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Who Captures Value in a Global Innovation System? The Case of Apple’s iPod
... They argued that the emergence of new service-intensive technologies 2 is drastically affecting industry. However, we did not fi nd any studies showing the specifi c contributions of different service activities to capital goods production. 1 Aboal and Tacsir (2018), Campos and Calandro (2008), Cruz- Moreira and Fleury (2003), Francois and Woerz (2008), Hesseldahl (2010), Linden et al. (2009), Lodefalk (2014), Nordås and Kim (2013), Tempest (1996) e Vu (2013). 2 The literature on this topic, although recent, is vast. Here are some of the many articles on the topic: Fengque (2017), Georgakopoulos (2016), Michahelles (2017), Niggemann and Beyerer (2016) and Schuh (2015). ...
... In addition, Frischtak (2017) argued that the "use of new technologies" is a growing problem in developing countries, as users have access to these technologies but are unable to explore their potential. For Frischtak (2017), the development of new communication technologies depends on initiatives to improve the trade environment; modernization of transport 13 Arbache (2014), Berlingieri (2013), Di Cagno and, Francois and Woerz (2008), Guerrieri and Meliciani (2005), Linden et al. (2009), Lodefalk (2014, Moreira (2015), Nordås and Kim (2013) and Oliveira andVon Hippel (2011). 14 Copeland (2013), Corrêa (2016), Evans and Annunziata (2012), Sarti and Hiratuka (2010), Iapadre and Memedovic (2010), Nordås (2008), Milberg and Winkler (2013), Miles (2008), Sarti and Hiratuka (2010), UNCTAD (2013) and UNESCO (2015). ...
... Campos and Calandro (2008), Cruz-Moreira and Fleury (2003),Gereffi and Frederick (2010),Hesseldahl (2010),Linden et al. (2009), Nonnenberg (2013,Shih (1992) andTempest (1996).208 Nova Economia� v.30 n.1 2020Intermediate services' impact on capital goods production ...
The literature on intermediate services has shown that this sector contributes to industrial competitiveness and productivity rises. The production frontier is used to determine whether intermediate services contributed to the growth of capital goods production in the period between 1995 and 2009. The results found corroborate the hypothesis that the greater use of inputs from the sector results in an increase in the capital goods production in developed countries and indicate that this relationship is much weaker for developing countries. The growth of the capital goods sector’s productivity depends on the emergence of a growing symbiotic relationship between intermediate services and new communication technologies. The presence of these services helps to explain the greater dynamism of the capital goods sector in developed countries.
... Section 2 presents the methodology and data (2.1), and the outcomes and discussion (2.2) of our analysis on financial statements of top manufacturing TNC. The assessment includes the ten biggest public companies of each manufacturing division, in order to investigate their cost structures and profits in the ten latest available years by means of the data sources , inspired by the method of Linden et al. (2007aLinden et al. ( , 2007b. Our intention is to get the current picture of TNC value chains, which can be provided by the decade that goes from the beginning of the international crisis until today. ...
... Financial analysis is used for managerial aims by companies and analysts in general. It was applied also in some pioneer GVC studies on electronics (Dedrick et al., 1999;Linden et al. 2007a, Linden et al. 2007b, Dedrick et al. 2008, which idea we discuss in the next section. As demonstrated in section 2.1, that data show the internal budget's distribution into different kinds of activities and tasks-though in general terms, of the entire business activities of the firms-disregarding the variety of markets they play and the location where they produce. ...
... Gross national product would be, then, the sum of the value-added in all sectors of the economy. This differs from the income approach, which sums net profits of firms and wages of individuals to arrive at GNP (Linden et al., 2007a). As OECD explains, value added reflects the contribution of labour and capital to production, which are imperfectly mirrored in the costs and profits of a company. ...
The aims of this paper are, first, to discuss the theory and the data for understanding global value chains (GVC); and second, to analyze the financial statements of the top manufacturing transnational corporations (TNCs) in order to learn about value curves. The main contribution is the cost analysis through the financial statements of more than 250 public-listed manufacturing TNC. The conclusions are that smiles are not necessarily a fine image for GVC’ value-added curves, but more likely in high technology-intensive industries. Companies and industries whose expenditures are more concentrated in intangible activities, investing more in research & development (R&D) and/or in selling, general and administrative expenses (SG&A), tend to present higher margins than average.
http://journals.openedition.org/rei/7506
... , (5),(6), quan hệ Leontief-Miyazawa có thể được viết lại: ...
... , the iPod(Linden et al., 2009;Varian, ...
Tóm tắt: Những năm gần đây Việt Nam tham gia hội nhập quốc tế mạnh mẽ bởi các hiệp định xuất nhập khẩu song phương và đa phương. Xuất khẩu hàng hóa của Việt Nam năm 1995 chỉ là 5,4 tỷ USD thì đến năm 2018 xuất khẩu hàng hóa của Việt Nam tăng lên 45 lần so với năm 1995 đạt 244 tỷ USD. Nhập khẩu của Việt Nam năm 2018 tăng 29 lần của so với 1995. Bài viết sử dụng mô hình đầu vào-đầu ra (Bảng I.O) để phân tích mức độ ảnh hưởng của xuất khẩu đến một số yếu tố của phía cung theo ngành.
... Зазначається, що $ 83 доданої вартості продукту створюється у США постачальниками технологій Apple та роздрібними продавцями, а сам кінцевий продукт, що коштує у гуртовій ціні 183 долари, виробляється в КНР. Саме Китай у буде вважатися експортером, що насправді викривляє статистику того, яка країна є продавцем високих технологій та під якою національною юрисдикцією створюється дана частка доданої вартості у світовій економіці [7]. ...
... However, a major lack of micro-data has largely prevented measuring the specialization of economies across GVC functions, its evolution over time and its association with value capture dynamics. Empirical evidence on this matter is mainly based on case studies either on the GVC of specific products (e.g., Ali-Yrkkö et al., 2011;Ali-Yrkkö & Rouvinen, 2015;Dedrick et al., 2010;Linden et al., 2009;Xing & Huang, 2021) or on industry-based measures of "upstreamness" aimed at computing the supply chain position of sectors in terms of distance from final demand (Antràs et al., 2012;Meng et al., 2020;Rungi & Del Prete, 2018). Yet, while case studies can hardly provide general results, sectoral measures based on inputoutput statistics disregard the business activities undertaken for the realization of products and services, thus failing to detect the value chain functions performed by firms and countries (de Vries et al., 2021). ...
