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Compensation for environmental services from artisanal fisheries in SE Brazil: Policy and technical strategies
Abstract
Artisanal fisheries are of great importance in Brazil, as they are responsible for more than 50% of national fish production. This importance, associated with the necessity of conserving marine environments threatened by multiple competing uses, leads us to propose mechanisms for co-management of fisheries by users and public authorities. This proposal takes into account: a) local conflicts between artisanal and industrial fishers; b) local rules over the use of fishing areas established by artisanal fishers; c) the advent of protected areas that close access to some fishing areas used by artisanal fisheries; and d) co-management options being explored between government and fishers. This study suggests policy and technical alternatives under consideration to manage the artisanal fisheries of southeastern Brazil with a focus on Ilha Grande bay in Rio de Janeiro. In our case study, based on field research conducted in 2009, we show that artisanal fishers are squeezed into a marine space between protected areas and industrial fishing. We suggest that a combination of fishing agreements (FAs), based on experience in Amazonian fisheries and extractive reserves, and payment for environmental services (PES), based on forest and related water resource experience, could improve management and livelihoods for local artisanal fisheries by stimulating and rewarding fishers who participate in conservation efforts. The two instruments (FAs and PES) are the subject of considerable research and practical experience. Their integration in an instrument mix represents a contribution from transdisciplinary fields of human ecology and ecological economics.
... Research on fishery sustainability relates scarcity to a social issue of resource management (Armitage et al., 2017(Armitage et al., , 2007Camus Gayan and Hidalgo Dattwyler, 2017;Camus et al., 2016;Kooiman and Bavinck, 2005;Olson, 2011), overexploitation and ocean grabbing of fishing by big industry and, to a lesser extent, by small-scale fishing using techniques similar to monospecies extraction from the fishing industry (Beitl, 2015;Bennett et al., 2015), and focusing on unequal extraction power (Bennett et al., 2015). Complementary studies based on governance of the commons in fisheries address the problems by advocating the development of collaborative-participatory management and comanagement among different public and private actors (Begossi et al., 2011;Trimble and Berkes, 2013), with an emphasis on regulating resource extraction as a way of dealing with the power asymmetry of those with greater extractive technology (Acheson, 2018). Management practices like Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) have enabled the impacts on overexploitation to be managed by means of associations and incentives for protected extraction, and have allowed the species and life of the ecosystems to be conserved (Bladon et al., 2016). ...
... Management practices like Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) have enabled the impacts on overexploitation to be managed by means of associations and incentives for protected extraction, and have allowed the species and life of the ecosystems to be conserved (Bladon et al., 2016). In this debate, artisanal activity is identified as important in contributing to feeding the population and balancing the species' reproductive cycles (Kooiman and Bavinck, 2005), as well as being a potential alternative approach to neoliberal resource management, with both positive (Beitl, 2015;Mackenzie, 2001;Ocampo, 2017) and negative results (Begossi et al., 2011). ...
... Co-management (Begossi et al., 2011) as an alternative fisheries practice has incorporated the participation of a wide range of local actors into its approach; however, it has been unable to deal seriously with the socioecological fishing crisis, given that although it does articulate the creation of interesting projects to reactivate traditional fishing through conservation, tourism or protected areas, in practice they seldom take root and achieve generational continuity. It clashes with dynamics of fishery dispossession (Malm and Esmailian, 2012), especially in the global South. ...
The relationship between the exploitation and scarcity of fishery resources is a complex phenomenon that has been broadly examined by studies on fishing sustainability, the governance of the commons and ecology. This study furthers this line of inquiry using a systemic coevolutionary approach that enables the time perspective to be used to examine the negative effects on artisanal fishing. Through a qualitative methodology, document analysis and ethnographic approach, the research into the coevolution of artisanal fishing in Chile enables us to identify how the negative effects on the fishing communities are the outcome of the gradual increase in the decoupling of local socioecological systems which started in the mid-twentieth century and accelerated within the context of neoliberal capitalism. In this process, the value systems, knowledge, organisation, environment and technology change their ability to integrate with each other, leading to mismatches via successive multiple feedback incidents. From a temporal coupling-decoupling vantage point, a path of analysis opens up to understand the negative effects of the capitalist economic development in traditional fishing communities in the global South.
... Payment for ecosystem services (PES) is another example of market-based conservation instruments that in marine resources but not yet fully applied (Begossi et al., 2011) and is still being developed for marine and freshwater environments (Lopes et al., 2019). This could provide incentives to adopt a more environment-friendly fish farming or fisheries system or penalize violators. ...
... The dives fees are used for conservation efforts and supporting small-scale fishers' livelihood diversification during the closed fishing season. The payment for ecosystem scheme is also implemented in other important international fishing grounds such as in SE Brazil artisanal fisheries (Begossi et al., 2011). However, corruption and bureaucracy including equitable and timely distribution of conservation funds to the affected stakeholders could affect the full implementation and success of the PES in certain areas (Begossi et al., 2011;Muradian et al., 2013). ...
... The payment for ecosystem scheme is also implemented in other important international fishing grounds such as in SE Brazil artisanal fisheries (Begossi et al., 2011). However, corruption and bureaucracy including equitable and timely distribution of conservation funds to the affected stakeholders could affect the full implementation and success of the PES in certain areas (Begossi et al., 2011;Muradian et al., 2013). For example, compensatory salary received even after the closed season has passed leading fishers to go fishing even with the risk of being caught (Karper and Lopes, 2014). ...
This thesis is focused on understanding human-environment interactions that drive a system into a social-ecological trap, a persistently unsustainable and undesirable social-ecological system. Recent research on social-ecological traps points to some gaps in the conceptualisation and analysis of these resilient yet pathological social-ecological systems. A more social-ecological conceptualisation of a social-ecological trap, which includes path dependence, human agency and external factors apart from the basic normative dimensions commonly invoked of social-ecological traps, was integrated in this research. This thesis is informed by the literature of social-ecological resilience, human ecology and systems thinking. Using complementary frameworks and approaches from each literature provides a more holistic and integrative analysis of social-ecological traps. The thesis aimed to investigate the links between and among ecosystem health, cultural paradigms, human wellbeing and institutions that keep a social-ecological system in an unsustainable and undesirable development path. The specific research questions are as follows: (1) Can the small-scale fisheries in the Philippines be characterised as being caught in a social-ecological trap? (2) What are the characteristics and structure of the social-ecological trap in these fisheries? (3) What are the factors that drive small-scale fishery systems in the Philippines into a social-ecological trap? (4) What are the interventions that could help move the small-scale fishery systems from a social-ecological trap into a sustainable and desirable system? This is a place-based research of selected small-scale fisheries in the Philippines. These critically valuable fishery areas include small-scale fish farming in an inland riverine system, north of Manila; small-scale capture fisheries in Northern Mindanao; and mariculture parks, also in Northern Mindanao, Philippines. Small-scale fisheries in the Philippines contribute to the domestic as well as regional fish production important for food security, sustainable livelihoods and wellbeing of these smallholder fishers and fish farmers. To the best of my knowledge, this research is also the first time that the concept of a social-ecological trap is applied in the Philippines small-scale fisheries. The research followed a case study and integrative research approaches utilising participatory mixed research methods. Data collection included 76 semi-structured interviews, 3 focus groups and 217 household surveys. Research participants included the small-scale fishers and fish farmers, government representatives from various levels, and civil society members concerned with fisheries in the areas. The thesis is divided into four (4) sections. The first section focuses on context setting, followed by the results section, which focuses on the case studies. The third section highlights the current and proposed recommendations to escape the net of social-ecological traps. The last section highlights the research synthesis; key findings; and recommendations in terms of research, practice and policy. This thesis provides theoretical and practical contributions to the literature on social-ecological traps. In spite of the burgeoning research on social-ecological traps, integrating a more social-ecological description of traps also highlights the roles of the temporal, scalar (external and endogenous) and human agentic responses in reinforcing or dampening trap dynamics. The dominant 'productionist' paradigm of modern agro-food systems was found to be a critical reinforcing force in the social-ecological trap process. Aside from unpacking these critical dynamics and factors of social-ecological traps, this thesis moves forward and proposes potential leverage points to break free from the trap's dynamics.
... In small-scale fisheries in Brazil, categories of conflicts include top-down processes in the implementation of MPAs [117], restriction on the uses of marine areas, with no consultation or participation of fishers (such as in the islands of Paraty bay, Rio de Janeiro [118]), and rejections by fishers of attempts in implementing extractive reserves by the governement, such as at Itaipu, Niteroi [119]. Recently, governmental agents took down the houses of local indigenous inhabitants, called Caiçaras, at the Ecological Station of Juréia-Itatins, at São Paulo (newspaper Folha de São Paulo, July 7, 2019). ...
... Government power represents most MPAs in Brazil, also because fishers in Brazil are poor, mostly illiterate or with low literacy, resulting in a state of disempowerment. Economic incentives could gain support of stakeholders and fishers in the establishment of MPAs [124]; suggestions for these incentives in Brazil were published [118]. Important to observe that grassroots movements, such as fishing agreements in the Amazon, have been more successful rather than imposed government reserves [117]. ...
... Efforts to elaborate zoning to include reefs and islands could be undertaken. Fishers could help in the surveillance of these islands [118]. ...
Background:
Groupers are a vulnerable but economically important group of fish, especially for small-scale fisheries. We investigated catches and local ecological knowledge (LEK) of diet, habitat, and past fishing experiences.
Methods:
Landings, prices, interviews, and restaurants demand for two species, Epinephelus marginatus (dusky grouper) and Epinephelus morio (red grouper), were registered.
Results:
We visited 74 markets and 79 sites on the coast of Brazil in 2017-2018, and we interviewed 71 fishers: Bahia (NE), Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo (SE), and Santa Catarina (S). The landings sampled of dusky grouper (2016-2017) in Rio de Janeiro were: n = 222, size 38-109 cm, weight 1-24 kg, average 3.84 kg; in São Paulo, São Sebastião were: n = 47, size 39-106 cm, weight 2-8 kg, average of 2.77 kg; and at Santos: n = 80, 26-120 cm, weight 0.36-15 kg, average 2.72 kg. Red grouper was observed in markets in the northeastern Brazil. We did not observe Epinephelus marginatus from Bahia northward; a maximum size of 200 cm was reported south of the Bahia, besides Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo coasts, 20 years ago (or longer) by 12 fishers. Local knowledge of fishers was important for grouper data of habitat and diet; the reproduction period was identified by fishers as September to March.
Conclusions:
Groupers can be considered as a cultural and ecological keystone species. We suggest protective measures: 1) fishing zoning, 2) islands (MPAs) with the surveillance of fishers, 3) late Spring and early Summer as key periods for management (grouper reproduction), 4) studies on grouper larvae, 5) mapping of fishing spots, 6) studies on local knowledge. Collaboration with small-scale fishers and local knowledge could contribute to low-conflict management measures. In that regard, integrative models of management from Latin America, by using local knowledge and citizen science, could produce successful grouper management for Brazilian data-poor fisheries, a contrasting reality to the Mediterranean areas. Finally, the distribution of E. marginatus in Brazil leave us with questions: a) Have dusky groupers disappeared from Bahia because of a decline in the population? b) Was it uncommon in Northeast Brazil? c) Did changes in water temperatures forced a movement southward?
