Optimization Tool (PILOT) for sustainable
product development.
http://www.ecodesign.at/pilot/ONLINE, accessed 01.2007.
Wien Energie: http://www.wienenergie.at, accessed 08.2006.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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139
LESSON 12
Improving Disposal Intensive Products
KEYWORDS: DISPOSAL INTENSIVE PRODUCTS, END OF LIFE CYCLES, ECODESIGN
PILOT
Lesson objectives
In the previous lessons different product types were discussed. An office chair was
discussed representing a raw material intensive product, a wooden table for a
manufacture intensive product, jeans trousers for a transport intensive product and an
electrical toothbrush for a use intensive product.
If the relative contribution to the environmental impact of a product occurs at the end of life
it is considered as a disposal intensive product.
Disposal intensive products may contain hazardous substances and materials which need
specific treatment and precautions when disposed of. Complex and various recycling
processes, low rate of recycle ability or a low rate of reusable parts are some other
characteristics of disposal intensive products.
Once a product reaches its end of life stage, different paths and cycles can be followed:
repair, recycling or up-grading cycles are some to name. Common end of life cycles will be
discussed in this lesson.
At the end of this lesson you will know more about the characteristics of disposal
intensive products. You will learn more about improvement strategies for these
kinds of products.
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There are various ways to treat the product and its parts at the end of life
(EoL) stage. The product can be disassembled for example. The
components and the parts can be used again or the materials used in the
product can be entered into a recycling process. In the following some
possible cycles at the end of life stage are introduced (Wimmer, Züst,
2002).
REPAIR
A repair cycle delays the arrival of the end of life stage of a product. Parts
and components of a product can be repaired several times and be used
again. Defect parts, that are non repairable, e.g. broken, parts or worn
out parts, must be replaced by new or refurbished parts. New parts must
be manufactured first and then transported before they can be used in a
repair cycle. Parts which are defect have reached their end of life stage.
Fig. 12.1 shows a flow chart of a repair cycle.
The product usually reaches its end of life stage when some parts are
defect which can not be repaired or replaced economically and therefore
the product is not able to fulfil its functionality.
RECYCLING
As it can be seen from Fig. 12.2 the generated waste during the stages
manufacture, use and end of life as well as defect parts and components
and even the whole product itself can be brought into a recycling loop.
In general, there are closed recycling loops and open recycling loops. In
closed recycling loops potential recycling materials of a product system
are collected and recycled and entered into manufacture cycles of the
same product system. This intention should be evaluated from an
economical as well as from an ecological view since the processes needed
to implement a closed loop may create environmental impacts again.
Raw
Materials
Manufacture
Transport Use EoL
Transport Repair
Defect
parts
Fig.12.1: Use stage
with repair cycle
(Wimmer, Züst,
2002)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
141
In an open recycling loop, materials are recycled in one product system
and used in another product system, e.g. waste of packaging can be
recycled to insulation or construction materials etc…
It should be mentioned that the term ‘recycling’ is usually used to
describe different processes: in case of material recycling used materials
are processed to avoid the need for new virgin materials. Sometimes
materials can not be processed in a way they can be recycled again. Then
materials can be incinerated for example. The generated heat during
incineration can be used for different purposes, e.g. for heating of houses.
This kind of ‘recycling’ is called ‘thermal recovery’.
There are already several well established material recycling cycles such
as recycling cycles for glass, metals, paper and some plastics, e.g. PET
bottles.
In contrary to recycling, reuse of parts and components does not imply
any structural change in the material or part itself. Materials and parts
are taken from one product and are used in the production of the same
product or another product. Imagine a washing machine which reaches
its end of life: the electrical motor of the washing machine may still work
properly. The motor can be disassembled from the defect washing
machine and can be used again (eventually after inspection or repair) in
another washing machine or in a different product again, hence, the
motor is “reused”.
Raw
Materials
Manufacture
Transport Use EoL
Once again
Once again
Once more
Once more
Reuse
…
Recycling
…
Fig.12.2: Recycling
Cycle according to
(VDI 2243, 2000)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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REVERSE MANUFACTURING
Fig.12.3 shows a reverse manufacturing cycle. In this cycle the product is
disassembled into its parts and components after use. These parts and
components are inspected and if necessary repaired. The inspected and
repaired parts are then put to their original use again. In case of the
motor of the washing machine that means that the motor is only used as
a motor for a washing machine again. Fig.12.3 also shows that parts and
components which can not be repaired and used further on have reached
their end of life stage. These parts may now enter recycling cycles as
introduced above.
UPGRADING
Fig.12.4 shows an upgrading cycle.
The product is inspected in a repair or maintenance cycle. Beneath the
maintenance and repair of components it is aimed to raise and optimize
the functionality of the product at the same time. Products which have a
modular structure are easy to enter into such an upgrading cycle. By
Raw
Materials
Manufacture
Transport Use EoL
Transport Upgrading
Use EoL
Raw
Materials
Manufacture
Transport Use EoL
Disassembly and
inspection
EoL
Fig.12.3: Reverse
manufacturing cycle
(Wimmer, Züst,
2002)
Fig.12.4: Upgrading
cycle (Wimmer,
Züst, 2002)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
143
upgrading the arrival of the end of life stage of the product is delayed and
therefore fewer resources are needed to provide the requested
functionality.
Imagine a usual personal computer: by changing its components little by
little, e.g. RAM, hard disk or graphic card, the performance and
functionality of the personal computer is raised; the useful lifetime of the
product is increased.
As it can be seen from the explanations above the different life cycle
stages of a product are not just a linear sequence but contain different
cycles and loops.
As one can see the end of life stage consists of different possible cycles
which include different steps and processes for the treatment of the
product, its components and its parts. New business models can be
established following different cycles. The “Demontage- und Recycling
Zentrum”
*
(D.R.Z) in Austria has established a network of factories
specialised on repairing electric and electronical equipment.
Upgrading requires special product designs which allow changing and
substituting parts and components of the product.
A disposal intensive product causes most of its environmental impact at
the end of life stage. Various treatment processes may be necessary for
e.g. repair or recycling. The end of life stage of products may contain
different potential for recovery of materials or energy.
Imagine most of the waste produced is disposed in a landfill. This is the
case for example in the United States where most of the generated waste
in households is disposed in a landfill. This is possible because in the
United States enough land is available (EcoWorld, 2007). The situation is
completely different for example in Japan, where free land is rare (Web
Japan, 2007). There, recycling rate is very high. If products are disposed
in a landfill, no energy is used for the treatment of the waste. This does
not mean that putting waste on a landfill does not cause any impact to
the environment. The impact to the environment depends on the
materials and chemicals put on the landfill. Some materials which are
not inert may start dangerous and hazardous chemical reactions and
release toxic substances during this reaction. The leakage water may
become contaminated as well. It must be collected and treated carefully
*
in English: Diassembly and recycling centre
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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to prevent that it drips into the ground water which would be a serious
threat to human health and nature.
On the other hand no energy can be recovered by putting waste on a
landfill. A landfill contains a lot of different materials, it is a material
deposit. It could be stated that with future technologies the materials of
this deposit could be recovered again. By now these technologies are
either not efficient or too expensive.
Recycling and reuse processes need energy input but the processes also
allow extracting energy out of the processes, e.g. thermal recovery. They
might be able to compensate some of the environmental impact of the
product, e.g. reusing the motor of the washing machine reduces the total
environmental impact of the washing machine since no motor must be
manufactured for each washing machine.
As an other example, consider batteries. Putting batteries on a landfill is
prohibited. The “Directive on Batteries and Accumulators Containing
Certain Dangerous Substances” (directive 91/157/EEC) applies to
batteries which contain mercury, cadmium and lead and provides
guidelines how these batteries must be collected after use and what
duties the producers have. Mercury, cadmium or lead are hazardous
substances which start chemical reactions if put on landfills.