This chapter first offers a brief review of the conceptual aspects related to the ‘smile curve hypothesis’. Moreover, we use data on inward foreign direct investments (FDIs) to provide an empirical assessment of the functional specialization of economies belonging to North American, Asian and European production networks, and the upgrading/downgrading trajectories they experienced over time. Finally, in line with the prediction of the smile curve, we provide descriptive evidence of the negative association between, on the one hand, the specialization of economies in production with respect to the most upstream and downstream stages of global value chains (GVCs) and, on the other hand, their capability to capture value in GVCs.KeywordsGlobal value chainsForeign direct investmentFunctional specializationIntangible assetsSmile curve
... Early approaches to the analysis of GVCs were based on in-depth examinations of specific products, such as the Barbie doll (Tempest, 1996), Apple's iPod (Linden et al., 2009), HP and Lenovo's notebook PCs (Dedrick et al., 2010) and Nokia's N95 Smartphone (Ali-Yrkkö et al., 2011). Building on private consulting firms' teardown reports, these case studies sought to determine where value is added in the production of a specific good within complex crossborder business networks. ...
The article considers economic and theoretical foundations of reorientation of international business in post-transformation economy and analyzes the multifactor character of this process. When considering geographical reorientation, the need for multi-vector changes is shown, which is not only reduced to East-West processes, but also to North-South ones. The analysis of structural reorientation lead to the conclusion that it is advisable to implement sectoral reorientation in favor of the industrial sector. The study of this process leads to the conclusion that the possibilities are exhausted of reindustrialization on the old industrial basis and there is an urgent need for neo-industrialization, similar to those taking place in the new industrial economies of East Asia. This, in turn, raises the question of the need for changes in the metabolism of knowledge characteristic for economy, when absorption of knowledge begins to play an equal, if not a more important role than its creation. The need to absorb knowledge raises other demands for the integration of production, when the reorientation of international business implies not just reintegration into world trade, but reintegration into world production. At the same time, the structure of the implementation of national output should be changed, and not only in connection with the increase in the share of part of output sold abroad compared to domestic ones, but also in connection with the expansion of progressive forms of export compared to traditional ones. These forms arise mainly through inclusion in global value chains, which significantly increases the opportunities for both export growth and value added in the country's economy as a whole. As a result of the analysis, the author concludes that the reorientation of international business is a complex multifactor phenomenon in which the indissoluble unity of institutional, subjective, object and process economic theoretical foundations is manifested.
... It is also a comprehensive framework that covers all sectors of the economy and captures the increasing complexity of the value chain due to outsourcing. A classic example of this phenomenon is Apple's iPod (Linden et al., 2007). China exports iPods to the US for $150. ...
This thesis empirically investigates commonly accepted theories in international economics. Do flexible exchange rates really help reducing external imbalances? Does globalisation always put downward pressure on production prices and markups? Does trade favour high-skilled workers at the expense of lower-skilled workers in advanced economies? The first chapter explores determinants of sustained and sizeable current account adjustments, based on a selection model to jointly assess determinants of current account reversals and their magnitude. These determinants include exchange rate regimes, as well as financial integration variables and structural policies. The second chapter highlights cross-industry heterogeneous responses of prices, productivity and markups to increased foreign competition. In the case of anti-competitive responses, two leads are investigated: market concentration and quality upgrading to address competition from low-wage countries. The third chapter presents an Input-Output decomposition of changes in employment into three channels: final consumption, trade and technology. This decomposition indicates drivers of skill-biased changes in employment in the case of France.
... 4 This has begun to change recently. In 2007, a team of industry studies researchers loosely associated with the social science GVC stream published a rough geographic breakdown of intermediate inputs for the 30 GB Apple iPod, including assembly costs (Linden et al, 2007). The analysis showed that the iPod was (famously) designed in Cupertino, California, by Apple and assembled in of trade, especially in intermediates. ...
As the geographic fragmentation and of industries has increased and cross-border coordination has improved, efforts to develop better measures and indicators of Global Value Chains (GVC) have intensified. Producers of official and semi-official statistics and private market research information have gradually improved data resources available for GVC research, but the process is slow, piecemeal, and incomplete. At the same time, demand for timely, policy-relevant GVC research is rising. As a result, two distinct streams of research have begun to come together to grapple with shared methodological challenges and statistical gaps.
... Despite these important differences, both the GVC and trade economy literatures typically posit the consumer electronics sector as the industry prototype of new transnational value chains (Linden et al., 2007;Antrà s, 2015). Apple's iPhone, for example, is wholly designed in the USA. ...
Much of contemporary comparative political–economic thinking about global industrial production accepts the following claims (a) that manufacturing is destined to leave rich political economies for lower wage ones; (b) that global industrial production is hierarchically structured with higher value operations concentrated in the rich countries and intermediate component production distributed across increasingly specialized clusters in emerging political economies; (c) that digital technological advance, automation and massive platform firms are ushering in a new historical regime of capitalism that is generating high rates of inequality and threatens to thoroughly degrade work for less educated and less skilled workers all over the globe. This article argues that these three arguments are deeply flawed because they present only a partial picture of contemporary global industrial dynamics. They exclude from view many concurrent developments that suggest that alternative political and economic practices and trajectories are possible. And they downplay the role that politics and struggle have played and can play in the constitution of the political economy. By deconstructing these three arguments, this article attempts to recover possibility from the constraints of false necessity in thinking about global industrial production dynamics.
... This idea was first articulated (from direct experience) by Stan Shih, the former CEO of Taiwan personal computer maker Acer, as the 'Smiling Curve' which depicts value addition and capture (profits) as being higher at the beginning (high value components) and end (retail) of the value chain and less value added-or at least profit-in the middle (product assembly). This was demonstrated empirically by the research of Linden et al. (2009) with the case of the 30 GB Apple iPod, which estimated that assembly in China contributed only $3.70 of the iPod's $144 factory gate (preshipping wholesale) price, and that the contract manufacturer (Taiwan's Foxconn, operating in Guangdong Province) captured only 11 cents of the estimated $33.37 of gross profit earned by companies contributing to iPod's bill of [physical] materials (BOM). The value added for Foxconn's contract assembly services (component insertion, final assembly, and test) was far below higher-value items in the BOM, such as the central processing chip set (52.5 per cent) and the miniature hard drive made by Japan's Toshiba (26.5 per cent).⁸ ...