... Conflicts involving the unequal application of restrictions between different actors or activities Jimenez, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx in protected areas are also observed in other regions (Bavinck and Vivekanandan, 2011;Begossi et al., 2011;Camargo et al., 2009;Majanen, 2007). In different places in Brazil, fishers faces the significant loss of fishing territories due to the creation of NTZs, competition with industrial fishing, and other uses of the marine and coastal space (Begossi et al., 2011;Prestrelo and Vianna, 2016). ...
... Ocean and Coastal Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx in protected areas are also observed in other regions (Bavinck and Vivekanandan, 2011;Begossi et al., 2011;Camargo et al., 2009;Majanen, 2007). In different places in Brazil, fishers faces the significant loss of fishing territories due to the creation of NTZs, competition with industrial fishing, and other uses of the marine and coastal space (Begossi et al., 2011;Prestrelo and Vianna, 2016). This phenomenon was also observed in the study area, where local fishers are cornered between NTZs and outsiders working in larger and better equipped boats. ...
... Due to this centralized and top-down approach, the creation of NTZs has culminated in conflicts related to the prohibition of access to natural resources and the expropriation of resident populations. This scenario has been observed in different regions of Brazil (Almudi and Kalikoski, 2010;Begossi et al., 2011;Leal, 2013), as well as other developing countries (Bennett and Dearden, 2014;Camargo et al., 2009;De Pourcq et al., 2015;Majanen, 2007). ...
The perceptions and knowledge of fishers are very important for fisheries management, especially in data-poor regions such as the Amazon coast of Brazil. Here, the perceptions of fishers were used to analyze the main conflicts faced by small-scale fisheries and to identify the status of fishery resources in the state of Amapá (Brazil). Data from interviews with 359 fishers were analyzed. Conflicts involve diverse actors with different and potentially competing interests and accountabilities, including small-scale and large-scale fishers, intermediaries, and government agents. The main conflict was related to access to fishery resources, including issues with the prohibition of fishing in No-Take Zones and competition with fishing fleets from other regions (outsiders). The lack of control over the access of users has culminated in increasing fishing effort. The invasion of traditional fishing territories was a central argument against the outsiders; however, these conflicts are also strongly related to the exhaustion of fishery resources, with about 75% of respondents perceiving a decrease in fish abundance. This scenario reveals a governance crisis and the weak performance and inability of the government to carry out effective enforcement, monitoring, and surveillance. The presence of people heavily reliant on natural resources in a region with very few alternative sources for livelihoods indicates that sustainable
fisheries management requires wider cooperation between the government and all stakeholders, with co-management being required.
... has been stated over and again (Baylis et al., 2016;Börner et al., 2017;Muradian et al., 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2011) and, drawing on insights from the literature on institutional 'interplay' (e.g. Berkes, 2002;Young, 2002aYoung, , 2002b, some of empirical studies have studied PES' interplay with other environmental policies and regulation (Barton et al., 2013;Begossi et al., 2011;Ring and Schröter-Schlaack, 2011;Sverdrup-Thygeson et al., 2014). Yet, the potential interactions of PES with socioeconomic policies have only been theorised (Persson and Alpízar, 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2011;Wong, 2014). ...
... Despite being emphasised over and again as an important area of enquiry, the topic of policy interactions with PES has been largely neglected in the literature (Barton et al., 2013;Baylis et al., 2016;Börner et al., 2017;Muradian et al., 2013;Rodríguez et al., 2011). A handful of empirical studies have examined how the environmental performance of PES may be shaped by their interplay with other environmental protection policies and environmental regulation (Barton et al., 2013;Begossi et al., 2011;Ring and Schröter-Schlaack, 2011;Robalino et al., 2015;Sverdrup-Thygeson et al., 2014). Yet, the potential and actual interactions between PES and other socioeconomic policies with which they may frequently operate together have not been empirically examined. ...
... The literature on policy interactions suggests different types of association between policies operating in the same geographic area (e.g. Barton et al., 2013;Begossi et al., 2011;Grosh et al., 2008;Klassert and Möckel, 2013;Ring and Schröter-Schlaack, 2011;Robalino et al., 2015;Sverdrup-Thygeson et al., 2014). ...
Payments for Environmental Services (PES) emerged as a popular forest conservation policy across the Global South since the 1990s, first in Latin America and then elsewhere. PES aim to reduce deforestation and degradation by providing payments to participants conditional on forest protection. PES attracted much attention among policy-makers as a potentially cost-effective and efficient conservation alternative, and for their poverty-alleviation prospects when operating among ‘poor’ forest-dwellers. This rising agenda has been accompanied by significant scholarly efforts to understand PES and their socioenvironmental effects. However, such understandings have overlooked local stakeholder perspectives, and evaluations have mostly examined short-term effects. Thus, less is known about PES’ long-term effects, their determinants, and how local stakeholders perceive them.
Using a multidisciplinary, multi-level, and dynamic livelihood approach combining geospatial and socioeconomic data collected from 2013-2017, this thesis helps to fill this gap by examining PES’ role in the broader livelihood strategies of six communities in the Mexican Lacandona Rainforest. The thesis makes three main contributions to PES literature. Methodologically, it presents a novel lens to understand PES effects, one that brings to the fore the voice of local stakeholders, while paying attention to evolving context and design aspects. Empirically, it shows that participants think about their livelihoods at broader temporal and spatial scales than short-term policies, which allows them to exert some control on the various policies they encounter. This longer-term thinking is reflected in the three analytical chapters in this thesis that examine how people engage with PES among other land uses, how communities devise payment distribution mechanisms, and how people combine multiple policies to pursue various goals. Conceptually, it shows that unless aspects of ‘context’, ‘design’, and ‘decision-making’ are examined simultaneously, PES’ manifold, multi-level, and evolving effects will not be sufficiently understood. Overall, the thesis shows that there are real implications for conceptualising rural development policy as an integrated ‘policy matrix’, instead of individual and self-contained policies.
... La cogestión como una expresión de sostenibilidad pesquera, en donde los actores implicados participan en el diseño y ejecución de los planes, ha dado lugar a mejores resultados respecto a procesos de gestión pesquera focalizado sobre los recursos biológicos (Armitage et al. 2007, Begossi et al. 2011, Kooiman et.al 2005. Sin embargo, la cogestión también presenta deficiencias de fondo. ...
... al 2010). La falta de consensos,en ocasiones, derivan en conflictos en el interior de las organización al percibirse el proceso participativo como una iniciativa externa que se instala con diversas prácticas ambiguas respecto a quién se beneficia (Begossi et al. 2011), o incluso con prácticas corruptas como las identificadas en Kenia, Tanzania y Uganda (Nunan et al 2018). En la Baja California, los incentivos subsidiarios en equipamiento han producido arreglos políticos económicos, que han incentivado una orientación productiva de la actividad tradicional, como ocurre también en Irlanda en donde el subsidio participativo a los pescadores de cangrejoincentivó nuevas jerarquías y relaciones de poder que antes no existían (Bresnihan 2019). ...
La crisis de las capturas pesqueras que afecta a las comunidades artesanales es un fenómeno complejo causado por transformaciones climáticas, cambios en el comportamiento de los océanos y la sobreexplotación pesquera. La gestión pesquera sostenible extendida en las últimas décadas en muchos países ha cambiado la gestión de los recursos a partir de la regulación de la sobreexplotación y el establecimiento de un nuevo modelo de desarrollo de la pesca. A partir del estudio de dos localidades pesqueras de Chile y a través de una metodología cualitativa y enfoque sistémico se analizan los procesos de desposesión en los últimos cuarenta años. Se concluye que además de la desposesión biofísica sobre las comunidades pesqueras tradicionales, se produce un proceso de desposesión inmaterial y simbólico sobre la pesca artesanal acentuado por el modelo neoliberal, que afecta la capacidad local, obstruyendo un proyecto económico alternativo vinculado al territorio.
... Irrespective of the debate as to whether payments or compensations should be designed to focus on actions or results (Gibbons et al., 2011), experiences in Colombia, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua show that PES can finance conservation, ecosystem restoration, and better land use practices (Montagnini and Finney, 2011; see also The PES concept (or "fishing agreements") also applies to coastal and marine areas, although only a few cases have been reported. Begossi (2011) argues that this is due to three factors: origin (the mechanism was originally designed for forests), monitoring (marine resources such as fish are more difficult to monitor than terrestrial resources), and definition of resource boundaries in offshore water. One example of a compensation mechanism in the region is the so-called defeso, in Brazil. ...
... It consists of a period (reproductive season) when fishing is forbidden by the government and fishermen receive a financial compensation. It applies to shrimp, lobster, and both marine and freshwater fisheries (Begossi et al., 2011). ...
... Portanto, o acesso à água potável, dentro dos padrões estabelecidos e com regularidade, está diretamente relacionado à qualidade de vida e à saúde da população. Além disso, é condicionante para a proteção do meio ambiente, sobretudo dos recursos hídricos e, em última análise, retratam o desenvolvimento de um território e seu povo (OLIVEIRA, 2011;RAZZOLINI, 2008;TRATA BRASIL, 2018). Logo, garantir o acesso à água e ao saneamento é questão central para a redução da pobreza. ...
... A falta de representatividade social e política dos povos e comunidades tradicionais nos espaços de tomada de decisão é notória (BEGOSSI et al., 2011;BANDEIRA et al., 2011;SOMA, 2014;FUNDO BRASIL DE DIREITOS HUMANOS, 2018) e, por isso, a participação se torna fundamental para integrar os DHAES nos projetos de infraestrutura de saneamento. ...
O livro apresenta trabalhos sobre os desafios para realização dos direitos humanos à água e ao saneamento, em diferentes partes do Brasil, que foram resultantes de um curso sobre esta temática promovido pelo ONDAS- Observatório Nacional dos Direitos á Água e ao Saneamento (www.ondasbrasil.org) realizado no ano de 2021.
... Portanto, o acesso à água potável, dentro dos padrões estabelecidos e com regularidade, está diretamente relacionado à qualidade de vida e à saúde da população. Além disso, é condicionante para a proteção do meio ambiente, sobretudo dos recursos hídricos e, em última análise, retratam o desenvolvimento de um território e seu povo (OLIVEIRA, 2011;RAZZOLINI, 2008;TRATA BRASIL, 2018). Logo, garantir o acesso à água e ao saneamento é questão central para a redução da pobreza. ...
... A falta de representatividade social e política dos povos e comunidades tradicionais nos espaços de tomada de decisão é notória (BEGOSSI et al., 2011;BANDEIRA et al., 2011;SOMA, 2014;FUNDO BRASIL DE DIREITOS HUMANOS, 2018) e, por isso, a participação se torna fundamental para integrar os DHAES nos projetos de infraestrutura de saneamento. ...
... This means that fishers are typically engaged in various forms of conflict. Typically, this occurs between small-scale and large-scale fishing enterprises, especially when the latter operate close to coastal fishing grounds and displace smallscale fisheries (Begossi et al., 2011). Tensions are also present amongst recreational fisheries targeting the same resources (Said et al., 2018) and between fishing and other marine activities, such as the discharge of pollutants from industrial areas (Micheli et al., 2013), the presence of aquaculture farms (Ertör & Ortega-Cerdà, 2015) or the invasion of alien species (Katsanevakis et al., 2014), all of which can radically change marine ecosystems. ...