The battery types covered by this directive are only 7% of all batteries
which can be found in the European Union market.
To be able to prevent effectively that most batteries end up in landfills or
incineration facilities, closed-loop recycling systems for all types of
batteries must be established.
Considering the given amount of 72.155 tons of batteries which entered
the market of the EU in 2002 it is estimated that recycling could recover
following amounts of metals each year (Commission Proposal on Batteries
and accumulators and spent batteries, 2003).
Material Amount [tons]
Manganese
20.000
Zinc 20.000
Iron 15.000
Lead 7.500
Nickel 2.000
Cadmium 1.500
Mercury 28
Tab.12.1: Amount of
metals which could
be recovered by
recycling batteries
(Q&A on the
commission proposal
for a new battery
directive, 2003)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
145
Before effective recycling can be implemented it is necessary to establish
appropriate collection facilities to make sure enough batteries are
collected. This collection facility should avoid users to dispose their
batteries via household waste.
Using recycled metals in batteries decreases primary energy demand for
the production of batteries. Using recycled cadmium or nickel could
imply savings in primary energy up to 75% (Q&A on the commission
proposal for a new battery directive, 2003).
Using rechargeable batteries can reduce the amount of batteries needed
for a certain device. Rechargeable batteries can be reused hundred of
times before they reach their end of life.
Once a product is identified as a disposal intensive product, the
ECODESIGN PILOT can be used to find appropriate strategies. The PILOT
proposes following improvement objectives and strategies for a “Type E:
disposal intensive product”:
Use alternative materials
Strategy: Selecting the right materials
Target: Reduction of environmental impact by using environmentally
sound materials, recycled materials, renewable materials...
Prolonged use of the product
Strategy: Increasing product durability
Target: Increasing durability through dimensioning, surface design...
Strategy: Improving reparability
Target: Improving access to, disassembling, and exchange... of parts
Disassembly and recycling
Strategy: Improving disassembly
Target: Make possible product take back and ease of disassembling
(fastness...)
Strategy: Reuse of product parts
Target: Make possible reuse of parts (access, remanufacturing...)
Strategy: Recycling of materials
Target: Make possible recycling of materials (separation, labelling...)
The objective “Prolonged use of the product” contains an interesting
improvement strategy, namely “Increasing product durability”. Think of
common alkaline batteries which can not be recharged. Even when the
batteries are not used they discharge continuously. Batteries have a
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
146
certain capacity and are able to provide power for a certain time. In case
of non-rechargeable batteries the batteries are disposed after use and
new batteries for the device are used instead. It is clear that if each
battery was used for a longer period (this happens either by reducing
energy consumption of the electrical and electronic device or by raising
the power supply of the battery) the user would need fewer batteries over
the product life time.
SUMMARY
As shown in this lesson, products may enter different cycles once they
reach their end of life stage. New business models can be established by
specializing on the different processes needed in these cycles, e.g.
processes needed for repairing products.
Different waste treatment processes contain different potential for
material or energy recovery. While disposing waste on a landfill does not
require any energy and no energy recovery is possible, recycling
processes are able to reduce the total environmental impact of a product
by recovering material or energy.
The amount of the need to new virgin raw materials in the product can be
reduced significantly by recycling processes. By reusing parts and
components the amount of manufactured parts and components, hence
the processed materials and the energies used can be reduced as well.
Keep in mind that reduced energy demand means reduced environmental
impact!
STUDENT’S PRESENTATION
In this lesson students will have the opportunity to present their
products assigned at the beginning of the module and analyzed and
described through the different lessons.
Student presentation (1hour)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
147
REFERENCES
EcoWorld: http://www.ecoworld.com/home/articles2.cfm?tid=340, accessed 01.2007.
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Batteries and Accumulators and
Spent Batteries and Accumulators of 21.November 2003.
Q&A on the commission proposal for a new battery directive, 2003:
http://www.europa-kommissionen.dk/upload/application/a5895559/batteri_qa.pdf, accessed
12.2007.
VDI 2243 Richtlinie, 2000, Recyclingorientierte Produktentwicklung, Düsseldorf, VDI Verlag.
Web Japan – Gateway for all Japanese Information:
http://web-japan.org/index.html, accessed 01.2007
Wimmer, W, Züst, R., 2002, Ecodesign Pilot - Product-Investigation-, Learning- and
Optimization- Tool for Sustainable Product Development, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, Netherlands.
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL (AVAILABLE ON CD)
“Demontage- und Recycling Zentrum” (D.R.Z) – Video.
Q&A on the commission proposal for a new battery directive, 2003.
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Batteries and Accumulators and
Spent Batteries and Accumulators, 2003. Directive.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
148
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
149
LESSON 13
Integrating Ecodesign into the Product
Development Process
KEYWORDS: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS, PRODUCT SPECIFICATION,
FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE, IDEA GENERATING TECHNIQUES, PRODUCT
CONCEPT, EMBODIMENT DESIGN
Lesson objectives
In this lesson the product development process is described. It will be discussed how
Ecodesign can be integrated efficiently into the product development process by following
five main steps. It will be also discussed how Ecodesign can be integrated into the
decisive early design stages of a product.
To be able to integrate and implement Ecodesign into the product development process
product requirements and specifications must be brought together and defined in the first
step.
In a second step the function or functions a product should fulfil are investigated more
detailed. Since there are different possibilities to realize a function of a product it is
important to evaluate the different realizations to find the optimal one for the product.
To be able to find different realizations of the function and of the design of a product,
creativity and idea generation techniques are used to attain new innovative ideas in the
third step of the product development process.
In the fourth step new product concepts are derived by combining new ideas to fulfil a
product’s function.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
150
Product
specification
Fun
c
tional
structure
Creativity
sessions
Product
concept
Embodiment
design
By comparing and evaluating the different product concepts, the optimal concept is
evaluated and selected to be finally realized during the product’s embodiment design.
Further in this lesson a methodology, the so called Ecodesign Decision Boxes, for the
systematical integration of Ecodesign into the early decisive design stages will be
introduced [Ostad A. Ghorabi et al. 2006].
At the end of this lesson you will gain an overview of how Ecodesign can be
integrated and implemented into product development as well as in early decisive
design stages. You will also get familiar with some effective idea generation
techniques.
In the following the five steps of the product development process will be
discussed more detailed and appropriate examples will be provided.
PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
Speaking of Ecodesign and environmental friendly product development it
is important to bring together environmental requirements from
stakeholders, from benchmarking and requirements which result from an
environmental stakeholder analysis evaluation of a product as well as
requirements gained by an environmental assessment of a product.
In this first step of the product development process it is important to
formulate all required specifications which implies all quantitative data
as well as qualitative data, see lesson 2.
The main question to address in this stage is: how to formulate and
combine product specifications for the re-design process of the product?
It is advisable to form a list with all specifications and their properties for
each life cycle stage of the product. Additional explanations and remarks
can be recorded in this list as well.
Let’s consider the juice extractor which was introduced and analyzed
through the previous chapters.
In Tab. 13.1 a specification list is shown for the juice extractor. In the
following list only environmental specifications are mentioned.
Fig.13.1:
Product
development
process
(Wimmer,
Züst, Lee
2004)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
151
Tab.13.1:
Environmental
specification list for
the juice extractor
Life cycle Specification Remarks
Raw materials
No use of problematic
materials such as lead
Gain conformity with RoHS
Product use
Optimize cones for
extracting juice
Reduced noise and
vibration
Achieve better juice extraction
Fulfil customer requirements
End of life Increase recycling rate Gain conformity with WEEE
DEVELOPING THE FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE
A key in developing products is thinking in functions the product should
deliver in order to fulfil a need.
How can a function be described properly? Think in nouns and verbs or
in measures and operations, see Tab. 13.2.
In practice, there are a lot of
possibilities (often an unknown
amount of possibilities) to realize a
function of a system by combining its
different sub functions.