Chapter 3 introduces a second dyadic pair of era influences: organizations and technology. Building on Bodrožić and Adler’s ‘The Evolution of Management Models: A Neo- Schumpeterian Theory’ (2017), the chapter traces the evolution of technology and business models over time, along with their spatial organization. The interplay between organizations and technology has profoundly influenced how developing countries have become integrated into the global economy since the late 1980s. The Fordist corporation was transformed through vertical fragmentation and horizontal integration, creating the information and communication technology–enabled network model, organized spatially through global value chains. This model is currently undergoing further transformation as the ‘digital economy’ moves through its revolutionizing and balancing cycles, and as key actors signal a retreat from trade.
... This idea was first articulated (from direct experience) by Stan Shih, the former CEO of Taiwan personal computer maker Acer, as the 'Smiling Curve' which depicts value addition and capture (profits) as being higher at the beginning (high value components) and end (retail) of the value chain and less value added-or at least profit-in the middle (product assembly). This was demonstrated empirically by the research of Linden et al. (2009) with the case of the 30 GB Apple iPod, which estimated that assembly in China contributed only $3.70 of the iPod's $144 factory gate (preshipping wholesale) price, and that the contract manufacturer (Taiwan's Foxconn, operating in Guangdong Province) captured only 11 cents of the estimated $33.37 of gross profit earned by companies contributing to iPod's bill of [physical] materials (BOM). The value added for Foxconn's contract assembly services (component insertion, final assembly, and test) was far below higher-value items in the BOM, such as the central processing chip set (52.5 per cent) and the miniature hard drive made by Japan's Toshiba (26.5 per cent).⁸ ...
Employment and skills are at the heart of economic development and the ‘middle-income trap’. Chapter 6 charts the evolution of ‘standard’ employment, and an expectation that the informal sector would disappear with industrialization. However, not only does the informal sector and informal employment now persist, but ‘nonstandard’ employment has been imported from developed countries, creating new forms of structural dualism. This diminishes the positive feedback loops between technological and economic upgrading on the one hand, and social upgrading or development on the other, intensifying ‘middle-income traps’. Such disjuncture is observed in global value chains, and in specific compressed-developer-country contexts, notably India and China.
... This idea was first articulated (from direct experience) by Stan Shih, the former CEO of Taiwan personal computer maker Acer, as the 'Smiling Curve' which depicts value addition and capture (profits) as being higher at the beginning (high value components) and end (retail) of the value chain and less value added-or at least profit-in the middle (product assembly). This was demonstrated empirically by the research of Linden et al. (2009) with the case of the 30 GB Apple iPod, which estimated that assembly in China contributed only $3.70 of the iPod's $144 factory gate (preshipping wholesale) price, and that the contract manufacturer (Taiwan's Foxconn, operating in Guangdong Province) captured only 11 cents of the estimated $33.37 of gross profit earned by companies contributing to iPod's bill of [physical] materials (BOM). The value added for Foxconn's contract assembly services (component insertion, final assembly, and test) was far below higher-value items in the BOM, such as the central processing chip set (52.5 per cent) and the miniature hard drive made by Japan's Toshiba (26.5 per cent).⁸ ...
Is the developmental state dead, superseded by the liberal or competition state, a servant of markets, or has it evolved to fit changing geopolitical, economic, and technological circumstances? In affirming the latter, we first consider the national level, then extend our scope to consider decentralization, local developmentalism, and multilevel governance. Relatedly, we examine ‘smart cities’ (or ‘fast cities’) in China and India, which embody many of the processes and tensions of compressed development. Finally, we return to the notion of ‘embedded autonomy’ in state–civil society relations. Compression heightens two paradoxes of the developmental state and raises the importance of the state interacting with a wider range of civil society actors, in addition to business, to address its simultaneous challenges.
... There have been many studies on the relationship between trade and the added value of a certain product group in the economy and exports like Barbie doll (Tempest, 1996), the iPod (Linden et al., 2009;Varian, 2007), computers (Kraemer and Dedrick, 2002), or the Nokia N95 (Ali-Yrkkoo, 2010), cars (Baldwin, 2009) or airplanes (Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg, 2008). ...
In recent years, Vietnam has joined international integration by strong export agreements of bilateral and multilateral; Vietnam's merchandise export in 1995 was only US 244 billion. Vietnam's imports increased by 29 times in 2018 compared to 1995. This study is an attempt to test a method of estimating the influence of exports on several Supply-side factors such as production value, value added and imports through the expansion of the standard system W. Leontief I.O and Miyazawa-style economic-demographic relations. This study also tries to make an experiment in the "Leontief Paradox".The result is that Vietnam's export value spread to production and imports but spread low to added value, especially in the processing industry group's fabrication. The study is based on the non-competitive I.O table in 2012 and 2018 with 16 sectors.
... This idea was first articulated (from direct experience) by Stan Shih, the former CEO of Taiwan personal computer maker Acer, as the 'Smiling Curve' which depicts value addition and capture (profits) as being higher at the beginning (high value components) and end (retail) of the value chain and less value added-or at least profit-in the middle (product assembly). This was demonstrated empirically by the research of Linden et al. (2009) with the case of the 30 GB Apple iPod, which estimated that assembly in China contributed only $3.70 of the iPod's $144 factory gate (preshipping wholesale) price, and that the contract manufacturer (Taiwan's Foxconn, operating in Guangdong Province) captured only 11 cents of the estimated $33.37 of gross profit earned by companies contributing to iPod's bill of [physical] materials (BOM). The value added for Foxconn's contract assembly services (component insertion, final assembly, and test) was far below higher-value items in the BOM, such as the central processing chip set (52.5 per cent) and the miniature hard drive made by Japan's Toshiba (26.5 per cent).⁸ ...
This book proposes a new way to approach comparative international development by focusing on time and timing in economic and social development. The UK industrialized over two centuries, and then started to de-industrialize in the late 1960s. Today, the most rapid developers experience aspects of industrialization and de-industrialization simultaneously. It is no longer clear that industrialization offers the path of growth it once did; industrialization has become 'thin.' Demographic and social challenges that earlier developers faced sequentially now come at the same time. Rapid growers experience compression most acutely, but the spatial and temporal fusing of past and present is widespread, affecting high-, middle-, and lower-income countries alike.