... Failure to recognize current and impending realities can lead to spatial plans that do not misfit, misrepresent, and misunderstand the real context they mean to govern. For example, in the marine planning of marine protected areas (MPA) in different countries, fishers ended up squeezed between industrial fishers on the one and conservation objectives on the other, leaving fishermen no other option but to resist governmental policy in bid to pursue their livelihoods (Begossi et al., 2011;Said et al., 2017;Lopes et al., 2015). Being cognizant of these multiple knowledge layers makes planners better equipped to reflect on the deeper ramifications that lie beneath the surface of the spatial plan, and to thus to make 'informed' MSP decisions. ...
In marine spatial planning (MSP), the production of knowledge about marine-based activities is fundamental because it informs the process through which policies delineating the use of space are created and maintained. This paper revises our view of knowledge—developed during the mapping and planning processes—as the undisputed factual basis on which policy is developed. Rather, it argues that the construction, management, validation, and marginalisation of different types of knowledge stemming from different stakeholders or disciplinary approaches is at the heart of policy and planning processes. Using the case of fisheries-generated knowledge in the implementation of MSP, we contend that the fisheries data informing the MSP process are still very much streamlined to classical bio-economic metrics. Such metrics fall short of describing the plural and complex knowledges that comprise fisheries, such as localised social and cultural typologies, as well as the scale and dynamics, hence, providing incomplete information for the decision-making process of MSP. In this paper, we provide a way to move towards what we conceptualize as ‘Deep Knowledge’ and propose a model that brings together of the existing datasets and integrates socio-cultural data as well as complex spatiotemporal elements, to create dynamic rather than static datasets for MSP. We furthermore argue that the process of knowledge production and the building of the parameters of such datasets, should be based on effective stakeholder participation, whose futures depend on the plans that eventually result from MSP. Finally, we recommend that the ‘Deep Knowledge’ model is adopted to inform the process of knowledge production currently being undertaken in the diverse countries engaging in the MSP process. This will result in policies that truly reflect and address the complexities that characterise fisheries, and which are legitimized through a process of knowledge co-production.
... Local ecological knowledge (LEK) of actors in the fishery business can be an important source of information on the practices of the fishing activity, and also may suggest possible management strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of aquatic resources [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Fishermen knowledge can be useful in studies of temporal changes in quantity (biomass) and composition (main ecological categories) of fishing resources, by comparing the difference in reporting the largest and smallest capture as expressed by older and younger fishermen [7]. ...
... The available scientific knowledge, combined with the ecological knowledge of local fishermen, should be acknowledged as an important basis for determining the most appropriate management measures for this species until new research is conducted. Information generated from LEK can include differences in perception of environmental, behavioral and abundance variation in fish populations, and its comparison with the existing literature could lead to new biological hypotheses [4,[19][20][21]. ...
Local ecological knowledge (LEK) of fishers and other actors involved in the fishery can be provide information on the life cycle of fish species they harvest, help defining low-cost sampling projects, new biological hypotheses, management activities and policy measures. This study focuses on fishers’ LEK on diet, feeding, spawning grounds, reproductive size, exploited sizes and perceived changes in abundance over the years of the acoupa weakfish (Cynoscion acoupa), a commercially important marine species. Results from interviews with 240 actors (fishers, captains and boat owners) involved in C. acoupa fisheries in eight municipalities in the northern coast of Brazil indicated that: (a) C. acoupa feeds in areas with rocky bottoms down to the depth of 30 m, eating mainly fish, particularly another weakfish (Macrodon ancylodon) and sardines (Engraulidae); (b) this fish spawns in rocky and non-estuarine habitats; (c) the spawning period mentioned by fishers coincided with the harvest period, but was in disagreement with published scientific information; (d) the median minimum length of individuals of C. acoupa carrying eggs according to interviews was of 70 cm, which was smaller than the length reported in biological studies, possible due to the selectiveness of fishing; (e) there is an overall perception of a decrease in the abundance of C. acoupa among the interviewed fishers, which is compatible with studies on stock exploitation of this species. The current dearth of financial and human resources available for scientific research underlines the importance of making use of LEK to improve fishery policy and management.
... The index was created to emphasize that a person and his/her capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country and indicates a potential to host more successful initiatives in areas with high grades, as its residents have better living conditions (Landuci et al. 2020).It is fundamentally important to monitor the establishment of introduced seedlings in the environment as a preventive action for marine conservation(Castelar et al. 2009; Marroig and Reis 2011) The proximity of farming to protected areas is of signi cant concern because of our limited understanding of sea perimeters, rights, and responsibilities. There is a general respectful mentality in IGB regarding environmentally protected marine areas that is based on the fear of signi cant nes and penalties(Begossi et al. 2011). ...
Due to the growing demand for bioproducts, mariculture can have an important sustainable role in the cultivation of marine macroalgae. While the southern coast of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, currently has dozens of aquaculture structures installed, we sought to identify additional suitable sites for marine macroalgae enterprises as well as to estimate current production levels along its densely developed southern coast (Ilha Grande and Sepetiba bays). High resolution satellite images were used to generate 31maps related to the criteria and constraints that could influence aquaculture productivity. Individual weights were assigned to those criteria and constraints based on the judgments of technicians, researchers, and other stakeholders using a pairwise comparison method. Those factors were combined using multicriteria decision rules, and a suitability map was derived from their reclassifications. Of the total area calculated, 12.88% was determined to be unsuitable for cultivation, and 87.12% was considered suitable. We identified 91 K. alvarezii cultivation structures, and their annual biomass production was estimated to be between 400 and 1,500kg/year. Our analyses calculated the cultivation potential of the entire region, although the presence of heavy metals in Sepetiba Bay removes from consideration its production of algae for human consumption (although their biomasses could be used for other purposes). The results are designed to contribute to marine spatial planning and assist producers, decision makers, and social actors in promoting the sustainable development of seaweed farming.
... In addition, Brazil has no marine spatial planning, which demonstrates a risk of multiple impacts on biodiversity and conflicts among different economic activities [103]. In the Brazilian socio-economic context, it is important to emphasize that artisanal fisheries are responsible for more than 50% of national fish production [104] and that mining activities increase the risk of food security in socioeconomically vulnerable populations that depend on small-scale fisheries (e.g., low-income populations) [105]. ...
Marine carbonate sediments have economic value because of their high concentration of calcium minerals and important trace elements. However, increasing mining interest in these stocks is threatening unique ecosystems, such as rhodolith beds, which provide many ecosystem goods and services. We review the potential of the unexplored Brazilian deposits and the rising conflicts with other blue economic sectors and biodiversity hotspots. The tropical Southwestern Atlantic Ocean, particularly the Brazilian Exclusive Economic Zone, has the largest deposit of marine limestone worldwide, which is very attractive to the global industry, with reserves measured at more than 1355,157,240 tons of CaCO3 and it is especially useful as a supply for agriculture and animal nutrition. This large mining potential raises concerns regarding licenses and potential impacts, especially considering the biological and socio-economic importance of extensive rhodolith beds, which may conflict with mining. Additionally, future dredging activities will take place in vulnerable ecosystems without adequate marine spatial planning (MSP). Currently, there is no long-term scientific information on the available carbonate stocks, stock recoverability, risks to connectivity with other ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs), and the reduced provision of ecosystem services which may affect activities such as artisanal fisheries. In this context, encouraging carbonate mining without science-based information and MSP accelerates the unsustainable exploitation of this important ecosystem. This activity will contribute to the degradation of tropical marine biodiversity and threaten the food security of traditional and vulnerable human communities, which is in opposition to the Sustainable Development Goals and reaching the 2030 United Nations Agenda.
... A promising design for these MPAs would be to compare data on fish ecology (underwater surveys) and local fishing, checking for potential sites with a higher abundance of groupers and reduced fishing pressure (Silvano et al., 2017). As another approach to reduce conflicts, small-scale fishers could be compensated to help protect the area through payment for environmental services (Begossi et al., 2011;Lopes et al., 2013;Begossi et al., 2019). ...
The dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus is one of the Serranidae (Epinephelinae) listed as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Data regarding population structure and genetic variation levels can be analysed and incorporated into fishery science to increase the chances of successful population restoration. In this study, 5414 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers identified with NextRAD genotyping were used to evaluate both the genetic diversity of E. marginatus from six sampling locations along the Brazilian coast and their genetic relationships to another grouper species, Epinephelus morio. Principal component analysis defined clusters concordant with each grouper species. For E. marginatus, similar genomic diversity was found across sampling locations; however, two locations had high and significant inbreeding coefficients. Analyses of molecular variance and FST estimates suggested low levels of genome-wide differentiation among the E. marginatus sampling locations. Discriminant analysis of principal components and Bayesian analysis of Structure software suggested high levels of genetic admixture between samples from different locations and extensive movements of E. marginatus in the study area. Based on the genetic information obtained, future directions for the management of grouper fishing on the Brazilian coast are suggested.
... En este contexto, se produjeron fuertes conflictos por la imposición de restricciones a los modos de vida de las poblaciones locales, con prohibiciones de acceso a los recursos naturales y la expropiación de residentes en diferentes regiones de Brasil (Almudi y Kalikoski, 2010;Begossi et al., 2011;Leal, 2013;Crespi et al., 2015). En otros países, entre ellos América Latina y el Caribe, también se observan conflictos similares relacionados con el uso de recursos naturales en áreas protegidas (Majanen, 2007;Camargo et al., 2009;Bennett y Dearden, 2014;De Pourcq et al., 2015). ...
... In turn, undervaluation can misinform spatial planning in the face of competition from the large-scale commercial fishing industry and aquaculture. For example, Begossi et al. (2011) suggest that artisanal fisheries in Southeast Brazil were allocated too little space and constrained by allocations to marine protected areas and the industrial fishing fleet. ...
The global seafood system includes three interconnected sectors: commercial capture (or wild-caught) fisheries, recreational and subsistence fisheries, and aquaculture (or farmed seafood). The three sector-focused articles in this symposium review production externalities within and between sectors and between the seafood system and the broader natural environment. Building on the insights from these articles, we discuss seafood as part of an integrated food system and examine both seafood supply and demand. We assess possible tensions between environmental sustainability and food security with an emphasis on the Global South. We examine the inconsistent application of market mechanisms to allocate resources across user groups; highlight governance challenges that are especially pronounced in the Global South; discuss the role of subsistence and poverty alleviation in seafood production; identify sources of demand heterogeneity that are critical to understanding the future of seafood, including the impact of culture; and evaluate concerns about the international seafood trade through an economic lens. We discuss nutritional security in detail, focusing on how product attributes such as micro- and macronutrients that are intrinsically bundled (not purchasable separately) could exacerbate inequality and/or lead to nutritional externalities. We conclude by identifying needs for future research, technological innovation, and governance innovation.
... En este contexto, se produjeron fuertes conflictos por la imposición de restricciones a los modos de vida de las poblaciones locales, con prohibiciones de acceso a los recursos naturales y la expropiación de residentes en diferentes regiones de Brasil (Almudi y Kalikoski, 2010;Begossi et al., 2011;Leal, 2013;Crespi et al., 2015). En otros países, entre ellos América Latina y el Caribe, también se observan conflictos similares relacionados con el uso de recursos naturales en áreas protegidas (Majanen, 2007;Camargo et al., 2009;Bennett y Dearden, 2014;De Pourcq et al., 2015). ...