In a function analysis a problem is described by its main function. This
main function is separated in its sub functions then. Aim is to find better,
alternative ways to realize the sub functions.
Therefore the main function is divided to its sub functions in a hierarchic
way. Each of the sub functions is described from the view of technological,
topographical or textual aspects.
In the following a hierarchic function tree for the juice extractor is drawn.
PERFORMING CREATIVITY SESSIONS
To be able to generate ideas for the realization of the different functions of
the product idea generation techniques can be used. There are different
techniques which allow finding ideas for simple problems as well as
techniques for complex problems. Some of the techniques need a
moderator, some are performed in a group, some take less time and some
take a whole day.
Noun/Measure
Verb/Operation
Cloth Wash
Juice Extract
Power Transmit
Part Connect
Data Transfer
Tab.13.2: Finding
functions
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
152
In the following some of these commonly used techniques are introduced
briefly.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is an idea generation method which is easy to apply and
therefore often used in practice.
Commonly, a group of five to ten participants with different vocational
education comes together to produce ideas for a certain problem. This
phase of idea generation takes half an hour. The produced ideas of the
participants are written down by a moderator in a way that they become
visible for every participant.
The methodology is based on associativity. To guarantee a continuous
flow of ideas, certain rules must be adhered. Especially during the idea
Energy
Material Information
Electrical Energy Input: Fruits Signal
Press out juice
(separating paring
from pulp and juice)
Separating pulp
from juice
Collect juice
Drive out juice
Interrupt juice flow
(prevent dripping)
Collect pulp
Pick up juice
Output: Juice
Peel
Fig.1
3.2:
Functional
structure of a
juice extractor
(Wimmer,
1999)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
153
generating phase the ideas should not be criticized or be commented by
the participants as criticism may freeze the idea generation process.
Generally four main rules can be formulated. These rules should be
adhered during the whole process. These rules are:
1. Evaluation or criticism of the ideas should be strictly separated from
the idea generation phase.
2. The ideas of the other participants should be picked up in matter of
expanding
3. The participants should have the opportunity to express their fantasy
4. Aim is to produce lots of ideas in a short time
Brainstorming results in an amount of ideas for a certain defined
problem. Experience shows that approximately 3 – 6% of the named ideas
can be further used effectively.
This methodology requires little time and gives a big amount of ideas at
same time. The knowledge of several people can be used at same time to
find an adequate solution. Unfortunately the quality of the generated
ideas and solutions for the problem can vary widely. After a break the
bunch of ideas are read by the moderator. The participants evaluate and
sort the ideas. The ideas are then sorted thematically. Ideas which fit not
to the problem are sorted out.
Brainwriting (Method 635)
At first, a clear definition of the aimed task is necessary. Then, a group,
called 635 group, of six participants, seated in a circle, is asked to write
down three ideas during five minutes on a form. After five minutes, the
list is handed over to the right neighbour who has either to develop
further the previous ideas or if this is not possible to write down some
new ideas.
In further turns the time interval is increased up to eight minutes since
there will be more content on the list which has to be read before
developing new ideas. The procedure is finished when all lists are
completed by every participant. This method lasts approximately 30 to 40
minutes. It is important that the ideas are formulated clearly and that the
participants do not talk to each other during these 40 minutes.
Brainwriting aims at analyzing and synthesizing a clearly defined
problem. The possible solutions for the problem are described by
keywords, drafts or drawings.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
154
The Brainwriting method gives in an ideal case 108 written ideas as well
as associations on a list. Experience shows that approximately 15% of the
generated ideas can be realized.
Advantage of this method is that people which cannot articulate very well
have the same chance for communicating their ideas like well articulating
participants. No moderator but a strict time keeper is needed for the
method. The Brainwriting method allows complex formulation of ideas.
Disadvantages: the existing pressure of time for the formulation of the
ideas may lead to black outs of some participants. Some participants may
have good ideas but could face difficulties when writing them down.
Synectics
Another effective approach for finding new ideas and solutions for
difficult problems is called synectics.
The flow chart in Fig.13.3 shows the general approach of this method.
In a first step of this method a problem is analyzed and defined properly
and is reformulated then. In the second step the problem is alienated by
searching analogies. Following analogies can be used:
Analogies from nature (e.g. bionic: how does nature solve this problem)
Personal analogies (e.g. how do I feel by being a…)
Symbolic analogies (metaphorical expressions…)
Fantasy analogies (what would a superhero do…)
In the next step the analogies are related and applied to the problem.
Possible solutions are derived.
Example: a device for removing uroliths from the human body is
developed by using the analogy of an umbrella. The device should span,
tighten and unplug the stones.
Problem
Alienation Solution
Application
to problem
Fig.13.3: Flow chart
showing approach of
synectics
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
155
Checklists
Checklists contain questions which are relevant for problem solving. Aim
is to consider all relevant questions and avoiding missing or skipping one.
Checklists can be used universally and can be adapted to different
problems.
Different approaches and techniques can be followed when formulating
questions. They will be explained in the following:
Inverting: e.g. what would the opposite mean? What if turned from
right to left…?
Combining: e.g. what if ideas are combined? What if units are
combined…?
Using differently: e.g.: what if used differently with same shape,
materials, etc…?
Adjusting: What has already been done in the past? Is something
similar to my problem…?
Altering: Can the meaning/value of a parameter/product be
changed…?
Making it bigger: Should something be added…?
Making it smaller: Should something be dropped…?
Replacing: Can some other material be used? Can some other
approach be found…?
New arranging: New layout necessary? Should components be
changed…?
Advantages of Checklists:
Universal applicable and flexible use of different problems
Any level of detail can be defined
Summarized and generalized evaluations are avoided
Forced to systematically work through projects and ideas were
nothing can be forgotten
You have already used such checklists by using the ECODESIGN PILOT
and by evaluating the priority of the improvement strategies of your
product.
PRODUCT CONCEPTS
Products are designed to fulfil a function. The function of a product is
derived by a combination of different sub functions (e.g. the function of
the juice extractor is extracting juice, a sub function could be pressing
out juice, another one collecting juice etc…)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
156
To be able to find the optimal combination of the different sub functions
each of the sub functions must be evaluated. According to (Luttropp,
1999) around 30 aspects need to be addressed in the product
development process and must be therefore evaluated during the
evaluation process of the sub functions. Some of the aspects are e.g.
materials, reliability, quality or profit or environmental aspects.
Each product consists of different parts and components. The product
fulfils a function (a main function). Each of its components fulfil a
function as well, called a sub function. The different sub functions
together provide the main function.
It is clear that the final product is able to fulfil its main function optimally
if its parts and components (i.e. its sub functions) do so. By listing each
sub function in a column and each realization in a row a morphological
box is obtained, see Tab. 13.3.
In a morphological box, see Tab. 13.3, different sub functions can be
listed in a column. The different possible realizations of the sub function
are listed in a row. By combining different realizations of sub functions
different variants of a product are obtained.
Realization of sub function
Sub-
function
1 2 3 . . y
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 . . 1.y
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 . . 2.y
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
x x.1 x.2 x.3 . . x.y
Tab. 13.3 shows three different possible variants of the various sub
functions in the morphological matrix.
Tab. 13.4. shows a graphical morphological box for a juice extractor and
points out two different realization variants of the different sub functions
of the product. The sub functions were derived through functional
analysis as described above.
1. 2.
3. variant
Tab.13.3:
Morphological
box (Roloff,
Matek, 2001)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
157
As discussed in lesson 2 the juice extractor can be environmentally
improved by finding a concept to extract as much juice as possible from a
single orange. Designing an optimized cone would be an effective
approach.
Once the combination of sub functions and concepts is defined the
embodiment design can be processed.
EMBODIMENT DESIGN
Through embodiment design preliminary layouts of parts and
components are derived. In this part of the product development process
the ideas and the environmental considerations discussed before are
implemented into the design of the product. Through the embodiment
design process parts and components are fully dimensioned and designed.