Timing refers to the differences in historical periods in which development takes place. The geopolitical, institutional and technological environment for countries recently integrated into the global economy has been vastly different from that of the preceding postwar decades of 'embedded liberalism,' although it does contain echoes of the 'first globalization' and 'first financialization' a century ago. The first era of liberalism did not end well, and the second is similarly foundering on the rocks of nationalism and protectionism, as it is being battered by a global pandemic.
The authors propose an interdisciplinary conceptual framework based on co-evolving state-market and organization-technology dyads, which will help readers make sense of contemporary development across multiple societies, sectors and geographies, and provide a template for historical comparison.
... However, China's contribution to this value, or China's domestic value-added, was only $US4 per unit. The remaining value-added comes from the United States, Japan, Taiwan, and other countries (Linden et al., 2007;and Varian, 2007). ...
This paper applies the decomposition method proposed by Wang et al. (2013), together with the multi-national input-output tables from World Input-Output Database (WIOD) to estimate the value-chain transition in East Asian production network. Specifically, we calculate and examine the domestic value-added absorbed abroad, foreign value-added embodied in country’s gross exports, and vertical specialization measures to explore the relative positions of major East Asian countries in the global production chain over the period of 1995-2011. The analyses are at country-aggregate, country-sector, bilateral-aggregate and bilateral-sector levels. Based on our results, we answer the important question of whether Taiwan and South Korea have used China’s production chains as an intermediary to re-export their products to other countries in the world. Furthermore, we answer the question that over the 1995-2011 periods, have Taiwan and South Korea exploited cheap labor from China to add value to their products before re-exported them to the rest of the world?
... This phase was essential in extending benefits to the ecosystem's peripheral members (Linden, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2009) and created a synergistic impact on the ecosystem's overall performance (Li, 2009;Tan et al., 2015). This shift to co-creation recognises the autonomous contributions of both producers and consumers towards innovation efforts and redefines the division of labour between producers and consumers through their activities (Zwass, 2010). ...
The notion of business ecosystems is gaining prominence among academics and practitioners. Scholars advise that business ecosystems are inherently fluid, unbounded and amorphous and thus that their boundaries can shift. Practitioners further suggest that business ecosystems are characterised by inter‐network – as opposed to inter‐firm – competition, and, moreover, that they are mainly driven by technological advancements. And yet few studies examine the role of information technology (IT) in driving boundary practices that enable the formation and transformation of business ecosystems. Through an in‐depth case study of technology‐enabled transformations within the Korean pop music (K‐pop) industry, our study examines how the digital transformation of business ecosystems unfolded. Our study contributes to the emergent body of knowledge on business ecosystems in a number of ways. Our investigations uncover the conditions under which the constituent firms operate and analyse the role of IT and its implications on new organisational forms. From our analysis, we present a framework that reveals insights on critical boundary practices and formative strategies for digital business ecosystems. We illustrate how these boundary practices drive industry change, from a largely linear content delivery system resembling a value chain to a new value network of co‐specialisation and self‐organisation among firms in a new digital business ecosystem.
... As a result, the "digital divide" could increasingly describe not only the difference between those that are connected to the digital world and those that remain disconnected, or those with "digital readiness skills" and those without them, but also widening inequality within groups and places that are connected. More people and places will be connected to the digital economy, and might benefit from it, but it is entirely possible that the levers of control and the extraction of profits will lie in the hands of only a few, mirroring dynamics in GVCs where lead firms (brands and retailers) have been able to extract more profit than all but the most dominant technology suppliers (Linden, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2009), and where "global suppliers" have in some industries crowded out domestic supplies (Sturgeon & Lester, 2004). ...
Research Summary
Although computerization has been enabling changes in the structure and economic geography of industries for decades, recent public discourse has become focused on a set of “new” advanced digital technologies and technology applications that appear poised to dramatically reduce demand for routine tasks and transform the organization and content of work. How are these changes shaping the strategic options for companies and policy‐makers in less‐developed economies? This paper disentangles the old and new features of the digital economy; distills three key business strategies underpinning its organization: modularity, open innovation, and platforms; and summarizes some of the benefits and risks for society. It explores the strategy and policy options available for firms and policy‐makers in less developed places, with a focus on innovation and market positioning.
Managerial Summary
How is the digital economy shaping strategic options for managers in less‐developed economies? This paper disentangles the old and new features of the digital economy and distills three key business strategies underpinning its organization: modularity, open innovation, and platforms. It then explores strategic options available for firms in less developed places, with a focus on innovation and market positioning. While core platform owners will have the capability and authority to accumulate, access, and analyze large pools of data, access to all of the world's relevant data is not required to speed innovation or carve out new market space in the digital economy. The opportunities may be greatest in industrial applications, where the continued importance of physical systems and industry‐specific domain knowledge drives adaptation and customization.
... As known to all, international business plays an important role in the development of the whole world ing, due to lower cost, particularly cheap labor force [1]. With the development of globalization, international division and global value chains are generated [9]. ...
... For instance, Apple's iPod is a good example for understanding these new trends for obtaining economic value from product innovations. As a product innovation, iPod's success is based on solid foundations in science, math, and engineering knowledge, however, the majority of its value-added comes from Apple's creative marketing as well as business innovations in response to global consumer needs and expectations (Linden et al. 2007). Likewise, Google's success in new product innovation is mostly sourced by its capacity in technology development using science, engineering, and mathematics knowledge, however the market success of these new products becomes possible when consumers evaluate them as having a value worth paying for. ...
From both strategic and technologic perspectives, the Industry 4.0 roadmap visualizes every further step on the route towards an entirely digital enterprise. In order to achieve success in the digital transformation process, it is necessary to prepare the technology roadmap in the most accurate way. The intent of this chapter is to present a technology roadmap for Industry 4.0 transformation to facilitate the planning and implementation process.
... Discussions of the distribution of the gains generated by production networks came to the fore with the publication of studies on which companies/countries captured the value added in the production of the iPod and iPad (Linden, Kraemer, and Dedrick 2007;Kraemer, Linden, and Dedrick 2011;xing and Detert 2011). In the absence of publicly available data on the costs of inputs, these studies inevitably make heroic assumptions. ...