... The vessels used by the fishermen of the industrial fleets (Fig. 2) are of greater proportions and ability than the boats used by artisanal fishers (Kalikoski et al. 2002). This marine anglers also generate impacts on the coastal environment in general, reduce fishing capacity, and hamper the fishing gear of small-scale fishers (Begossi et al. 2011). This latter impact is mainly due to illegal and deregulated marine fishing, which often compete with the same target species of artisanal fisheries (Belhabib et al. 2014). ...
... According to the National Register of Conservation Units (CNUC), until July 2015, a total of 90 RESEX exist in Brazil, 62 at the federal level and 28 at the state level (Memorial Chico Mendes 2020; MMA 2020). Artisanal fishing in Brazil represents over 50% of the national fishery production, reaching up to 70% in some regions (Begossi et al. 2011), and is carried out in several RESEX. One of the most important RESEX concerning artisanal fishing activities is the Arraial do Cabo Marine RESEX, described in detail in the next section. ...
Many protected areas have different biological, ecological and environmental resources and at the same time the use of these resources is different. In order to create protected areas, the issue of area management is discussed and zoning in the management of parks and protected areas is a solution to reduce conflicts in protected area management and it provides the opportunity to take the necessary measures. Lar National Park with an area of 28037 ha is located in 70 km of northeast of Tehran. This area with the aim of protecting 28 species of mammals, 105 species
of birds, 23 species of reptiles and several species of fish has been
managed; while this region receives a population of nomads every year,
who use the pastures of the regions for grazing in a period of one hundred
days. To prepare a conservation management plan, the ecological
resources of the region were mapped and overlaid to achieve management
units, These units were investigated for restricted nature, protected,
restoration, recreational and special zones in the area. After determination
of social economic conditions of native people, a management plan was
defined for the region. The planning defined public participation, staff
training, ecological and socio economic impacts assessment and
monitoring program in Lar National Park. Findings revealed that Lar
National Park has an important role in preserving the nature and species
of the region based on the evaluation. Therefore, for the protection and
promotion of habitats and species, it has required conscious and active
intervention and a coherent management plan for the region should be
considered. Conservation of hotspot biodiversity areas ensures that other
human activities do not harm these areas, and the reliability and viability
of areas with higher conservation values over an indefinite period of time
is ensured. The study proved that the zoning process is a decision-making
issue that inherently requires the evaluation of different land features
based on multiple objectives.
... In Brazil, fishing was one of the first productive activities to be established in the country (Abdallah and Sumaila, 2007), representing an important source of income in several regions (Clauzet et al., 2005). In this regard, artisanal (traditional) fisheries represent over 50% of the national fishery production, reaching up to 70% in some areas (Begossi et al., 2011). Fishing is, therefore, an important economic activity in many Brazilian municipalities, with the income obtained through these activities comprising a significant part of local budgets (Diegues, 2008). ...
Although shark meat is consumed worldwide, elevated arsenic (As) concentrations have been increasingly reported. The Caribbean sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon porosus) is a widely consumed fishing resource in Brazil, with scarce information on As burdens to date. Herein, commercial-sized juvenile Caribbean sharpnose sharks from Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) were assessed in this regard, presenting significantly higher hepatic As concentrations in males (8.24 ± 1.20 mg kg⁻¹ wet weight; n = 12) compared to females (6.59 ± 1.87 mg kg⁻¹ w.w.; n = 8), and a positive correlation (r = 0.74) was noted between female muscle and liver As concentrations, indicating systemic inter-tissue transport not evidenced in males. Arsenic concentrations were over the maximum permissible As limit established in Brazilian legislation for seafood and calculated Target Hazard Quotients suggest consumption risks, although cancer risks were not evidenced. Therefore, Public Health concerns with regard to Caribbean sharpnose shark As burdens deserve careful attention.
... The vessels used by the fishermen of the industrial fleets (Fig. 2) are of greater proportions and ability than the boats used by artisanal fishers (Kalikoski et al. 2002). This marine anglers also generate impacts on the coastal environment in general, reduce fishing capacity, and hamper the fishing gear of small-scale fishers (Begossi et al. 2011). This latter impact is mainly due to illegal and deregulated marine fishing, which often compete with the same target species of artisanal fisheries (Belhabib et al. 2014). ...
Fishermen and the gender-neutral “fishers” are the most frequent names to mention humans who fish in the English language (Branch and Kleiber 2017). This term in the Cambridge dictionary is defined as someone who catches fish, primarily as a job. Another definition pointed out in the literature is that these are humans that capture various types of animal life for human food, animal feed, bait, and other uses (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2018). Finally, fishermen can be considered as those humans whose purpose is to remove the biological resources that depend, at some stage of their development, on the aquatic habitat (Fig. 1). This natural resource is subsequently intended for the subsistence of local communities or small- or large-scale commercialization.
... According to the National Register of Conservation Units (CNUC), until July 2015, a total of 90 RESEX exist in Brazil, 62 at the federal level and 28 at the state level (Memorial Chico Mendes 2020; MMA 2020). Artisanal fishing in Brazil represents over 50% of the national fishery production, reaching up to 70% in some regions (Begossi et al. 2011), and is carried out in several RESEX. One of the most important RESEX concerning artisanal fishing activities is the Arraial do Cabo Marine RESEX, described in detail in the next section. ...
Laws and policies are critical in facilitating positive or negative outcomes where humans and wildlife have potential to interact. This article provides a historical overview of Nepal’s protected areas and reviews the Nepalese conservation laws to explore whether they, through enactment, have capacity to reduce the frequency and consequently the impact of human wildlife conflict (HWC). This review provides insights useful for the formulation of new conservation laws, or the revision of existing conservation laws, to prevent and mitigate HWC. Nepal’s conservation laws were formulated in the early 1970s, and modern protected areas were begun to establish. Initially, Nepal followed the Yellowstone model, an exclusionary approach involving the removal of local people from areas within the boundaries of the new National Parks. The intent was to separate humans and protected areas, measures that are often commended as effective in reducing interactions between humans and wildlife. Over time, the gradual relaxation of strict rules of exclusion, such as the granting of rights to local people to access resources inside protected areas, have encouraged a move towards coexistence. This later approach (coexistence) condoned, or at least allowed for, more contact between humans and wildlife, and may have increased the potential for HWC. Subsequent amendments to the conservation laws - including provisions for wildlife population management - may have gone some way toward reducing HWC; however, these amendments lack clarity and have been poorly implemented. This article recommends active implementation of laws that may reduce interactions between humans and wildlife and suggests improved compensation policies for wildlife damage.
... The PES can also be the route to incentive the production of clean water in headwater catchments. Agriculture (de Moraes et al., 2017) and livestock pasturing (Oliveira et al., 2019) are human activities that impact water in these upland areas but are also providers of ecosystem goods relevant for the society, namely food (Begossi et al., 2011;Ghaley et al., 2014). Besides, the studies of Alcon et al. (2020), Alves-Pinto et al. (2017) andde Sartre et al. (2016) recognized a conflict between agricultural expansion and the natural ecosystem, but also recalled the variety of ecosystem benefits granted by a sustainably managed intercropped forest, agriculture and cattle-ranching production system. ...
This study aimed to present a payment for ecosystem services model that promotes a symbiotic coexistence between agriculture and clean water production. The model favors application to headwater catchments where clean water production is expected. However, the frequent invasion of these areas with intensive agriculture and livestock production systems affects water quality threatening the use of this resource, namely as drinking water. The proposed Agriculture for Clean Water Yield (ACWY) model reconciles agriculture with clean water production through the incentive approach, giving the farmers a financial compensation if they are willing to replace intensive by sustainable agriculture and livestock production systems, namely agro-forestry systems. The reconciliation through the incentive approach is justified because clean water and food are both vital goods for human survival. The compensation rises as function of increasing catchment water yield capacity and conversion costs. For example, landowners receive more if land conversion occurs in slopping than undulated landscapes. The model applied to Fazenda Glória watershed, composed of 19 headwater catchments (96.7 ha on average), proposed financial incentives in the range 218.73–576.5 US$/ha/year depending on the catchment's water yield capacity, which rise to 284.35–749.45 US$/ha/year if conversions occur in extreme vulnerable areas. The watershed, located in São Paulo state, Brazil, covers 18.4 km² and is the source of drinking water to 70,000 people living in Jaboticabal city. Monitoring is essential to assess the performance of ACWY and adjust the compensation dynamically. For instance, noteworthy improvements in water yields and water quality or land conversions performed in short periods can expect the most generous compensation. Two concerns about implementing the model in Fazenda Glória rely on the lack of political will in spite of existing federal and state legal support, as well as on the financial sources to make the model a real project.
... According to the National Register of Conservation Units (CNUC), until July 2015, a total of 90 RESEX exist in Brazil, 62 at the federal level and 28 at the state level (Memorial Chico Mendes 2020; MMA 2020). Artisanal fishing in Brazil represents over 50% of the national fishery production, reaching up to 70% in some regions (Begossi et al. 2011), and is carried out in several RESEX. One of the most important RESEX concerning artisanal fishing activities is the Arraial do Cabo Marine RESEX, described in detail in the next section. ...
Ingestion of food contaminated by bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances is responsible for the illness or death of about one in ten people worldwide every year. This characterizes significant public health risks, in addition to raising annual public health costs. Metals and metalloids are noteworthy among chemical environmental contaminants, due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation and, in some cases, biomagnification capacity, as well as high toxicity risks. Several elements have been detected in high concentrations in the environment due to anthropogenic activities, leading to trophic chain incorporation and aquatic organism bioaccumulation, such as fish and mussels. These organisms, in turn, play extremely important ecological roles in aquatic trophic webs as energy carriers to higher trophic levels, becoming important links between the environment, contaminants and human populations through their consumption. In Brazil, several protected area categories have been established, including Extractive Reserves (RESEX). These are used by traditional populations whose survival is based on the extraction of natural resources and on subsistence and small animal agricultural activities. One of these RESEX, located in the Região dos Lagos area, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, comprises the Arraial do Cabo Marine Extractive Reserve, the first Marine Extractive Reserve in Brazil, created in 1997. Unfortunately, however, aquatic organisms in this RESEX have been shown to be contaminated by high metal and metalloid concentrations, mainly arsenic (As), often exceeding limits established by Brazilian and international legislations. This may make one of the main local economic activities, artisanal fishing, unfeasible, leading to socio-economic and environmental concerns, as this activity is an important food and economic source, representing over 50 % of the national fishery production, reaching 70 % in certain regions. In addition, ecosystem degradation heavily impacts poor populations, such as fishers, who are very vulnerable to ecosystem changes, including the degradation of fishing resources, leading to decreased protein intake by vulnerable populations and the consumption of food items containing high contaminant levels. In this context, this chapter will discuss aquatic organism contamination by As, focusing on the Arraial do Cabo RESEX, an important Brazilian conservation area, including chemical (i.e. As speciation into organic and inorganic forms) and geochemical As aspects, food chain accumulation capacity, potential effects on biota and humans and possible local traditional fishing community outcomes, categorized as extremely vulnerable by Brazilian legislation.
... In this regard, offering appropriate incentive packages to the local fishermen can be a very effective step to change fishing practices (Begossi et al., 2011). One practical way to minimize non-target captures is that the fishing operations are conducted based on spatial and temporal distributions of the target species (Silvano et al., 2017). ...