After embodiment design usually a prototype is build to be further tested.
The design can then be further optimized by implementing and
considering the test results gained with the prototype.
In case of the juice extractor example the following optimizations of the
design could be gained:
Different cone sizes for different fruits, e.g. limes, oranges, grape
fruits…
Transparent container to make visible how much juice has been
extracted
Reducing electrical energy consumption by optimizing gearbox
Reducing noise and vibrations by damping gearbox
Eased disassembly of parts for washing and cleaning
variant 1
Press out juice
Separate pulp from juice
Collect juice
Drive out juice
variant 2
Tab.1
3.4: Morphological
box for the juice
extractor
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
158
Eased disassembly for reusing e.g. motor, eased disassembly for
recycling
After the embodiment design stage and after testing and optimizing a
prototype the product development process is finished.
Ecodesign Decision Boxes
Through the previous lessons it was shown that any development of
products as well as any production activity causes environmental impacts.
It was also aimed to show that decisions about the design of a product
taken by engineers in product development influence the environmental
performance of the product. Since the engineers select the materials used
in the product and further determine production technologies necessary
to manufacture the product. The design itself may influence means of
transport needed, energy consumption of the product in its use stage as
well as possible end of life scenarios.
The approaches discussed in the previous lessons were based on product
improvement, which means that current product designs were
investigated and evaluated and product improvements were gained by
using approaches, methodologies and tools introduced so far.
In this chapter an approach will be discussed briefly of how
environmental considerations as well as environmental product
evaluations can be integrated into the decisive early design stages of a
product.
The methodology introduced here is called “Ecodesign Decision Boxes” (in
short EDB) and follows (Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et. al 2006).
Let’s have a more detailed look on what “design” means and what it
consists of. In (Hubka et al., 1996) ‘designing’ is defined as:
“The transformation of information from the condition of needs, demands,
requirements and constraints (including the demanded functions) into the
description of a structure which is capable of fulfilling these demands.”
Environmental considerations can be taken into account already in the
early steps of the design stage where feasibility studies were done and
priorities were set. Priorities could be shifted towards environmental
friendly design which will have an influence on how functions were
combined in the second step.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
159
The EDB were developed in a way to fit into the design process. They
consist of three different boxes, namely the Design Box, the Component
Box and the Material Box: the Design Box allows optimizing the entire
assembled product whereas the Component Boxes (one for each
component in the product) and their corresponding Material Boxes (one
for each Component Box) allow tracking the influence on environment of
each component, part and of each material used in the components.
Fig.13.4 shows a flow chart of how the EDB approach.
The evaluation of the different materials and processes in the Decision
Boxes are based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The Decision Boxes
visualize the correlation of an environmental parameter, e.g. global
warming potential expressed as CO
2
equivalents, cumulated energy
demand expressed as energy equivalents or any other indicator which
can quantify environmental impact and a technical parameter such as
weight or volume.
As shown in Fig. 13.5, in the first step a Design Box is generated for the
product. The Design Box shows the correlation between an environmental
parameter and a technical parameter of the whole assembled product
including components throughout its life cycle. In the second step
Component Boxes are established for those components contributing
most to the environmental impact of the product. The Component Box
shows the correlation of the environmental parameter and the technical
parameter of the parts of the component. In the third step for each
component a Material Box is generated where the same correlation is
visualized for the whole life cycle of the materials used in the parts of the
components.
Design
Box
Component
Box
Material
Box
Choose
relevant comp
o
nents
Choose relevant
materials
New product
or new
product design
Decisions during design
Step 1
Step
2
Step
3
Fig.13.4: Flow chart
for the approach of
the EDB (Ostad
Ahmad Ghorabi et al.,
2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
160
Let’s consider an office chair again as an example. As introduced in
lesson 2 a common office chair consists of five main parts, namely:
11. Base
12. Mechanism
13. Seat
14. Arm rest
15. Back
For the production of the office chair shown in Fig. 13.5 the amount of
materials listed in Tab.13.5 are used.
To be able to draw the graphs of the Ecodesign Decision Boxes the
product including its components, parts and materials must be
environmentally evaluated through its entire life cycle. Additionally some
analysis is necessary to correlate the environmental parameter with the
technical parameter.
For the Design Box of the office
chair, see Fig.13.6, Life Cycle
Assessment was applied. Since
optimizing the weight of the
office chair was one important
design criteria, the product
weight was taken as a technical
parameter which is correlated to
global warming potential.
The Design Box shows the
contribution to environmental
impact trough the life cycle of each component of the office chair. The
current weight of the office chair and the current environmental impact of
the office chair are also marked in the Design Box.
Materials Weight [kg]
ASt35 13
PP 3
PUR 1.2
C45 0.6
ABS 0.4
PA6 0.4
Polyester 0.3
PA6GF30 0.2
PC 0.005
Total weight: 19.1
Fig.13.5: Office chair
Tab.13.5: Amount of
materials used in the
office chair
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
161
Design Box
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Weight [kg]
Char. impact for GW [g-CO2-eq]
Arm rest
Back
Mechanism
Seat
Base
Current value char. impact for GW
Target value char. impact for GW
Current value weight
Target value weight
Let’s assume now that an improved design of the office chair aims at
reducing the weight of the chair by 10%. The contribution to global
warming should be reduced by 20%. The new target values are also
drawn into the Design Box.
As it can be seen in the Design Box the current design of the chair
exceeds the new defined target values. The Design Box further shows that
the components “Back”, “Seat” and “Arm rest” have the highest slopes
amongst the components which indicates that they contribute a lot to
environmental impact.
Let’s further investigate the component “Back” more detailed since it has
a relatively low weight but contributes significantly to environmental
impact. To be able to do that a Component Box for the “Back” is drawn,
see Fig. 13.7.
Component Box for the component "back"
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Weight [kg]
Char. impact for GW [g-CO2-eq]
PUR
PP
Polyeste
r
Current value char. impact
Current value
Fig.13.6: Design Box
for the office chair
(Ostad Ahmad
Ghorabi et al., 2006)
Fig.13.7: Component
Box for the
component “Back”
(Ostad Ahmad
Ghorabi et al., 2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
162
The life cycle data for the materials used for the component “Back” are
listed in Tab. 13.6.
Material Processing Surface Transport End of Life (EoL)
Polyester - No treatment
1000 km with
Lorry
European
Scenario
PP
Injection
moulding
Painted
1000 km with
Lorry
European
Scenario
PUR Foaming No treatment
1000 km with
Lorry
European
Scenario
In the Component Box the current weight of the “Back” and its
contribution to global warming by its current life cycle, i.e. use of raw
materials, surface treatment, transport etc… is marked.
The component Box shows that polyester and PUR have a very high slope.
This means that mostly these two materials form the contribution to
environmental impact.
Considering a new design concept of the office chair it is useful to reduce
or avoid the use of polyester and PUR in the back.
The Material Box in Fig. 13.8 shows the performance of the materials
over their whole life cycle (from extraction until end of life). The Material
Box for polyester, polypropylene (PP) and polyurethane (PUR) shows how
much of each material can be used and which contribution to global
warming occurs.
Material Box for Polyester, PP, PUR foam
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Weight [kg]
Char. impact for GW [g-CO2-eq]
Polyester
PUR foam
PP
An investigation shows that the use of polyester can not be avoided
completely. But a new and innovative design of the Back could avoid the
use of PUR, see Fig.13.9. The Component Box shows that by avoiding
Tab.13.6: Life cycle
data for the materials
used in the
component “Back”
(Ostad Ahmad
Ghorabi et al., 2006)
Fig.13.8: Material Box
for Polyester, PP and
PUR (Ostad Ahmad
Ghorabi et al., 2006)
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
163
PUR the weight of the Back component can be reduced by approximately
30% and the contribution to global warming could be also reduced by
30%.