... Using the iPod as an example of global manufacturing, Linden, Kraemer and Dedrick (2007) have estimated that in this product only $ 4 out of the total retail price of $ 299 can be attributed to producers located in China while most of the value accrues to the US, Japan and Korea. The tasks that create high gains include product design, software development, product management, marketing and other high value functions undertaken in the US. ...
Manufacturing and international trade have witnessed a paradigm shift over the past few decades. Firms no longer manufacture and export exclusively final and finished products. Instead of undertaking all the stages of production at one geographical location, firms tend to specialize in specific stages of the production process that can be dispersed geographically. These related tasks combine to create a global value chain (GVC). Baldwin (2006) describes this phenomenon as production being “sliced and diced” into separate fragments that can be spread around the globe. As a result, "international trade takes place at a more granular level rather than at the goods level" (Van Assche, 2012). With the objective of optimizing costs, horizontal and vertical integration of the production process have existed for the last few decades, but GVCs have become more widespread in recent years. Existing literature has mostly focused on the positive impact on developing countries of participation of their firms in global value chains. Growing prominence of GVCs is viewed as having “far-reaching effects on competitiveness, cross national transfer of new technology, ideas, skills, knowledge and learning, and potentially offers greater opportunities for achieving welfare gains” (UNIDO, 2004). However, it is also a reality that global value chains have thrived on the back of many asymmetries; an aspect that has not been analysed in detail in existing literature. Further, there is scant exploration of the role of international trade and investment agreements in creating and deepening the asymmetries. This short paper seeks to identify some of the asymmetries in GVCs, and the role of international trade and investment agreements in deepening them. Subsequent sections of this paper are organised as follows: Section II briefly reviews the literature on definitional aspects of global value chains and discusses some of the factors that explain the rise of global value chains. Thereafter, it discusses some of the policy-related variables that influence the decision of lead firms to locate various activities of a global value chain in specific geographies. Section III summarises two approaches for measuring integration of countries in global value chains. Section IV identifies some of the asymmetries in global value chains and uses case studies from different sectors to illustrate the asymmetry in incomes generated from different value chain activities. Section V provides some reasons why firms from developing countries remain locked-in at the lower end of global value chains. Section VI discusses the role of international trade and investment agreements in creating and deepening some of the asymmetries in global value chains. This provides the context for Section VII, which discusses the narrative emerging on GVCs, particularly suggestions for closer international cooperation for facilitating trade through global value chains. Section VIII concludes the study and provides suggestions for future research on linkages between global value chains and international trade and investment agreements.
... In this context, gross exports data do not depict the real contribution of each country. The iPod example described by Linden et al. (2007) show that in the final stage, the iPod is assembled in China and then exported to the USA as a final product; for China, this 9 transaction is recorded as a gross export of about 150 dollars per iPod but in terms of value added, China's activity represents only few dollars of assembly. The performance of China appears to be less impressive when we take into account value added instead of gross exports. ...
Ma thèse porte sur les chaines de valeurs globales et le commerce international.Les progrès technologiques et la baisse des coûts de communication ont favorisé la fragmentation des processus de production entre différents pays et secteurs et l’expansion des chaines de valeurs globales. Cette nouvelle organisation entraine des modifications majeures au niveau des flux du commerce international et une interdépendance croissante des économies.L’objectif de cette thèse est donc d’étudier l’impact de l’organisation des chaines de valeur globales sur les problématiques du commerce international, que ce soit à l’échelle macroéconomique (avantages comparatifs des pays) ou microéconomique (performance des entreprises).Il s’agit d’une thèse sur travaux, composée de trois chapitres.Le premier chapitre analyse l’organisation d’une chaine de valeur globale à partir des avantages comparatifs. Je montre ainsi que les avantages comparatifs sont différents lorsqu’ils sont mesurés à l’aide de données commerciales en valeur ajoutée par rapport aux données commerciales traditionnelles. Cette nouvelle mesure des avantages comparatifs implique un schéma de spécialisation sectorielle différent dans une chaine de valeur globale. L’identification des facteurs à l’origine des avantages comparatifs dans ce contexte de fragmentation met en évidence le rôle crucial de la qualité institutionnelle, son effet étant plus important que les facteurs traditionnels tels que le travail ou le capital.Les deux derniers chapitres étudient les chaines de valeur globales à travers l’organisation des entreprises dans le secteur aéronautique en France, dans la région Midi-Pyrénées Aquitaine.Le deuxième chapitre évalue l’impact du recours à la sous-traitance sur les performances des entreprises de l’aéronautique, en se basant sur des données d’enquête de l’Insee de 2006 à 2011. J’étudie plus particulièrement l’impact de la localisation de la sous-traitance et je démontre que les entreprises ayant recours à la sous-traitance domestique et internationale affichent, en moyenne, une productivité plus élevée que celles qui ne sous-traitent pas ou sous-traitent uniquement au niveau domestique. L’utilisation de régressions quantiles montre que l’effet est d’autant plus élevé pour les entreprises les moins productives.Enfin, le dernier chapitre étudie l’impact de la crise financière de 2007-2008 sur les entreprises du secteur de l’aéronautique. Je distingue deux types d’entreprises, celles qui produisent des biens différenciés et celles qui produisent des biens standardisés. Les résultats mettent en évidence la plus forte résilience des entreprises produisant des biens standardisés. Cette meilleure résilience s’explique par une plus grande capacité à diversifier leurs marchés en cas de crise, notamment via l’utilisation de logiciels facilitant la sous-traitance et diminuant les coûts de coordination ainsi que leur statut d’exportateur, qui permet d’accéder plus facilement aux marchés internationaux.
... With the exception of individual voices (e.g. Shin et al. 2013, Bhattacharyya and G. 2011, Linden et al. 2009), the material presented by various authors is missing a proposal for analyzing the process of interception of value together with extremely important aspects of the appropriation regimes regarding long-term subsistence competitive advantage by individual partners in logistics networks (Hurmelinna-Laukkanen, Puumalainen 2007). In addition, the problem of bargaining power is most often overlooked (with the exception of, for example, Roson and Hubert 2015) which is one of the important elements of the market analysis under coopetition. ...
The article presents the necessity of introducing modern systems for analyzing value flows in modern logistics networks. The essence of logistic networks and requirements for analytical systems have been presented. The main available approaches to analyzing value flows in the network have been identified: e3-value modeling, c3-value modeling framework, Value Network Analysis TM , SimulValor, Modified SimulValor. These approaches (called models) were subjected to a critical analysis on the basis of which the basic directions of their development were indicated.