Gillnets are the primary fishing gear used in tropical multi‐species fisheries along the Iranian southern coastal waters. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the catch composition and performance of fishing gear for the possible negative effects on the stocks. Catch data and length frequency distribution (just for Kingfish, S. commerson) were examined for three kinds of drift gillnets: 1) small‐meshed nets, 2) medium‐meshed nets, and 3) nets with a single mesh size of 165 mm. This study was conducted in the northern part of the Persian Gulf from 2014 to 2015. Overall, 60 species of 32 families from four fish groups (i.e., Pelagic, Demersal, Benthopelagic, and Reef‐associated) were recorded. Each net‐type was used to target more than one species, with most species being considered as bycatch. Commercial fish species were caught the most, accounting for around 83% of the total catches. S. commerson is targeted by all kinds of nets, with medium‐meshed nets being most efficient. The majority of S. commerson caught by the nets were immature. Overall, the total ban of gillnets with small mesh sizes is recommended to protect young S. commerson and prevent the possible risk of growth overfishing. Studies on gillnet selectivity are needed to set minimum mesh regulations for S. commerson and other commercial species if the potential impacts of gillnet are known.
... Solution-based research also includes management scenarios (e.g. Tomillo et al., 2008), community-based management (Campos-Silva and Peres, 2016), market tools to promote conservation, such as the Payment for Environmental Services (PES) and ecolabelling (Begossi et al., 2011). Besides, some studies focused on education and politics to change targets and on the development of alternatives to the production of desired benefits. ...
Conservation biology is designed to identify pressing environmental problems and to solve them. This review evaluates the relative effort of conservation biology in problem-based and solution-based research, and tests whether or not this has changed in the past decades for five major drivers of biodiversity loss, i.e. habitat loss and fragmentation, overexploitation, biological invasion, pollution, and climate change. By randomly sampling papers from four decades of the conservation literature (1980–2019), we estimated the frequency of solution-based research related to the five biodiversity loss drivers. We also estimated how the ratio of the words ‘problem’ and ‘solution’ has changed over time, as a proxy for discourse bias. We found that a quarter of the scientific papers on conservation constitute solution-based research, while three-quarters were classified as problem-based. Temporal analyses showed that the proportion of solution-based papers increased along the four decades, from 0.18 to 0.30, mostly due to research on effects of habitat loss and fragmentation, and overexploitation. The solution-to-problem word ratio increased steadily, from almost zero in the 1980s to 0.60 in 2019. Significant increases occurred for all drivers of biodiversity loss, indicating an important temporal change in conservation discourse and concerns. We propose that, in order to be more effective against the biodiversity crisis, conservation science should expand the solution-based agenda by active changes in graduate education, research choice, research funding priority, editorial emphasis, and media coverage that can produce desired impacts on conservation practice, public perception, and environmental policies.
... biological production and nutrient recycling) (Balmford & Bond, 2005) and ecosystem services, such as food production and climate regulation that contribute to human well-being (Barbier, 2017). In Brazil, these animals represent subsistence means for many fishing communities, and provide resources for the fishing industry (Begossi et al., 2011;Nishida et al., 2006). These issues highlight the importance of including and giving higher priority to these biological groups in teaching and learning environments. ...
This work aimed to raise ocean awareness of 6th-grade students using marine invertebrates and integrating ludic activities within the curricula. Forty-two students from two public elementary schools from Northeast Brazil were selected. A pre-experimental design with pre-test/post-test was followed, using a questionnaire on ocean-environmental-related topics, and applying an inquiry-based learning approach. The ludic procedures were effective to improve the perception and learning of the students on the importance of oceans and the need for their preservation. We highlight the necessity for including more active methods to promote such awareness in schools.
... Due to its precautionary nature, EAF requires both short-term hardship on fishers and the end of inaction due to some eventual uncertainty (Pikitch et al. 2004;Marasco et al. 2007). Short-term economic losses can be partially or totally buffered by compensatory measures, including Payments for Environmental Services (Begossi et al. 2011). ...
... Throughout the year, the resources caught by fishing vary due to both natural factors (e.g., fish spawning migration) and policies that establish closed seasons related to the reproductive period of some species (e.g., shrimp, mullet and snook). In Tarituba, the only closed-season government compensatory benefit (a month's minimum wage) accessed by fishers is related to the closed season for shrimp, during March, April and May of each year (Begossi et al., 2011). In addition to fishing, tourism -mainly related to transporting passengers to the islands and restaurants -is another important source of income in the community. ...
... Such costs are supported by society, as the case of pollution (Nusdeo, 2006). However, the use of economic instruments is seen as a complement to the command and control approach (Nascimento et al., 2010), and this interaction is described as a "mixed policy" (Begossi et al., 2011). ...
We investigated the application of economic instruments in the management of Brazilian water resources as mechanisms to stimulate the rational use of water and to recognise its economic value. We analysed water-charge scenarios at the national and international levels as a methodology to provide an economic estimate of environmental services related to water resources. Through bibliographical and documentary research, we identified the economic instruments applied to Brazilian water-resource management, describing the methodologies and values used Brazilian water charges and in some member states of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. We identified how economic valuation methods of environmental resources could contribute to the improvement of water charges, considering the environmental services offered by a healthy river basin. In the Brazilian and the international scenarios, water charge methodologies include the volumetry of abstracted or consumed water, associating some elements that indicate the pollution level. The prices per cubic meter of water are still very low in all the scenarios. Environmental valuation techniques can be an essential tool for rethinking the methodologies and costs applied in water charges, increasing the potential of water’s rational use through economic instruments.
... Additionally, the proximity to environmental protection areas represents a concern because of the limited understanding of our sea perimeters and rights and duties. In IGB, there is a respectful mentality regarding the environmentally protected marine areas, which is based on the fear of the potentially substantial penalties (Begossi et al., 2011). ...
Worldwide, the availability of suitable areas for aquaculture has become a significant concern. In Brazil, the former Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture (MPA) has begun to promote discussions and plan meetings on Local Mariculture Development Plans (PLDMs): a planning tool for the establishment of parks and aquatic areas. However, hundreds of groups and individuals still practice aquaculture awaiting a definitive license. This study aimed to serve as a tool to identify suitable sites for the installation of cobia cage farming and also to contribute to the PLDM zoning process. We created 27 criterion maps for marine fish farming. Their individual weights were assigned based on the best judgment of technicians, researchers and other stakeholders using the pair‐wise comparison method. The criteria and their weights were combined using multi‐criteria decision rules, and a final map according to suitability was derived by reclassification. Of the total area, 54,663 ha (14%) were composed of restrictions, and 341,083 ha (86%) were found useful; of which <1% is considered top score. Even so, these are more than enough to ensure the growth of activity. In Rio de Janeiro state, two bays have suitable areas to marine fish culture development. To ensure the sustainability of marine fish farming, we suggested the adoption of limited production areas based on assimilation and production capacity. Through this methodological approach, it was possible to identify suitable areas for cobia farming development. Additionally, the results may serve as a useful tool on which the PLDM can be based on.
... Top-down government regulations can further be perceived as confrontational, as they often revolve around restricting and banning certain practices without full transparency or buy-in from relevant stakeholders, including resource users (Jones, 2012;Gaymer et al., 2014). In contrast, voluntary agreements, in the right local context, can be more effective for jointly achieving conservation and human well-being goals (Wiley et al., 2008;Begossi et al., 2011;Pascal et al., 2018). ...
The marine environment is vital for Fiji's tourism sector, yet industry and community partnerships to conserve it have largely gone unrecognised. A study from March to October 2017 documented the extent and scale to which 'Marine Conservation Agreements' (MCAs) between tourism operators and indigenous, resource owning communities are used in Fiji, and their contribution to biodiversity conservation and fisheries management. More than half of operators (69.1%) interviewed had been involved, were involved, or were becoming involved, in some form of MCA, focused on temporary or permanent no-take Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs established through MCAs covered an estimated 26,625 ha, of which 21,000 ha comprised deep water and offshore reefs within two large marine reserves, and 5625 ha comprised mostly nearshore shallow fringing reefs and slopes. Only 28% of tourism-based MCAs included explicit economic incentives to the resource owners such as some level of payment, provision of infrastructure, or employment opportunities directly related to marine conservation. The remaining 72% supplied broader benefits such as sustainable marine resources or general employment in the tourism sector. Although MCAs are in place in Fiji with implied and not formal or explicit conditionality, they contribute to natural resource management and should be counted in global biodiversity targets.
... Even being an important area for global conservation, Brazilian decision-makers have been reported to constantly ignore its scientific community (Azevedo-Santos et al. 2017). In addition, conflicts between resource users and decisionmakers delay the few attempts to manage natural resources (Begossi et al. 2011). ...
Marine shrimp fishing is an economic activity of global importance due to its high profitability, but it also presents several environmental and socioeconomic problems. In a context of increasing need for fishery sustainability, scientific basis supporting fishery resources management is essential. However, evidence-based information is frequently scarce or generated by developed countries, even when resources are most abundant in areas of developing economy. Here we present a bibliometric analysis to map each country’s scientific production in relation to its marine shrimp fishery yield, along with a hurdle model with socioeconomic factors that could influence publication of articles on this subject. We observed a geographic mismatch between research needs and the places that produce them, once tropical and subtropical regions account for most of fishery yield while knowledge is produced in temperate regions where the most developed countries are concentrated. Accordingly, our model reveled that GDP was the most influential factor in number of articles, while population density had a negative effect. Concurrently, key research interests about marine shrimp fisheries tend to be basic biology topics, despite the need for conservation solutions.
... where σ 2 is species richness variance for the scale, and μ is the average species richness for the same scale. The standardised variance of the fish richness of the sambaquis on the three scales was compared with that obtained for 12 surveys on the current composition of marine fish species in localities along the Brazilian southeast coast (Andreata et al. 2002;Fasca et al. 2007;Ferreira et al. 2007;Gaelzer et al. 2007;Araujo et al. 2008;Ramineli et al. 2011;Andreata 2012;Barbanti et al. 2013;Barreto 2013;Chaves 2013;Hostim-Silva et al. 2013;Santos et al. 2015). Comparisons on the microregional scale were performed via the direct comparison of the inventories. ...
The documented quality of the zooarchaeological remains found in sambaquis is an important issue for ecologists who increasingly consider this material as a possible record of historical biodiversity to extend the observation periods of their analyses. In this work ichthyological inventories based on zooarchaeological remains were used to test the hypothesis that they do not differ statistically from those constructed by sampling current ichthyological diversity. Ichthyological records of 68 sambaquis of the Brazilian southeast coast were systematised. Data analyses were done based on taxa richness, taxonomic distinctness and food guild composition approaches. All analyses failed to show significant differences between sambaqui and modern fish inventories. Such result was kept for all tested scales and for the different studied regions. The current results indicate that sambaquis contain records of past species composition and therefore of Holocene biodiversity. It is concluded that sambaqui zooarchaeological remains should not be neglected in ecological studies and represent a quality alternative to extend the temporal scale of these studies.
... Börner et al., 2007;Hall, 2008;Pereira, 2010). In addition, the studies focused on the assessment of how rural producers could receive payment for ES provided to the society to compensate for economic losses caused by the maintenance of ES (Begossi et al., 2011;Lima et al., 2014). Recently, studies have focused on the evaluation of adopted and successful PES mechanisms, which compensate landowners who agree to conserve natural forest areas associated with watershed protection (Lima et al., 2017). ...