A Component Box can be established for each of the components of the
office chair. With the help of the Decision Boxes successively
improvement potentials for a product can be tracked and identified.
SUMMARY
This lesson aimed at showing how and in which stage of the product
development process environmental considerations can be implemented
effectively.
Aiming at a product improvement an existing product is investigated and
environmentally evaluated. Based on the results of the evaluation process
improvement objectives and strategies can be derived and Ecodesign
improvement tasks can be implemented in a re-design procedure. Various
methods and tools therefore have been introduced through the previous
chapters. The product development process was described more detailed
in this chapter and it was shown how environmental considerations can
be integrated into the process.
The Ecodesign Decision Boxes were introduced to show how
environmental considerations can be integrated into the very beginning of
the development process when aiming at designing a completely new
product (in contrary to product improvement). The Ecodesign Decision
Boxes can help the engineer in product development to make the right
(environmental) decisions of the design in the decisive early design stages,
i.e. when thinking about concepts, materials or processes.
Fig.13.9: Left:
current design of the
component “Back”,
right: improved
design avoiding the
use of PUR (Ostad
Ahmad Ghorabi et al.,
2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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HOME EXERCISES
1. Consider your product:
z. How is your product manufactured? What techniques were used?
aa. How do you believe the environmental impact of the product can
be reduced by changing the design? Find some ideas (e.g. by using
brainstorming) and prepare some sketches for an improved design
of parts, components or the whole product.
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165
REFERENCES
Hubka, V., Eder, E., 1996, Design Science – Introduction to the Needs, Scope and
Organization of Engineering Design Knowledge, Springer, London, UK.
Luttropp, C., 1999, Eco-design in early product development, World Conference R99, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006, Ecodesign Decision Boxes – A Systematic Tool for
Integrating Environmental Considerations into Product Development, in Proceedings of the
9th International Design Conference - DESIGN 2006", D. Marjanovic (Pub.); ISBN 953-6313-
78-2; p. 1399 - 1404.
Roloff, Matek, W., 2001, Maschinenelemente – Normung, Berechnung, Gestaltung, 15.
Auflage, Vieweg, Braunschweig / Wiesbaden.
Wimmer, W., 1999, ECODESIGN Checklisten Methode, PhD Thesis, Institute for Engineering
Design, Vienna University of Technology.
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL (AVAILABLE ON CD)
Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006. Ecodesign Decision Boxes – A Systematic Tool for
Integrating Environmental Considerations into Product Development, in Proceedings of the 9th
International Design Conference - DESIGN 2006", D. Marjanovic (Pub.); ISBN 953-6313-78-2;
S. 1399 - 1404.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
167
LESSON 14
Enhancing the Idea of Ecodesign to
Product Service Systems
KEYWORDS: PRODUCT SERVICE SYSTEMS (PSS), CONSUMER NEEDS, PRODUCT USE
Lesson objectives
In this lesson the basic idea of Product Service Systems (PSS) will be introduced.
The concept of Ecodesign was introduced and described through the previous lessons. As
already discussed Ecodesign considers all life cycle stages of a product, starting with the
use of raw materials, manufacturing, transport, use and end of life and aims at avoiding
or reducing the environmental impact of a product through all life cycle stages. The
improvement objectives and strategies gained by the concept of Ecodesign so far are
focused on product design and product development. A critical attribute of Ecodesign is
that the products still stand in the forefront. This means that businesses create value
through the sale of products. The more products are made and sold the higher the
turnover. Value creation and material use is tightly coupled.
The concept of sustainable Product Service Systems (PSS) focuses on the use of the
product. The production and sale of products no longer stands in the forefront, rather the
use for the consumer. It is based on the idea that the use of the product has to satisfy
consumers’ demands and needs and raise life quality and life comfort. In many cases the
consumers are not necessarily interested in the product itself (e.g. washing machine), but
rather in its services and functions (washing of dirty clothes and drying the clean clothes).
This transition from the sale of a product to the offer of Product Service Systems can be a
contribution on the way to sustainable development.
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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A “sustainable service” takes into account consumers’ behaviour changes and the
acceptance of products. Sustainable services try to include environmental, social and
economical aspects of sustainable development.
In this lesson it is aimed to further enhance the idea of Ecodesign which is a product
design orientated concept to product services which is a consumer and product use
orientated approach. Various examples will help to clarify this approach.
At the end of this lesson you will get familiar with the concept of sustainable
Product Service Systems. You will have an idea of how Ecodesign can be
enhanced and how and which consumer needs can be the main focus of product
development and services.
The development of Product Service Systems will be demonstrated using
S-curves, see Fig. 14.1. An office chair will be taken as a case study.
The environmental responsibility within companies grows over time in a
pattern which can be illustrated as an S-curve. The S-curve can be
divided into three phases:
1. Initial phase: this phase is limited by the effectiveness of a certain
technology
2. Growth phase: the environmental performance is improved gradually
3. Limitation phase: the environmental performance can not be improved
further due to technical limitations
Once technological limits are reached, new radical innovations are
needed to obtain an improved environmental performance which involves
fundamentally different ways of doing business. A radical innovation can
Fig.14.1: S
-
curves of
the four R-levels
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
169
be shown as a switch to higher level S-curve, representing alternative and
competing technologies. This jump to a higher level of a S-curve will be
explained using the office chair example.
In the following table the S-curves characteristics of the four R-levels
namely Repair, Refine, Redesign, Rethink are described in detail.
Characteristics
Repair Refine Redesign Rethink
Environ
mental
ambition
Solve urgent
problems in
products
Improve eco-
efficiency
Needs to be set at a
busi
ness level at an
early stage in the
project.
Dematerialization is
the aim; the focus is
on the whole life cycle
of the total solution.
The ambition needs to
be set at a business
level at an early stage
in both service and
product development.
Solution
elements
Product
Product
Product
Products or new
business concepts
which are the
elements in an
integrated solution
involving services,
products and delivery
of services.
Organisational
units
Mostly product
developer
Mostly product
developer
All functions related
to product
development
process also
including business
planners, product
planners and
industrial designers
All functions related
to develop
ing services,
products and delivery
systems during the
product’s life cycle,
including business
planners, service
developers, product
planners, product
developers.
Innovation
ambition and
potential
End of pipe
solutions, solve
urgent
problems
Improve the eco-
efficiency of an
existing product
Improve functions
of the product,
focus on the life
cycle of a product.
System innovation in
regard to services,
infrastructure,
products and user
behaviour.
Process
characteristics
Mostly performed
in late product
development
stages.
Environmental
checklists and
guidelines.
Mostly performed
in late product
development
stages.
Environmental
checklists and
guidelines.
Process is
exploratory,
iterative, and
innova
tive. Focus is
on the early stages
of product
development.
Business develop
ment
level. Both service
and product
development affected;
Innovative,
collaboration of
several levels in the
company for the
product’s life cycle is
needed early on.
Example:
Office Chair
Recycling of the
chair
Changing the
materials of the
base component
Designing a
multifunctional
chair for a long
lifetime
Providing a chair in a
Product Service
System
Tab.14.1:
Characteristics of the
4-R levels (Ölundh,
2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
170
EXAMPLE: OFFICE CHAIR
“Repair”: The producer of the office chair is doing business as usual and
is not aware of the environmental effects of the product. The profit of his
business depends on the amount of products sold. The environmental
responsibility of the producer is limited to “repairing” and end of pipe
solutions, which, in this case means that the product is produced and
sold first and afterwards environmental impacts are taken into
consideration.
In case of the office chair, the first R-level means that the chair could be
collected and recycled instead of dumped on landfill sights when reaching
its end of life stage.