... This work was supported by the European Commission [FP7 project CECILIA2050, grant number 308680]. 14 The prominent example of such value capture is the iPod [81], where value added to the product through assembly in China is probably a few dollars at most. ...
Pioneering domestic environmental regulation may foster the creation of new eco-industries. These industries could benefit from a competitive advantage in the global market place. This article examines empirical evidence of the impact of domestic renewable energy policies on the export performance of renewable energy products (wind and solar PV). We use a gravity model of international trade with a balanced dataset of 49 (for wind) and 40 (for PV) countries covering the period 1995–2013. The stringency of renewable energy policies is proxied by installed capacities. Our econometric model shows evidence of competitive advantage positively correlated with domestic renewable energy policies, sustained in the wind industry but brief in the solar PV industry. We suggest that the reason for the dynamic difference lies in the underlying technologies involved in the two industries.
... For instance, Apple's iPod is a good example for understanding these new trends for obtaining economic value from product innovations. As a product innovation, iPod's success is based on solid foundations in science, math, and engineering knowledge, however, the majority of its value-added comes from Apple's creative marketing as well as business innovations in response to global consumer needs and expectations (Linden et al. 2007). Likewise, Google's success in new product innovation is mostly sourced by its capacity in technology development using science, engineering, and mathematics knowledge, however the market success of these new products becomes possible when consumers evaluate them as having a value worth paying for. ...
Companies that transform their businesses and operations regarding to Industry 4.0 principles face complex processes and high budgets due to dependent technologies that effect process inputs and outputs. In addition, since Industry 4.0 transformation creates a change in a business manner and value proposition, it becomes highly important concept that requires support of top management for the projects and investments. Therefore, it requires a broad perspective on the company’s strategy, organization, operations and products. So, the maturity model is suitable for companies planning to transform their businesses and operations for Industry 4.0. It is a very important technique for Industry 4.0 in terms of companies seeking for assessing their processes, products and organizations and understanding their maturity level. In this chapter, existing maturity models for Industry 4.0 transformation are reviewed and a new Industry 4.0 maturity model is proposed.
... For example, only $4 out of the $299 retail price of an Apple iPod goes to China(Linden et al. 2007). ...
... For the fifth iPod generation the most valued components are contributed by the firms that are headquartered in Japan (Toshiba, supplying the hard drive), Korea (Samsung Electronics, supplying the flash memory), and the United States (Broadcom Corporation, supplying the multimedia processor). All these components have been in turn manufactured in other countries: China (hard drive), Singapore or Taiwan (media processor), Korea (memory) (Linden, Kraemer & Dedrick, 2007). This fact illustrates competitive advantages of R&D, as well as of production costs. ...
The article deals with global experience in analysing the priorities based on their importance for country development and on national and international criteria using algorithm for the selection process. The main aspects of the process of development and implementation of international technology strategies were considered. The authors prove that through the analysis of innovation systems at macro level decision about the priorities in optimization with the aim to improve regulations in science, technology and innovation is provided. The main techniques and decisions were considered based on foresight-studies. Authors propose to create informative and analytical system for the foresight aims.
... Because of lower coordination and transportation costs, the final products can be marketed anywhere in the world with sufficient guarantees of quality to make them globally competitive (Sturgeon and Gereffi, 2009). So, for example, Korean flat panel display firms contract with Japanese and US glass firms to supply them with specialized glass for displays (Murtha et al., 2001), and Taiwanese assembly firms such as Foxconn help Apple to assemble iPods in Taiwan (Linden et al., 2009) and iPhones in China. ...
... Na moderna divisão internacional do trabalho, os países do grupo 2 se especializaram, principalmente, em etapas mais complexas da cadeia de valor, deslocando a maior parte das etapas intensivas em mão de obra para países de baixos custos médios. Como consequência dessas estratégias empresariais, os países deste grupo tornaram-se deficitários no comércio de alta tecnologia (LINDEN; DEDRICK, 2007). ...
This paper aims to build and discuss a typology of national high tech industries according
to technology intensity and international trade. To fundament the analyze it was used the
production fragmentation concept. It was made a matrix of countries according to their
position in the two selected indicators. As a result it was found four types of countries: (i)
surplus technology leaders; (ii) deficit technology leaders; (iii) surplus technology followers
and (iv) deficit technology followers. The paper concludes that the traditional theories about
international commerce cannot explain the matrix as a whole. To do so, it is necessary to use
the production fragmentation concept that is a new concept in the global value chain theory
... It is also a comprehensive framework that covers all sectors of the economy and captures the increasing complexity of the value chain due to outsourcing. A classic example of this phenomenon is Apple's iPod (Linden et al., 2007). China exports iPods to the US for $150. ...
... The first is developed by the literature on specific high-tech products that are manufactured in global production chains. Examples of papers that explicitly mention global innovation systems are an investigation on the flat-panel display industry (Spencer 2003) and on Apple's iPod (Linden et al. 2007). The second approach to the concept of global innovation systems is through attempts to deal with " world-level challenge, " such as climate change: Cozzens and Catal?n (2008, p. 3) review the literature on diverse levels of innovation systems (national, regional, and sectoral) and suggest a new variety ? ...
Russia and the Baltic States have a long-standing relationship of industrial specialisation, cooperation, division of labour and trade exchange, all dating back to the Soviet Union. Today, this relationship is facing a tough test amid political and ideological challenges and risks. The last two years have seen a profound and large-scale crisis caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the production linkages between Russia and the Baltic States have adapted in response to the existing problems, remaining resistant to the geopolitical and pandemic shocks. This article examines the production linkages between Russia and the Baltic countries, investigating the export-import flows of consumer and intermediate goods in 2003—2020. A comparative study of the Baltic States’ production linkages with Russia and their main partners in the EU — Germany and Finland — is carried out. It is concluded that, before the introduction of sanctions in 2014 and the world trade crisis of 2015—2016, Russia was a more promising market than Germany and Finland for the Baltic States’ companies trading in intermediate goods.