Studies using the ‘ecosystem services’ (ES) approach developed in Brazil based on the framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), and range from quantitative and qualitative evaluation to the development of economic instruments for payment for ecosystem services (PES) or compensation for their maintenance, mainly for hydrological services. In order to summarize current knowledge regarding ES, the structure for teaching in ES, and also to provide a basis for future research in Brazil, we carried out a systematic review of publications on ES and a study on the availability of undergraduate and graduate courses related to ES. We found 282 publications for the 2006-2017 period, which included peer-reviewed articles, books, book chapters, theses, dissertations, articles in annals and technical publications. We identified current knowledge, knowledge gaps and trends in ES researches that may guide surveys and scenario analyses for future studies, in different biomes and regions of the country. Atlantic Forest and Amazon are the most-studied biome. Most of the studies were related to the evaluation of different types of ES and to the development of methodologies for their evaluation and monitoring. The most common ES are related to biodiversity, carbon sequestration and water.
... These plausible outcomes were reflected in the relatively high 439 resilience in long-term trends in governance initiatives (LG-resilience) and in the capacity to use 440 11 the occurrence of mass mortality events as windows of opportunity (D-resilience) to improve 441 governance. Our findings provide additional support to the view that, in Latin America, Co-M is 442 emerging as a promising governance mode to help solving the fishery crisis, through the active 443 involvement of local communities (Basurto 2005;Defeo and Castilla 2005;Hilborn et al. 2005; 444 Basurto & Ostrom 2009;Begossi et al. 2011;Silvano et al. 2014). The long-term governance 445 scheme, which formally allocates user rights and responsibilities to yellow clam fishers, are ...
... Most studies are concentrated on wetlands (Gelcich et al., 2017), perhaps because of the recommendation in the early 1970´s of the Ramsar Convention to compensate for damage to biodiversity (Hrabanski, 2015 (2012) reviewed cases in coastal and marine ecosystems in Florida over a ten-year period and found problems related to methodology, monitoring and uncertainties related to timescale. For another coastal case in the region, in Brazil there is a type of financial compensation for giving up activities such as fishing certain species (including shrimp and lobster) during reproductive season, both in coastal and continental waters, which is called defeso (Begossi et al., 2011). On the positive side, the program by 2011 had benefitted nearly 650 thousand people, but the negative side of it is that there is evidence that funds have been transferred to people who are not involved in fishing activities (Campos & Chaves, 2014). ...
Fishing for serra Spanish mackerel takes place along the Brazilian coast. Studies in northern and northeastern regions show that has socioeconomic importance although risk of overexploitation. This article provides an assessment of fi sheries in the southeastern and southern regions, where there is a gap in knowledge. To build a regional perspective, fi shing monitoring data from Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná were used. For more detailed analyses, data from São Paulo and Paraná were chosen. In these two states, census data were collected on the species and quantities caught, fi shing gear used and sales value. This fi shery, mostly artisanal, has socioeconomic importance. Santa Catarina has the largest production. However, Rio de Janeiro has the most signifi cant industrial fi shery. São Paulo and Paraná produces approximately 110 t/year, mainly using drift gillnets and encircling gillnets with a mesh size of 10 to 12 cm between knots. The harvest period is during the cooler months, The ANOVA test did not show any signifi cant variations in CPUE, thus indicating stability. The results reinforce the need for adequate management.
Aim
Understanding patterns and drivers of biodiversity are essential towards developing effective conservation strategies for shallow marine habitats broadly. However, little is known about the natural and anthropogenic factors that structure fish biodiversity of sandy beaches, one of the largest and most socio-economically valuable nearshore habitats due to their endemic fauna, economic importance and cultural relevance. Here, we investigated how environmental variables and urbanization affect taxonomic and functional diversity of nearshore fish assemblages to provide general biodiversity patterns that can serve as baseline information for management plans when considering conservation prioritization.
Location
Southeast Brazil.
Methods
We surveyed fish communities at 77 sites along 150 km of coastline with different natural features and degrees of human influence using a combination of seine nets and surf-BRUVS. We used generalized additive models (GAMs) to investigate the influence of environmental variables and urbanization on taxonomic and functional diversity of resident fish assemblages.
Main results
We found that significant breaker wave height was the most important environmental variable in explaining the taxonomic and functional diversity of fish assemblages. The effects of increasing wave height were mostly negative, except for piscivorous fishes, which were most abundant at high energy sites, and for benthic and zoobenthivorous species, which were most abundant at sites with intermediate wave exposure. The latter species were also associated with higher chlorophyll-a contributing to increased taxonomic richness and abundance. Further, anthropogenic impacts generally reduced diversity, with highest diversity only observed at the most pristine sites.
Main conclusions
Our results demonstrate that both natural environmental variation and human activities structure the fish assemblages of sandy beach surf zones, affecting species that possess specific functional traits differently. These drivers should therefore be considered simultaneously in appointing protected areas in order to preserve a diversity of organisms and functional traits integral to productive beach ecosystems.
Parasitism by isopods is a common phenomenon in marine fishes and may induce negative effects, especially in juvenile stages. The surf-zones of sandy beaches are an important nursery habitat for many fish species, including commercially important ones, and are structured by beach characteristics and human activities, which are suggested to influence the fishes’ susceptibility to parasitism. Here, we analyze the early infestation and prevalence of parasitism in surf zones fishes of 27 beaches in southeastern Brazil with different characteristics. Parasites were recorded in only seven of the beaches. A high infestation was found in a single site, the highly urbanized Itaguá beach, where the prevalence of parasitism on juveniles and early adults of the Atlantic anchoveta Cetengraulis edentulus was high (68.11%). Four species of parasitic isopods were found, all belonging to the Cymothoidae family, but Livoneca desterroensis was the most abundant (78.7%). No effects of parasitism were detected on the size, weight and physiological condition of fishes, but presence of parasites and prevalence of infestation were positively affected by urbanization. Overall, our results indicate that the surf-zones have low parasite infestation, yet, they suggest that anthropic effects such as urbanization may enhance the prevalence of isopod parasitism.
• Frugivorous fish provide often conflicting ecosystem services of seed dispersal and food provisioning in tropical rivers. Fishing may reduce the size and abundance of frugivorous fish, thus affecting their potential as seed dispersers, which could affect the conservation of these fish and of floodplain forests.
• The goal of this study was to assess the influence of co-managed protected areas in the form of extractive reserves (RESEX) and small-scale fisheries on frugivorous fish in the Tapajós and Negro rivers, in the Brazilian Amazon. The study examined whether: (i) frugivorous fish are important for fisheries and selectively caught; and (ii) frugivorous fish abundance, size and fisheries catch per unit of effort are higher inside the RESEX than outside.
• The analyses included fisheries-dependent data (3,753 fish landings) and independent data (12,730 sampled fish) collected in 16 fishing communities (eight for each river). In both rivers, frugivorous fish are among the 10 species caught the most and frugivorous biomass was proportionately higher in landings than in samplings, indicating fisheries selectivity towards these fishes.
• In both rivers, catches of frugivorous fish were higher outside the RESEX than inside. Catch per unit effort and the proportion of frugivores in the catch were higher outside the RESEX in the Tapajós River but did not vary between sites inside and outside the RESEX in the Negro River. Frugivorous fish were larger inside the RESEX in the Negro, but smaller inside the RESEX in the Tapajós.
• The results indicated that the ecosystem services of seed dispersal and food source provided by frugivorous fish are not in conflict in the tropical rivers studied. Therefore, these clearwater and blackwater rivers in the Brazilian Amazon show a balance between fisheries and conservation of frugivorous fish, which play an essential role in the functioning of tropical floodplain forest ecosystems.
This book integrates information on research about the dusky grouper, Epinephelus marginatus, in Brazil and the Mediterranean. Such studies include collaboration with artisanal fishermen as well as with researchers from different institutions, represented in the chapters of this book: Branko Glamuzina (Univer-sity of Dubrovnik, Croatia), Claudia Kerber (Redemar Alevinos, Ilhabela), Marcelo Cristianini (FEA/Food Technology and NEPA/Nucleus of Food Studies, UNICAMP/State University of Campinas), Laura Suemitsu (Fea, Unicamp), Mariana Clauzet (Santa Cecília University, UNISANTA), Priscila Lopes (UFRN, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte), Renato Silvano (UFRGS, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul), Ro-drigo Caires (MZUSP, Museum of Zoology of São Paulo) and Svetlana Salivonchyk (Belarusian Academy of Sciences).
(17) (PDF) Recent Advances in Grouper aquaculture in Brazil. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351256349_Recent_Advances_in_Grouper_aquaculture_in_Brazil [accessed May 01 2021].
Understanding the effects of environmental drivers on fish distribution is of primary importance for designing effective conservation measures to protect endangered species. In this study, we investigated which habitat and spatial predictors enhance the abundance and biomass of the parrotfish Sparisoma frondosum in tropical rocky reefs from a Southwest Atlantic insular complex. Besides more than 170 islands, the Ilha Grande Bay (IGB) also harbors one of the most threatened Brazilian Marine Protected Area (MPA), the Ecological Station of Tamoios (ESEC–Tamoios). This no-take MPA became an emblematic area of the systematic dismantling of Brazilian environmental laws ongoing since the beginning of 2019 when the current government has declared intentions to recategorize and reduce the ESEC-Tamoios protection status. Our results revealed that distance from the coast and depth better explained the distribution of the iconic and vulnerable S. frondosum, regardless the presence of the no-take areas. An overall trend of increasing abundance and biomass with distance and depth was observed, except for sites with high cover of invasive coral Tubastraea spp. We also discuss the ESEC-Tamoios effectiveness and its current panorama to the Southwest Atlantic rocky reef’s conservation. Finally, we identify strategies to protect parrotfishes and expand the ecological benefit of this MPA to adjacent areas.
As the number of world Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) has been steadily increasing in the last decades, confrontations within them may have followed the same path. In order to unravel worldwide conservation conflicts in MPAs, a literature review was done. By doing so, five lessons were learnt: (1) 87 MPAs in the five continents have reported conflicts in the literature; (2) The increase in the number of world MPAs was found to be one of the forces driving this trend; (3) Intergroup competition over the use of marine resources, feelings of exclusion, poor communication and inequities in the distribution of MPA’ benefits were the most frequent conflicts; (4) Conflict resolution strategies were scarce in the literature and displayed different outcomes; (5) To effectively address conflict and reach compromise, the roots of disputes should be identified. Further research on the effectiveness of different conflict resolution mechanisms is needed.
Importância econômica da garoupa nas comunidades coseiras do Brasil
The Local Ecological Knowledge of shellfish harvesters in a Northern Brazil estuary was recorded to provide socio-ecological information for the development of a co-management system. The research was carried out in the community of Acaú, Paraiba state, from January to October 2015, and involved 120 shellfish harvesters (average age 44 years). Participant observations, interviews, questionnaires, free lists, and participatory mapping were used. Shellfishes were mostly collected by women as their main source of income. Most shellfish extraction sites were closest to the community and provided easy access to the resource. Twelve species of mollusks are collected, with Anomalocardia flexuosa being the most targeted species, with the highest Cognitive Salience Index—it stood out due to its relevance in terms of economic and cultural importance. The fishers stated that their main difficulties were transporting shellfish, health problems, low price and lack of buyers during winter. They would like to see the implementation of a fishery closure subsidized by unemployment insurance. We suggest that implementing management measures in conjunction with fishers’ input would be more effective than decisions based on scientific evidence alone.