“Refine”: In the next level the producer is not only thinking in terms of
end of pipe solutions but is also considering eco-efficient products which
are both environmental friendly and economical. In our example the
energy efficiency of the component “base” of the office chair can be
reduced to 1/6 by changing anodized aluminium to painted steel. This
factor is also displayed in the costs for raw materials and manufacture of
the base.
“Redesign”: At this level the company’s strategy to improve the
environmental performance of the product lies in the redesign of the
product. Strategies for environmental improvement of products have to be
shifted into the early stages of product development. One strategy in this
case could be to design a chair for a long life time. To achieve this goal,
the office chair has to provide the possibility to be upgraded. For example
the office chair can be upgraded with arm rests; also the seat can be
upgraded from a fixed one to an adjustable one.
“Rethink”: To reach the 4
th
level a radical innovation is needed. This is
realized by changing the whole system into a Product Service System. The
production and sale of products no longer stands in the forefront, rather
the provision of the use for the consumer. The Product Service System is
based on the idea that the use of the product has to satisfy consumers’
demands. The consumer is not necessarily interested in the office chair,
but likes to sit comfortably. The producer leases or rents the office chairs
to the customer and is responsible for the maintenance. The producer
takes back the products for maintenance in case the office chairs become
defect, need new functions or are out of fashion. Then the products are
dismantled, repaired, upgraded with new functions or just covered with
new textiles and brought back to the customer. Therefore it is very
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
171
important that the product is designed for disassembly as shown in
Fig. 14.2.
Each customer has individual demands which are directly communicated
to the producer and taken into consideration during the product
development process. This response to the customer’s demand helps to
become manifest in market position.
In the concept of sustainable Product Service Systems the focus of
thinking is shifted from a production and sales orientated approach of
products to the provision of use for the consumer. This focus implies the
satisfaction of consumers’ demands.
Sustainable services try to address all three dimensions of sustainable
development, namely social, economic and environmental parameters. In
Fig. 14.2 Dismantled
office chair
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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the following Tab. 14.2 some statements of the product orientated
approach and the service orientated approach are compared.
Product orientated approach Service orientated approach
Thinking in products Thinking in solutions
Value creation by sales of units of
product
Value creation by sales of units of
use
Product sales price Value of use over lifetime of product
Owing product Consuming without owing
Material flows Services
Garbage society Repair society
A Product Service System is a system of products and services including
supporting infrastructure that is designed to be competitive and to be
able to satisfy customers’ needs. These systems do not contribute as
much to environmental impact as traditional business models. A Product
Service System can be offered by one company or by an association of
companies. It can include products with additionally services or services
with additionally products.
Product Service Systems can help to make the use of products more
optimal, effective, intensive and long-term.
Focusing on Product Service Systems two different approaches can be
defined: primary services which are pure services and secondary services
which are services with product components. Different to primary
Product Service Systems the main focus for the productive industry lies
Tab.14.2:
Comparison of
product orientated
and service
orientated approach
Fig.14.3:
Classification of PSS
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on secondary Product Service Systems as shown in Fig. 14.3. The service
can either be added to the product or the service can substitute the
product completely.
What do you think are the main profits for companies providing a Product Service
System? What do you think are the main advantages for consumers using a
Product Service System?
Services in addition to products such as maintenance, upgrading or
warranty services aim at extending the product life time and are covered
by various concepts of Ecodesign. More promising approaches of Product
Service Systems are services substituting products: the producer remains
the owner of a product and sells the function.
Result oriented services provide the result to the consumer. The customer
may need heat to warm his house. Contracting solutions for heating
systems may be the appropriate result oriented service here fore.
Use oriented services focus on the use intenseness of products through
selling units of use. This can be distinguished between individual use
(leasing, renting) and collective use (sharing, pooling).
By looking at the market closely it is sometimes not easy to find the
difference between products and services. In practice there are a lot of
examples which are neither a pure product nor a pure service. Products
include some services (e.g. delivery), and services require the use of some
products (e.g. concierge service).
In the following, examples of “mainly” products, products with more or
less services and examples of primary services are for the demand “living”
is listed (Jasch 2006):
Mainly product:
Common rooms
Insulation of buildings
Use of rain water
Services in addition to products:
Deliveries, Food on demand
Labels for materials, colours, cleaning
Use-oriented:
Car sharing
Wash saloons with pay per wash
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Result oriented:
Energy, water and waste contracting
Mainly service:
Consulting on environmental and energy issues
Concierge service
Neighbourhood-based concepts: Barter shop, resident-to-resident
services
PRODUCT EXAMPLES
In Tab.14.3 some examples for Product Service Systems in different fields
are listed and described to show which Product Service Systems already
exist.
Field Example for a Product Service System
Mobility Car-Sharing
City Bike
Information and communication
Single use camera
Leasing of copiers
Cleaning Laundry services, pay per wash cycle
Clothing Leasing of clothing for work, textiles
Living Energy contracting
Car-Sharing
Do you know the dilemma: you need a car for a certain time or just on
weekends but you don’t want to buy or owe a car because it is too
expensive and it causes too many expenses for maintaining (e.g. fuel or
insurance)?
The alternative for using a car is sharing a car with other people. Car-
sharing is a service of using a car without owning it. By paying a annual
fee you can rent cars or vans whenever you need it and you only pay for
the service you really use. You can book the car via call centre or via
online reservation of the car you need. For the booking a special card is
needed. This card is also the key for opening the car. The key for driving
and the papers are inside the car. After using the car can be parked at
one of 200 parking areas around Austria. The fuel use and the driven
kilometres are calculated together with insurance and motorway fees and
have to be paid monthly.
Tab.14.3: Examples
for Product Service
Systems
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175
The benefits for the user are clear: you have a car whenever you need one,
you only pay for the period when you use the car and you don’t have
continuous expenses. Another benefit is that, depending on what you
want to do, you can rent different cars: small ones, luxurious ones, vans
or cross-country vehicles can be named amongst others. In combination
with public transportation you can be mobile without owning a car.
Link: http://www.mobility.ch
Leasing of copiers
A widespread example for Product Service Systems is the leasing of
copiers. A lot of copy shops as well as other users (offices, bureaus…) do
not owe the machines; they rent or lease it from the producer. The
producers are responsible for maintaining the machines. To be able to
maintain the machines and to ensure a long life time the product is
designed for recycling and reusing. Requirements from Xerox company’s
design department on their products are for example: easy to disassemble,
small amount of parts used in the product, modularity, etc. At Xerox the
reuse and recycling rate is between 70 and 90%. The copy machine is
installed where to customer likes it to. He also benefits from the
maintenance services. The producer benefits from a closer relation to his
customers and has the possibility to respond immediately to the
customers’ demands. The environmental profits follow from the long
lifetime of the product and the optimized use of the product.
http://www.xerox.com
City Bike
Another example of Product Service Systems is the free available CityBike
of Vienna. To become a Citybiker you need to register with your credit
card or you can apply for a special CityBike card to access the bikes..
The target of the new transportation system is to ease the switch for e.g.
car to bicycle. Short trips can easily be done by bicycle. Studies show
that 50% of our daily routes lay within 5 km. Therefore a bicycle can be
used effectively to cover these routes. Several City Bike stations
guarantee that the system works well. In Vienna there are 50 stations
and in every station about 10-20 bicycles parked.
http://www.citybikewien.at
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Leasing of clothing for work, textiles
Mewa provides textile services which allow customers a continuous
supply of clean textiles (owned and maintained by Mewa). The customer
does not need to buy, clean or dispose them.
The service concept is eco-efficient in several ways: First, by using
returnable textiles which can be reused up to 40 times as opposed to
one-way paper towels the company contributes to saving primary
resources and reducing the amount of wastes. Second, by optimising the
washing technology (e.g. cascading, water treatment facilities) and
recovering waste oils from the textiles for use in internal energy
production the concept creates an additional benefit for the environment.