This paper presents a database with USPTO patents for selected years between 1991 and 2009, totaling 1,022,490 patents, 786,780 patents with international citations and 4,064,995 cross-border citations - links in our analysis. We evaluate a network from those international links, with nodes that are institutions - patent assignees. The literature review organizes arguments for patent citations as knowledge flows and acknowledges problems such as differences between applicants and examiners citations - an exercise to deal with this problem is presented. This network has firms as the dominant institution. An inter-temporal analysis shows the network growth over time and the preservation of its scale-free structure, evidence of its resilience. Over time, this network evolves, changing the leading sectors in a matrix of interaction between citing and cited patents - indications of changes caused by the emergence of new sectors.
This paper examines how EU‐China trade affected intra‐EU trade. The estimation shows that when a country's share of trade with China increased, its share of trade with EU partners declined. This suggests that stronger trade links with China resulted in weaker trade links among EU countries. Furthermore, the “disintegration” effect of the export to China was stronger than that of import from China, meaning that the influence of China as an export destination was greater than that of China as a source of import. An extended analysis shows that the disintegration effect was most strongly felt in trade links among EU core countries, less strongly felt in trade links between EU core and periphery countries, and least strongly felt in trade links among EU periphery countries. In comparison, we find that EU import from the United States and India significantly weakened and strengthened intra‐EU trade, respectively. Estimation results using product level data demonstrate that the effects depend on the types of products we are concerned with. Whether using gross value or value added, the conclusions remain valid.
skriptá k predmetu Medzinárodný obchod
In the neoliberal era, GDP has departed further than ever from being a measure of domestic production, magnifying the “GDP illusion.” This illusion occurs not so much in the data themselves, but in their interpretation, which, in line with the fallacious premises of the ruling economic doctrine, assumes that economic actors (individual citizens, or individual countries in the global community) consume only what they produce and produce only what they consume—as in a Financial Times editorial which stated that “the richest fifth of the world’s population generates—and enjoys—85 percent of world output. The poorest fifth produces—and struggles to survive on¬—just 1.4%.”
Correcting for the GDP illusion gives us a more accurate and more objective picture of the global economy, in which capitalists and consumers in Europe, North America and Japan are revealed to be appropriators and consumers of wealth produced by workers and small producers in the nations of the Global South. A picture, in other words, of the emergent, fully evolved form of capitalism’s imperialist stage of development.
It is vital to calculate Chinese provinces’ exports in domestic and global value chains from the perspective of value-added to address the problem of double counting. In this study, we calculated the direct and indirect domestic value-added in exports of 30 Chinese provinces using cross-border and cross-regional input–output tables in 2007 and 2012. We analysed the drivers of export value-added based on structural decomposition analysis. The results show that there is a value-added spatial imbalance in trade development. The export value-added of eastern provinces is significantly higher than that of central and western provinces, but this imbalance is gradually improving. The domestic value chain is the main channel for each province to realize export value-added, and the province production channels account for the highest proportion in this chain. The export value-added through international production channels is relatively small but growing in importance. The structural analysis shows that the increase of Chinese provinces’ export value-added is mainly caused by an increase of export scale and the provincial multiplier effect, while the value-added ratio of Chinese provinces has the main restraining effect. The spillover effect from industrial cooperation between provinces and other economies also increases the domestic value-added of exports.
I analysed Vietnam's economic development and focused on manufacturing in the north as development trajectory. The main method was conducting interviews with different stakeholders such as managers from multinational corporations and SMEs, representatives from trade unions, different ministries, NGOs and business associations. Main research questions were:
- How do firms' investment and manufacturing strategies shape the production network around Hanoi? How do they affect the development of the industry in terms of technology diffusion and linkages with local industries?
- How is technology diffusion and linkages with the local industry promoted by the government, international organisations, international lending organisations, business associations and other relevant actors? How do these promotion activities contribute to economic upgrading? How do these activities shape Vietnam's economic development trajectory?
p> RESUMEN
Las cadenas globales de valor son uno de los elementos más paradigmáticos de la transformación del comercio y la inversión internacional. La industria electrónica es un caso representativo de una actividad integrada globalmente que ha configurado un ecosistema de complejidad creciente. Utilizando una aproximación basada en el uso de las tablas input-output se infiere la naturaleza de los cambios experimentados en la organización internacional de la producción, atendiendo a la distribución geográfica y factorial del valor generado en cada una de las fases productivas por cada uno de los países participantes en la cadena de producción. Por un lado, se confirma que el grado de fragmentación productiva ha aumentado crecientemente, al tiempo que el nodo de Asia oriental se reestructura alrededor de China y se configura como el principal generador de valor en el sector, con una interacción creciente a escala global. Finalmente, se pone de manifiesto un proceso de intensa sustitución factorial en favor del capital y el trabajo más cualificado.
THE GLOBAL VALUE CHAIN IN THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
ABSTRACT
Global value chains are one of the most paradigmatic elements of the transformation of international trade and investment. The electronics industry is a characteristic example of a globally integrated activity that has shaped an ecosystem of increasing complexity. Using a methodology based on input-output tables, we infer the essence of the changes experienced in the international organization of production, taking into account the geographical and factorial distribution of the value generated by each member in every stage of the production and distribution processes. On the one hand, it is confirmed that the degree of outsourcing has increased. On the other, that the East Asian pole organized around China has become the main source of value for the industry, with an increasing interaction on a global scale. Finally, it reveals a process of intense factorial substitution in favour of capital and high-skilled labour.</p
Not only has the division of labor system in global value chains developed extensively between countries, but it also has spread into individual countries in the form of domestic value chains. This is particularly significant in the case of China that is vast in territory and rich in natural resources with great regional differences. This chapter creates a global input-output table that covers subregions, and on this basis, develops the breakdown method for value-added exports and total export value added, and offers an empirical analysis of the roles that different regions of China played in global value chains as well as changes in 1997, 2002 and 2007. Research findings show that: (1) Trade in value added varied widely from region to region in China. In traditional statistics on trade in gross value, trade surpluses of regions were overestimated, and there even were phenomena that some regions had a trade surplus in gross-value terms but a trade deficit in value-added terms. (2) The Chinese inland regions achieved the value-added export directly by offering intermediate products to the coastal regions. Traditional statistics on trade in gross value generally overrated the coastal regions and underrated the inland regions in terms of their contributions to foreign trade. (3) Following China’s accession to the WTO, regions all over the country had a fast-increasing degree of vertical specialization, with the coastal regions outperforming the inland ones in this respect. But there were different structural factors responsible for rising vertical specialization. For the inland regions, it was largely because of increased connection with other regions in terms of vertical specialization, and in the case of the coastal regions, it was with other countries in the world.