The theme of the mare 2009 Conference, 'Living with Uncertainty and Adapting to Change', is well suited to Latin American reality when thinking of the uncertainties of fisheries and the economically poor livelihoods of people in riverine and coastal areas. Currently, there are multiple pressures on those liveli-hoods, many of which come from imposed conservation restrictions by govern-mental environmental agencies or by industrial fishing. Artisanal fishing in Latin America is economically important, since it contributes to about a half of national catches for most countries, and it guarantees the subsistence and protein intake of riverine and coastal livelihoods. In order to manage aquatic resources in Latin America, attention to its particularities is needed, including an understanding of the: 1) local level of communities; 2) their geographic dispersion; 3) pre-existing local rules regarding the use of resources; 4) lack of data on aquatic resources; 5) significant body of available local ecological knowledge; and, 6) current levels of poverty and social needs. Moreover, this study addresses the absence of data on natural resources in most Latin American countries, and as a consequence, the problem of detecting overfishing which has been one obstacle in the man-agement of natural resources. Considering those aspects, different approaches to co-management are highlighted in this study, since they are useful for the under-standing of the different contexts where co-management is developed. Historical accounts by fishermen are much needed in fisheries that lack a baseline: such relevance increases the importance of participatory approaches in management and the necessity to rely on the use of local knowledge. Cooperatives and Reserves are illustrated, covering marine and freshwater systems. A Brazilian case com-paring ecological-historical management processes in the Atlantic Forest coast to Amazonian reserve movements serves to illustrate the need for a temporal understanding of management systems. One of these reserves, the 'Sustainable Development Reserve' in Brazil, is illustrated as a form to include livelihoods in the management process. Finally, the challenges that the management fishery resources in Latin America are faced are analyzed in this study, including the importance of turning attractive management for the poor, taking into considera-tion the subtractability of managed resources, and the questionable legitimacy of some institutions.
Artisanal fishery diagnostic of the Casamento Lagoon, northeastern Patos Lagoon: a management proposal.
This work aims to describe the artesanal fishery of the Palmares do Sul fishing community, which fishes mainly in the northeastern area of the Patos Lagoon (Casamento lagoon, RS, Brazil). Daily fishery landings from March 2002 to February 2004 were recorded. Additional samplings (November 2002 to April 2004) using gillnets (mesh size: 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100, 120 and 140 mm; opposite knots) were carried out to estimate the capture selectivity of each mesh size. During the first year, recorded fishery landings reached 171.3 tons, increasing to 320.2 tons in the second year of analysis. This fishery captures 18 different species, five of them being responsible for 90% of the catches: Viola (Loricariichthys anus), Traíra (Hoplias malabaricus), Jundiá (Rhamdia quelen), Taínha (Mugil platanus) and Marine-catfish (Bagre-marinho; Genidens planifrons, G. barbus, G. genidens). The fishery community concerns 89 fisherman as a rough average, but the real number of professional fisherman is estimated as only 37. As the monthly number of fisherman varies seasonally, a large number of the identified fishermen do not use the fishing activity as the main financial source. The recorded data indicate that most of the fisherman sells the fishing product just once per month and, on a monthly basis, total fishery landings per fishermen concerns 110 to 500 kg. Besides this, only part of the fishing community could monthly sells more than U$ 90.00 of fish (one local minimum salary, 2003). Using gillnets samples, 22 different species were captured. By analyzing the catch curves by mesh size and size at first maturation of the commercial and the by-catch species, the mesh size of 70 mm (opposite knots) was considered adequate to preserve local fish stocks. Additional suggestions to improve fishery management were also presented.
Drawing on a team of more than 100 authors and reviewers, TEEB in National and International Policy making, led by Patrick ten Brink, demonstrates the value of ecosystems and biodiversity to the economy, society and individuals. It underlines the need and ways to transform our approach to natural capital, and demonstrates how we can practically take into account the value of ecosystems and biodiversity in policy actions – at both national and international levels – to promote the protection of our environment and contribute to a sustainable economy and the well-being of societies.
TEEB in national and international policy making highlights the need for new public policy to reflect the appreciation that public goods and social benefits are often overlooked and that we need a transition to decision making which integrates the many values of nature across policy sectors. We explore the range of instruments to reward those offering ecosystem benefits such as water provision and climate regulation, and look at the fiscal and regulatory instruments to reduce the incentives of those running down our natural capital, and at reforming subsidies so they respond to current and future priorities.
Biodiversity conservation usually builds on strategies involving a wide range of policy instruments. Within these policy mixes, the use of economic instruments for biodiversity policies and the provision of
ecosystem services gains increasing attention, not least in the context of the recent TEEB initiative on The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity. However, there are still many open questions regarding the combination of several instruments in a policy mix. For example, what is the role of economic instruments vis‐à‐vis regulatory approaches in biodiversity policies? How can the various instruments be assessed in their contribution to conservation objectives, cost‐effectiveness, social and distributional impacts as well as institutional requirements, when the focus is on assessing policy mixes rather than single instruments?
Thus far, economic analysis of policy instruments has focused on the assessment of single instruments. The sparse literature available on policy mixes mostly deals with pollution and emissions’ related policies rather than with biodiversity conservation and the provision of ecosystem services. Building on first results of the EU‐funded project POLICYMIX, this report outlines the challenges involved in assessing the role of economic instruments in policy mixes for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. We aim to clarify the term policy mix in this application field and provide justifications for using policy mixes instead of focusing on single instruments.
Against this background, we then review important instrument categories for biodiversity conservation and the provision of forest ecosystem services. Instrument types to be covered include regulation and spatial planning, offsets, habitat banking and trading schemes, ecological fiscal transfers, payments for environmental services (PES), forest certification, and – due to its relevance for forest conservation – REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) as an international PES scheme.
Finally, a synthesis chapter presents our aggregated findings on assessing policy mixes as well as the role of instruments in a policy mix. We shortly summarise results as presented by the individual reviews and elaborate major characteristics of each instrument or instrument category as regards their roles in a policy mix. In practice, most single instruments do not exist alone; they are implemented in a policy mix context. Some instruments complement each other, whereas others reduce effectiveness and/or efficiency. Therefore, the role of each of the instruments needs to be specified as a basis for further instrument design and impact evaluation.
We elaborate the theoretical interdependencies between different policy instruments and suggest a three‐step framework for assessing instruments in policy mixes for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem governance. The first step includes an identification of challenges and context of the relevant conservation problem or case to be analysed. The assessment of policy instruments in a policy mix can further be divided into two steps: 1) what is the specific role of the relevant instrument in the mix in terms of synergies, conflicts or temporal sequencing with other instruments? 2) what is the additional
value of the relevant instrument in the policy mix and how can this value be increased or even maximised? With the latter question, more traditional criteria for designing and evaluating policies come into play: one instrument may increase conservation effectiveness, another save costs, yet another contributes to acceptability through more distributive fairness, and finally, some may be required due to legal and institutional requirements in a certain socio‐cultural setting.
In this paper we review a number of methodological challenges of evaluating and designing economic instruments aimed at biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision in the context of an existing policy mix. In the context of the EU 2010 goal of halting biodiversity loss, researchers have been called upon to evaluate the role of economic instruments for cost-effective decision-making, as well as non-market methods to assess their benefits. We argue that cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) and non-market valuation (NMV) methods are necessary, but not sufficient, approaches to assessing the role of economic instruments in a policy mix. We review the principles of “social-ecological-systems”(SES) (Ostrom et al. 2007) and discuss how SES can complement economic cost and benefit assessment methods, in particular in policy design research. To illustrate our conceptual comparison of assessment methodologies, we look at two examples of economic instruments at different government levels – payments for ecosystem services (PES) at farm level and ecological fiscal transfers to municipal /county government. What conceptual problems are introduced when evaluating policies in an instrument mix? How can the SES framework complement CEA and NMV in policy assessment and design? We draw on experiences from Brazil and Costa Rica to exemplify these questions. We conclude with some research questions.
TEEB in national and international policy making highlights the need for new public policy to reflect the appreciation that public goods and social benefits are often overlooked and that we need a transition to decision making which integrates the many values of nature across policy sectors. We explore the range of instruments to reward those offering ecosystem benefits such as water provision and climate regulation, and look at the fiscal and regulatory instruments to reduce the incentives of those running down our natural capital, and at reforming subsidies so they respond to current and future priorities.
TEEB in national and international policy making presents a rich evidence base of policies and instruments in use around the world and a wide range of innovative solutions and is rapidly becoming an essential tool for policy makers around the world.
The underlying reason for the mismanagement of tropical nearshore fisheries is the implementation of policies and programs
based on Western models and approaches, coupled with an inability and/or unwillingness to consider non-Western alternatives
of empirically proven value. Such attitudes are embedded in donor and development agency behavior, and are demonstrated by
the temperate bias in conventional approaches to fisheries education and management, with a corresponding lack of understanding
of tropical milieux, and in the persistence of various prejudices. Adaptive Management, The Ecosystem Approach, Local Knowledge,
and Protected Areas are discussed from the perspectives of Western models and pre-existing Pacific Island systems as alternative
models. Given the parlous condition of the global environment and resources, the best non-Western pre-existing models and
Western approaches must be blended to provide sustainable solutions.
The primary contribution of the group of anthropologists studying fishing has been to produce a body of literature and set of concepts on the way people have solved the problems posed by earning a living in an uncertain and risky environment. Fishing poses some very unusual constraints and problems; marine adaptations are among the most extreme achieved by man. -after Author
The perceptions of resource users towards any conservation policy can be a major determinant of its success. While co-management policy can enhance the management of fisheries, to date there have been few reports concerning how engagement in co-management regimes may affect fishers' perceptions. This paper assesses the determinants of fishers' environmental perceptions within a co-management regime in Chile. Group meetings and structured questionnaires showed fishers' environmental perceptions were composed of four domains of concern, termed water pollution, stock conservation, conservation/profit trade-offs and charismatic species. Fishers' dependence on diving and/or the length of time fishers had engaged with the policy affected their perceptions of each of these domains. Perceptions of the water pollution domain were related to length of time fishers had participated in co-management, probably because fishers gained an increased understanding of the market and its need for unpolluted produce. Attitudes towards conservation/profit trade-offs tended to become linked to an increasingly conservation-oriented ethic with increasing time of engagement with the policy. Given that the length of time fishers engaged with co-management differentially affected fishers' perceptions of environmental domains of concern, public officials and funding agencies should be careful not to judge co-management prematurely. It takes time to educate participants and overcome distrust. Through co-management processes in Chile, fishers' environmental awareness increased, and sustainable behaviours may consequently increase in the future.