Last but not least, the client profits from the fact that the need to dispose
hazardous waste (the polluted textiles) is completely shifted to the service
provider which thereby save costs for disposal.
http://www.mewa-service.com/
Single-use camera
Single-use cameras which are also known as ‘recyclable,’ ‘disposable,’
and ‘throw-away’ cameras are cameras which are sold with the film built-
in. After you take your photos, you can bring the whole unit to your
photo processor, who opens the camera with special tools, develops your
pictures and returns the camera to the recycler of e.g. Kodak. The
recycler dismantles the camera, tests it, changes the damaged parts, puts
a new film inside, packs it and sends it back to the market.
Actually you do not buy a product, you buy a service of “taking and
developing pictures” with a nice looking camera.
Single-use cameras are designed to be easily reused and recycled. Kodak
claims 77 percent recycling and reuse rate by collecting 100 millions of
Single-use cameras.
Single-use cameras are not expensive, readily available, easy to use, and
some even have special features such as a wide-angle lens or are
waterproof for underwater photography. .
The ecological footprint of a single-use camera is 50 times better than the
ecological footprint of a reflex camera. (Schmidt-Bleek, 2004).
www.kodak.com
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Laundry service
Laundries are a typical example for using a product without owning it. In
a laundry washing and drying machines are provided mostly over 24
hours a day. The service in a launderette is a use-oriented service where
units of use are sold. The ecological advantage is that in a launderette
effective washing machines for intensive use are provided and therefore
less water and less wash detergent is needed. But on the other hand it is
very important where the laundry service takes place, in the customer’s
apartment house or in the neighbourhood and also which means of
transportation are taken. By taking a car the rebound effect is quite high.
This means the ecological advantages are eliminated, or are even negative.
Energy contracting
Energy contracting stands for a contractual relation between an energy
service company and a client which is mainly aimed at the reduction of
the client's energy costs.
In case of energy contracting two forms can be differed:
Performance-Contracting
The contractor takes measures intended to reduce the energy need and to
enhance the efficiency of the customer's plants. It therefore consists of
modernisation and optimisation methods, which are limited in scope
compared to plant-contracting. The measures are usually planned,
financed and conducted by the contractor. Measures taken are for
example isolation of tubes, change of light bulbs, installation and
optimization of control systems e.g. for lightning. The refinancing
normally results from the guaranteed saving of energy costs.
Performance-Contracting can be applied to fields such as lighting plants
and system controls or pumps.
Plant- / Operation-Contracting
The contractor plans, finances and constructs the technical plant
designed for energy supply, and operates and services it when needed.
The customer pays for the used energy a defined prize in €/kWh. With
this amount all the costs of the contractor e.g. financing, maintenance,
and administration are covered. On the basis of the high specialization of
the contractor and of the cheaper purchase costs the contractor can
make a prize for a energy unit which is below the costs the customer
would have achieved by his own initiative.
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OUTLOOK
What are the chances of Product Service Systems?
Sustainable Products and Services are the possible and promising answer
to future challenges of a sustainable development of our society. This is
due to the care of both the production side as well as the consumption
side.
Prospects and challenges for the company
In many cases the development of sustainable products and services is
not easy and requires radical innovations which include a change in the
way of thinking.
Prospects and advantages for the service providers are:
Innovations open up the chance to develop new business fields or
define new markets. Innovations secure the long-term success of
companies.
To provide Product Service Systems you have to know the needs,
expectations and use behaviours of the consumers. By including the
consumer’s requirements in the product development process you
have a competitive advantage.
Product Service Systems go beyond the point of sale. This means a
long-term relation to the consumers beyond the products lifetime.
Companies should intensify the quality of consumer relations and
consumer loyalty.
Economic growth is decoupled from the resource input. Thus resource
productivity can be increased and the dependence on non-renewable
resources can be reduced.
The design of Product Service Systems means to take the
responsibility of products in terms of impacts on the environment and
the society. This means future law-requirements in context to product
liability and product take back (like in the electronic sector) can be
neglected due to foresighted acting. Prevention is better than cure.
Different product design due to growing the importance of take-back,
disassembly, refurbishment, reuse, etc.
Advantages for the consumer
For a successful implementation of a Product Service System acceptance
of the consumers is necessary.
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179
Product Service Systems raise the consumer’s acceptance. The
consumer gets special solutions for his problems and not only a
product.
In many cases the consumer does not need a product; he is interested
in the function of it. Additionally the function should be obtained
comfortable, cheap and very long lasting.
By using Product Service Systems the consumer acts like a partner of
the company. The consumer feels good attended, consulted and his
requirements are taken seriously.
Product Service Systems transform the customer to a consumer and
not to an owner of the product. Thus the consumer does not have to
make big investments.
The consumer is not owning a product and therefore much more
flexible.
There are a lot of advantages for the consumer but one should be aware
of the differences between business-to-consumer (b2c) where a product is
sold to private consumers and business-to-business (b2b) where a
product is sold to an enterprise or business consumer. In the private
sector factors such as symbolic status effect of a product or the
reputation of having a product still plays an important role.
Sustainability and Product Service Systems
Companies provide a combination of services and products. Product
Service Systems are able to make the use of products more optimal,
Fig.14.4: Some
Criteria for the
assessment of
Product Service
System (Jasch,
2006)
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
180
intensive and long-term. However, the sustainability of the Product
Service System depends on the design of the system elements. Each
Product Service System represents the individual solution for the
fulfilment of the consumer’s needs. Therefore the sustainability profile
has to be evaluated case by case. Evaluation methods should include
indicators that are based on environmental, social and economic effects.
Product Service Systems are not necessarily more sustainable than pure
product solutions. In fact, it depends on the basic framework conditions
of the user and the product. There is also often a rebound effect, which
refers to the reverse part e.g. negative impacts on the environment of the
intended positive impacts on sustainability. For example if you decide to
wash your clothes in a laundry, the transportation has to be taken into
account. Also in case of taking a delivery service, the transportation
displays a rebound effect.
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SUMMARY
Looking at products and improving their environmental performance over
the products’ life cycle is very important but it is also important to look at
the whole system; It is not enough to redesign the product based on
environmental considerations, but it is necessary to rethink the whole
system. Who is using the product? How often is the customer using the
product? What does the consumer really need and how can his demands
be fulfilled?
Therefore Product Service Systems as a combination of products and
services are an appropriate approach. Product Service Systems are one
possible answer to future challenges of a sustainable development in our
society. Here the production and sale of products no longer stands in the
forefront and economic growth is decoupled from the resource input.
However, the sustainability of Product Service Systems depends very
much on the design of the system elements. Each Product Service System
needs different solutions for the fulfilment of the individual needs of the
customers. Therefore the sustainability has to be evaluated case by case.
It is also important to consider the rebound effect when thinking of using
Product Service Systems. For example if using a delivery service of
organic food the transportation has to be considered as rebound effect.
Product requirements for products within a Product Service System are
different to usually sold ones. A product provided together with a take-
back solution has to be designed for easy dismantling, easy repair and
easy upgrade to secure reuse and to secure a long lifetime of the product.
HOME EXERCISES
1. How does a Product Service System look like for your analysed product?
bb. Give a short description of the system. Which infrastructure is
needed? How are they linked together?
cc. What are the requirements to the product? Is the design of the
product suitable for offering a Product Service System?
ECODESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
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REFERENCES
Halme, M., et al., 2004, SUSTAINABLE HOMESERVICES - Benchmarking Sustainable Services
for the Housing, Scientific Report to the European Union.
Jasch C., et al., 2006, Produkte und Dienstleidungen von Morgen, Nachhaltige Innovationen
für Firmen und KonsumentInnen, BAND 1, Ernährung. Wohnen. Mobilität. Energie, Book on
Demand.
Ölundh, G., 2006, Modernising Ecodesign - Ecodesign for innovative solutions, Doctoral thesis,
ISNN 1400-1179.