В статье рассматривается влияние участия компаний в глобальных цепочках создания стоимости на экономическое развитие страны. На основе анализа научной литературы по тематике глобальных цепочек стоимости (ГЦС) формулируются условия повышения положительного воздействия ГЦС на экономику, сравнивается влияние ГЦС на развивающиеся и развитые экономики
Estonian Sea Inspectorate (ESI) has the responsibility of the collection and processing of data from off-shore fisheries in the Baltic Sea (vessels fishing beyond 20 meter depth line). County governments have the responsibility for collecting and processing data from coastal and inland water fisheries and also for data concerning recreational fishing.
In today’s global environment, sustainability and competitive advantage of companies depend mostly on their capability of adaptation to changing business requirements. The Fourth Industrial Revolution, driving from the advancements in new digital technologies known collectively as Industry 4.0, has been profoundly changing dynamics of most industries. Automation of business processes together with emergence of novel business models impose new digital skill requirements for workforce. Creating future workforce involves not only attracting and developing new talent needed, but also re-skilling current employees through training programs as well as re-designing work processes for reducing the skill mismatch between jobs and employees. This chapter examines how Industry 4.0 will alter the landscape for talent development.
A última taxa de inovação extraída a partir da Pesquisa de Inovação (PINTEC), elaborada pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), foi de 35,7% para o conjunto das empresas industriais e de serviços brasileiras. Por isso, tem-se afirmado por veículos de informação, especializados ou não, que pouco mais de um terço das empresas brasileiras são inovadoras. Este artigo, contudo, procura demonstrar que tal taxa não é adequada para uma análise econômica sob preceitos teóricos neoschumpeterianos, base das modernas políticas industriais e tecnológicas. Para encontrar as firmas portadoras da mudança técnica é preciso captar o comportamento das mesmas frente ao mercado em que atuam, e não apenas frente ao seu comportamento passado. As modernas políticas industriais, muitas das quais em curso no Brasil, possuem um claro viés neoschumpeteriano, no qual muita ênfase é posta na competitividade via desenvolvimento tecnológico e inovação. Nada mais lógico, portanto, considerar essa visão quando da escolha e emprego de indicadores necessários à observação da dinâmica econômica nacional. A taxa de inovação é extraída a partir das respostas individuais das firmas ao questionário da PINTEC. Quatro respostas a ele são usadas para formar um indicador denominado pelo IBGE de " empresas que implementaram inovações de produto e/ou processo entre 2009 e 2011 ". Tradicionalmente, especialistas (no qual se inclui o autor) têm usado este indicador enquanto numerador da taxa de inovação. Isto é, o número resultante é dividido por outro indicador, " total de empresas " , e o resultado é apresentado em percentual deste total como sendo a taxa de inovação. O problema consiste no fato de que o numerador (" empresas que implementaram inovações de produto e/ou processo entre 2009 e 2011 ") não é adequado para uma análise da dinâmica inovativa frente às teorizações mais usuais em economia da tecnologia. Não obstante é possível, a partir da própria PINTEC, empregar outro numerador mais adequado a estas teorizações. A questão central reside no fato de que, atualmente, o numerador " empresas que implementaram inovações de produto e/ou processo entre 2009 e 2011 " inclui empresas que introduziram novos produtos e/ou processos que já eram conhecidos no mercado e, por isso, não geraram, necessariamente, diferenciação frente aos concorrentes. Obviamente, mudar o portfólio de produtos e/ou introduzir novos processos é relevante na estratégia da firma. Acontece, pois, que se essas mudanças não trouxerem coisas inéditas ao mercado, a firma estará apenas reproduzindo o comportamento já conhecido e erodindo, pouco a pouco, o lucro das inovadoras. Não serão elas as portadoras da mudança, elemento central para a compreensão da dinâmica inovativa, segundo a escola neoschumpeteriana. Para se ter um indicador mais adequado aos preceitos teóricos neoshumpeterianos, é preciso excluir aquelas empresas que não introduziram novidade no mercado em que atuam para, então, se ter uma noção das empresas inovadoras segundo essa escola do pensamento. Dessa forma, este artigo analisa a compatibilidade da taxa de inovação com os preceitos teóricos da escola neoschumpeteriana da mudança técnica. Para tanto, o trabalho encontra-se dividido em cinco seções, além desta introdução. A seção 2 apresenta o contexto geral de emprego da taxa de inovação, destacando seu uso pela imprensa não especializada. Na seção 3 discute-se a natureza do processo inovativo e o significado do termo " firma inovadora " segundo a escola neoschumpeteriana. A seção 4 detalha o método de extração da taxa de inovação. A seção 5 apresenta a já conhecida taxa de inovação para o mercado nacional, a qual se argumenta ser mais adequada à uma análise neoschumpeteriana da inovação. Por fim, na seção 6 são tecidas as considerações finais.
This paper uses the case of contract manufacturing in the electronics industry to illustrate an emergent American model of industrial organization, the modular production network. Lead firms in the modular production network concentrate on the creation, penetration and defense of markets for end products--and increasingly the provision of services to go with them--while manufacturing capacity is shifted out-of-house to globally operating turn-key suppliers. The modular production network relies on codified inter-firm links and the generic manufacturing capacity residing in turn-key suppliers to reduce transaction costs, build large external economies of scale and reduce risk for network actors. I test the modular production network model against some of the key theoretical tools that have been developed to predict and explain industry structure: Joseph Schumpeter's notion of innovation in the giant firm; Alfred Chandler's ideas about economies of speed and the rise of the modern corporation; Oliver Williamson's transaction cost framework; and a range of other production network models that appear in the literature. I argue that the modular production network yields better economic performance in the context of globalization than more spatially and socially embedded network models. I view the emergence of the modular production network as part of a historical process of industrial transformation in which nationally specific models of industrial organization co-evolve in intensifying rounds of competition, diffusion and adaptation. Copyright 2002, Oxford University Press.
China is now the world's largest computer hardware producer and, as a study of notebook PC companies reveals, is beginning to pull knowledge work along with production to its key manufacturing centers. This trend has major implications for employment and competition in large-scale industries both in the US and abroad.
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Note: different editions of the book use different chapter orders (applying the iPod's "shuffle" principle) so footnoted citations refer only to chapter names
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