Schmidt-Bleek, F, 2004, Der ökologische Rucksack – Wirtschaft für eine Zukunft mit Zukunft,
Hirzel Verlag, ISBN 3-7776-1289-8.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
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APPENDIX 1
List of Figures
Fig.1.1: The five life cycle stages of a product
Fig.2.1: Juice Extractor [www.philips.at]
Fig.2.2: Typical washing machine [www.sem.or.at]
Fig.2.3: Input-Output analysis for a washing machine
Fig.2.4: Percentage of environmental impact in each life cycle stage of machine B
Fig.2.5: Percentage of environmental impact in each life cycle stage of machine A
Fig.2.6: Office chair [www.steelcase.com]
Fig.2.7: Percentage of environmental impact in each life cycle stage of a office chair
Fig.3.1: Materials of the juice extractor
Fig.3.2: Materials used in the components of an office chair [www.steelcase.com]
Fig.3.3: LCT diagram for the office chair
Fig.3.4: Environmental profile of the office chair expressed in CO2-equivalent
Fig.4.1: General data form of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.2: Raw material data form of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.3: Manufacture data form of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.4: Transport data form of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.5: Product use data form of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.6: End of life data sheet of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.4.7: Result form of the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.5.1: Inputs to the Ecodesign process (Institute for Engineering Design, 2007)
Fig.5.3: Improvement measure for replacing lead with other substances (EEG PILOT, 2004)
Fig.5.2: Home page of EEG PILOT (EEG PILOT, 2004)
Fig.5.4: Improvement measure for selective treatment – WEEE access (EEG PILOT, 2004)
Fig.6.1: Examples for type II labeling in the furniture industry
Fig.7.1: Right: Entrance for PILOT and Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.2: Improvement strategies for a use intensive product (product type D) (Austrian Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.3: Additional information for Ecodesign tasks (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.4: Evaluation of the assessment question (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.5: Further evaluation measures for the Ecodesign tasks (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.6: Completed checklist for washing machine (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Fig.7.7: Matrix showing relation between stakeholder requirements and environmental parameters for
a washing machine (Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004)
Fig.8.1: Office chair [www.steelcase.com]
Fig.8.2: Environmental impact of each life cycle stage of the office chair
Fig.8.3: Left: conventional back design, right: improved design [www.steelcase.com]
Fig.9.1: Table made of wood
Fig.9.2: Environmental impact of each life cycle stage of a table made of wood
Fig.9.3: The complex and long journey of jeans
Fig.10.1: Flower Pot
Fig.10.2: Environmental profile of the flower pot
Fig.11.1: Electric toothbrush
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Fig.11.2: Environmental profile of each life cycle stage of a electric toothbrush
Fig.11.3: Environmental impacts during the use stage of the electrical toothbrush over its lifetime
Fig.12.1: Use stage with repair cycle (Wimmer, Züst, 2002)
Fig.12.2: Recycling Cycle according to (VDI 2243, 2000)
Fig.12.3: Reverse manufacturing cycle (Wimmer, Züst, 2002)
Fig.12.4: Upgrading cycle (Wimmer, Züst, 2002)
Fig.13.1: Product development process (Wimmer, Züst, Lee 2004)
Fig.13.2: Functional structure of a juice extractor (Wimmer, 1999)
Fig.13.3: Flow chart showing approach of synectics
Fig.13.4: Flow chart for the approach of the EDB (Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006)
Fig.13.5: Office chair
Fig.13.6: Design Box for the office chair (Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006)
Fig.13.8: Material Box for Polyester, PP and PUR (Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006)
Fig.13.9: Left: current design of the component “Back”, right: improved design avoiding the use of PUR
(Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006)
Fig.14.1: S-curves of the four R-levels
Fig.14.2: Dismantled office chair
Fig.14.3: Classification of PSS
Fig.14.4: Some Criteria for the assessment of Product Service System (Jasch, 2006)
Fig.13.7: Component Box for the component “Back” (Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al., 2006)
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APPENDIX 2
List of Tables
Tab.1.1: Energy consumption and CO2 emission of some selected countries (Worldwatch Institute, 2004)
Tab.2.1: Environmental parameters related to product life cycle stages
Tab.2.2: General environmental parameter of the juice extractor
Tab.2.3: Description of specific environmental parameters for the juice extractor
Tab.2.4: Quantitative description of oranges
Tab.2.5: Cost analysis of two different washing machine models (Wimmer, Züst, 2002)
Tab.2.6: General environmental parameter of an office chair
Tab.2.7: Specific environmental parameters of an office chair
Tab.3.1: Example for a MET-matrix
Tab.3.2: Modified MET-matrix
Tab.3.3: Amount of materials used in a juice extractor
Tab.3.4: MET-matrix for the juice extractor
Tab.3.5: Compatibility of materials used in the juice extractor, bad compatibilities marked in grey
Tab.3.6: Energy values for the materials used in a juice extractor
Tab.3.7: Energy values for the manufacture stage
Tab.3.8: Energy values for the transport of the juice extractor
Tab.3.9: Energy values fort he use stage of the juice extractor
Tab.3.10: Energy values for the end of life stage of plastics used in the juice extractor
Tab.3.11: Data for manufacture and transport stage of oranges
Tab.3.12: Data for mix of oranges
Tab.3.13: Final results of energy amount needed for the juice extractor and oranges
Tab.3.14: Data for the juice extractor including oranges
Tab.3.15: MET-matrix for an office chair
Tab.3.16: Energy values for the materials used in an office chair
Tab.3.17: Energy values for the relevant manufacture processes of an office chair
Tab.3.18: Energy values for the life cycle stage transport of the office chair
Tab.3.19: Energy values for the end of life stage of the office chair
Tab.3.20: Final results of energy amount needed for the office chair
Tab.3.21: Modified MET-matrix using quantified data
Tab.4.1: Material classes as defined in the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign Platform, 2006)
Tab.4.2: Description of disposal and recycling methods defined in the Assistant (Austrian Ecodesign
Platform, 2006)
Tab.5.1: Selected product examples for the ten product categories
Tab.5.2: Targeted recovery and reuse rates by average weight
Tab.5.3: Targeted reuse, recovery and recycling rates of the ELV directive by an average weight per
vehicle and year
Tab.6.1: Selected national eco-labels and product category examples
Tab.6.2: Comparison of different types of environmental labels and declarations (according to Lee, K.-M.
and Uehara, H. 2003)
Tab.6.3: Advantages and disadvantages and special features of Type I, Type II and Type III
environmental labels (based on Lee, K.-M. and Uehara, H. 2003)
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Tab.7.1: Strategies defined in the ECODESIGN PILOT and their assignment to the different product
types
Tab.7.2: Environmental stakeholder requirements (Wimmer, Züst, Lee, 2004)
Tab.7.3: Weighting factors of environmental stakeholder requirements of a washing machine (Wimmer,
Züst, Lee, 2004)
Tab.7.4: ECODESIGN PILOT’s improvement strategies for the environmental parameters
Tab.8.1: Energy values for materials used in the office chair
Tab.10.1: Data for the flower pot
Tab.10.2: Energy values for different means of transport
Tab.11.1: Required energy for the production of 1kWh in different European countries and European
average
Tab.12.1: Amount of metals which could be recovered by recycling batteries (Q&A on the commission
proposal for a new battery directive, 2003)
Tab.13.1: Environmental specification list for the juice extractor
Tab.13.2: Finding functions
Tab.13.3: Morphological box (Roloff, Matek, 2001)
Tab.13.4: Morphological box for the juice extractor
Tab.13.5: Amount of materials used in the office chair
Tab.13.6: Life cycle data for the materials used in the component “Back” (Ostad Ahmad Ghorabi et al.,
2006)
Tab.14.1: Characteristics of the 4-R levels (Ölundh, 2006)
Tab.14.2: Comparison of product orientated and service orientated approach
Tab.14.3: Examples for Product Service Systems