Recent trends in ecological anthropology are described and applied in an analysis of a New Jersey fishery. The difficulty of identifying environmental problems becomes apparent when trying to describe the temporal variability, pollution, restrictions on access, and depletion that characterize the marine environment of “Shoal Harbor,” a diversified community of bay men and inshore fishermen not far from New York City. A set of hypotheses derived from optimization theories in evolutionary ecology proves helpful in suggesting the ecological rationale for certain aspects of the Shoal Harbor fishery; but practical, methodological, and theoretical qualifications limit its usefulness. Another ecological approach, the “economics of flexibility,” is used to open the analysis to the political dimensions of one aspect of Shoal Harbor behavior—illegal fishing. A concluding discussion of the problem of overfishing indicates the importance of balancing ecological approaches with just consideration of social, cultural, and political reality. [ecological anthropology, evolutionary theory, anthropological theory, maritime communities, foraging strategies]
The current global fisheries crises have immense implications for the health and viability of animal populations, as well
as the ecosystems and habitats that support this biodiversity. These crises have provoked a wide variety of management solutions
and alternatives that are closely aligned with other small-scale resource extraction conservation approaches, but have been
analyzed separately from the common-pool resource management literature. We summarize findings from an analysis of progressive
small-scale fisheries worldwide and find that solutions arise from a historical trial and error management process as problems
become dire. We find high success in the social organization and regulation of resources among these progressive fisheries
but poor evidence for improved ecosystems. Based on evidence provided by the most progressive fisheries, we suggest a change
in policy towards the management of small-scale fisheries. This change includes four major avenues of problem solving that
focus on facilitating socio-ecological processes rather than primarily promoting a high level of quantitative science and
implementing findings, technological concepts, or tools. Adoption is often culturally and context specific and, therefore,
the above often have poor success when not socially integrated. We encourage facilitating and catalyzing local-level adoption
of rules that create limits to appropriation and technology, since it is increasingly recognized that such limits are key
solutions to the threats. This will be achieved if policy and actions (1) encourage professionalism (formation of “societies”,
setting standards, certification, self-policing, appropriate technology, etc.), (2) create forums where all opinions about
solutions, the status of targeted species, and environmental requirements are represented, (3) promote social rules that consider
the realities and limits of the households and local social economy, and (4) craft solutions tailored to the specific and
agreed upon diagnoses. We predict that as this socio-ecological process matures, it will also increase the inclusiveness of
resource management goals to include non-use factors, such as biodiversity and other ecosystem services, which are still poorly
evaluated and managed in even the most progressive small-scale fisheries.
In Latin America the small-scale fishery ofmarine benthic invertebrates is based onhigh-value species. It represents a source offood and employment and generates importantincomes to fishers and, in some cases, exportearnings for the countries. In the review, wedefine 2 key concepts: small-scale fishery andco-management. We address the temporalextractive phases which Latin Americanshellfish resources have experienced, and thecorresponding socio-economic and managerialscenarios. We include 3 study cases in whichco-management and field experimentation havebeen used on different temporal and spatialscales: (a) the muricid gastropod (Concholepas concholepas) in Chile; (b) theyellow clam (Mesodesma mactroides) inUruguay; and (c) the spiny lobster (Panulirusargus) in Mexico. We demonstratethat co-management constitutes an effectiveinstitutional arrangement by which fishers,scientists and managers interact to improve thequality of the regulatory process and may serveto sustain Latin American shellfisheries overtime. The main factors supporting co-managementare: (a) a comparatively reduced scale offishing operations and well-defined boundariesfor the management unit; (b) the allocation ofinstitutionalized co-ownership authority tofishers; (c) the voluntary participation of thefishers in enforcing regulations; (d) theimprovement of scientific information(including data from fishers) to consolidatethe management schemes; (e) the incorporation ofcommunity traditions and idiosyncrasies; and (f)the allocation of territorial use rights forfisheries under a collaborative/voluntarycommunity framework. Chile is identified as anexample in which basic ecological and fisheryconcepts have been institutionalized throughmanagement practices and incorporated into theLaw. Several factors have precludedshellfishery management success in most of theLatin American countries: (a) the social andpolitical instability, (b) the underestimationof the role of fisheries science in managementadvice, (c) the inadequacy of data collectionand information systems, (d) the poorimplementation and enforcement of managementpractices and (e) the uncertainty in short-termeconomic issues.
In the review, we also show that in LatinAmerica, large-scale fishery experiments arestarting to play an important role in theevaluation of alternative management policieson benthic shellfisheries, especially whenaccompanied by co-management approaches thatexplicitly involve the participation offishers. Fisher exclusion experiments havedemonstrated changes in unexploited versusexploited benthic shellfish populations and inthe structure and functioning of communities.The information has been used by scientists toapproach system elasticity. Ecological andfishery related knowledge has been translatedinto novel co-managerial strategies. Thesedentary nature of the shellfish speciesanalyzed in this review allowed localizedexperiments with different levels of stockabundance and fishing intensity (e.g., marinereserves or maritime concessions versus openaccess areas). This includes the establishmentof closed seasons as de facto managementexperiments, which proved useful in evaluatingthe capacity of passive restocking of depletedareas and for the quantification of populationdemographic features. The precise location offishing grounds provided reliable area-specificestimates of population density and structure,catch, and fishing effort. This allowed theallocation of catch quotas in each fishingground. We also discuss the reliability andapplicability of spatially explicit managementtools. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) andTerritorial User Rights in Fisheries (TURFs)fulfilled objectives for management andconservation and served as experimentationtools. The examples provided in our reviewinclude a comparative synthesis of the relativeusefulness of alternative spatially explicitmanagement tools under a framework ofmanagement redundancy. The cross-linkagebetween fishery experimental managementprotocols and the active participation offishers is suggested as the strategy to befollowed to improve the sustainable managementof small-scale shellfisheries in Latin America.Finally, we discuss the future needs,challenges and issues that need to be addressedto improve the management status of thesmall-scale shellfisheries in Latin America,and, in general, around the world. We concludethat for the sustainability of shellfishresources there is an urgent need to look forlinkages between sociology, biology andeconomics under an integrated managementframework. Fishers, and not the shellfish, mustbe in the center of such a framework.
Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons model predicts the eventual overexploitation or degradation of all resources used in common. Given this unambiguous prediction, a surprising number of cases exist in which users have been able to restrict access to the resource and establish rules among themselves for its sustainable use. To assess the evidence, we first define common-property resources and present a taxonomy of property-rights regimes in which such resources may be held. Evidence accumulated over the last twenty-two years indicates that private, state, andcommunal property are all potentially viable resource management options. A more complete theory than Hardin's should incorporate institutional arrangements and cultural factors to provide for better analysis and prediction.
During the last 20 years, the existence of rich systems of local knowledge, and their vital support to resource use and management regimes, has been demonstrated in a wide range of biological, physical and geographical domains, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry and agroforestry, medicine, and marine science and fisheries.
Local knowledge includes empirical and practical components that are fundamental to sustainable resource management. Among coastal-marine fishers, for example, regular catches and, often, long-term resource sustainment are ensured through the application of knowledge that encompasses empirical information on fish behaviour, marine physical environments, fish habitats and the interactions among ecosystem components, as well as complex fish taxonomies. Local knowledge is therefore an important cultural resource that guides and sustains the operation of customary management systems. The sets of rules that compose a fisheries management system derive directly from local concepts and knowledge of the resources on which the fishery is based.
Beyond the practical and the empirical, it is essential to recognise the fundamental socio-cultural importance of local knowledge to any society. It is through knowledge transmission and socialisation that worldviews are constructed, social institutions perpetuated, customary practices established, and social roles defined. In this manner, local knowledge and its transmission, shape society and culture, and culture and society shape knowledge.
Local knowledge is of great potential practical value. It can provide an important information base for local resources management, especially in the tropics, where conventionally-used data are usually scarce to non-existent, as well as providing a shortcut to pinpoint essential scientific research needs. To be useful for resources management, however, it must be systematically collected and scientifically verified, before being blended with complementary information derived from Western-based sciences.
But local knowledge should not be looked on with only a short-term utilitarian eye. Arguments widely accepted for conserving biodiversity, for example, are also applicable to the intellectual cultural diversity encompassed in local knowledge systems: they should be conserved because their utility may only be revealed at some later date or owing to their intrinsic value as part of the world's global heritage.
At least in cultures with a Western liberal tradition, more than lip-service is now being paid to alternative systems of knowledge. The denigration of alternative knowledge systems as backward, inefficient, inferior, and founded on myth and ignorance has recently begun to change. Many such practices are a logical, sophisticated and often still-evolving adaptation to risk, based on generations of empirical experience and arranged according to principles, philosophies and institutions that are radically different from those prevailing in Western scientific circles, and hence all-but incomprehensible to them. But steadfastly held prejudices remain powerful.
In this presentation I describe the 'design principles' of local knowledge systems, with particular reference to coastal-marine fishing communities, and their social and practical usefulness. I then examine the economic, ideological and institutional factors that combine to perpetuate the marginalisation and neglect of local knowledge, and discuss some of the requirements for applying local knowledge in modern management.
Recent work has dealt with the local management of aquatic resources as an alternative to Hardin's (1968) tragedy of the commons. In communities with no formal management of resources, informal ownership of fishing spots or conflicts with outside competitors may determine the basis for future local management. In this study, I analyze the use of aquatic resources by five fishing communities on the Atlantic Forest coast of southeast Brazil: Bzios Island, Puruba, and Picinguaba in So Paulo State, and Jaguanum and Itacuru Islands at Sepetiba Bay in Rio de Janeiro State. Informal ownership of fishing spots, used for set gillnet fishing, is regulated by kin ties at Bzios Island. The artisanal fishers of Sepetiba Bay, especially those from Jaguanum Island, have a conflict with Bay intruders, such as the shrimp and herring trawlers. Two coastal communities, Puruba and Picinguaba, have conflicts with fishing regulations from a State Park (Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar),created in 1977. The transformation of populated areas of the Atlantic Forest to Extractive Reserves might be a way to avoid conflicts with intruders and with governmental agencies, and to involve local populations in management. Kinship rules at Bzios Island and the territorial behavior of fishers at Sepetiba Bay may form a basis for local organization.
No-take marine reserves (NTRs) may promote recovery of exploited populations within their boundaries and spillover of fishes to adjacent fishing grounds, thus potentially benefiting the local fisheries. Although some studies have measured spillover by examining gradients of fish abundance and body size across reserve boundaries, there are no such studies to date including information from before reserve establishment, thus seriously limiting interpretation of results. We measured reef fish spillover from a NTR (Itacolomis Reef, Eastern Brazil) by estimating biomass and body size across the reserve boundary before (2001) and after (2002–2005) initiation of protection. Replicate sites were sampled inside and outside the reserve, with unprotected sites included in three distance categories from the reserve boundary: 0–400, 400–800 and 800–1200 m. This latter category generally surpasses the scales over which spillover is expected to influence patterns of fish abundance outside reserves (generally <500 m), particularly for relatively sedentary fishes, thus acting as a control for the reserve effect. Habitat measurements were undertaken at the same sites, from 2003 on. Biomass of Scarustrispinosus, a major fishery resource and the dominant species in terms of biomass (37.4% of total biomass), was lower inside the reserve area before its establishment. During this same period, no individuals of two primary target species, Mycteropercabonaci and Sparisomaaxillare, were recorded inside the reserve. Coral cover was consistently lower inside the reserve from 2003 on. Biomass and body size of M. bonaci, as well as biomass of Ocyuruschrysurus, increased continuously inside the reserve after its establishment, with no similar increases recorded in control sites. Evidences of spillover (i.e. higher biomass inside the reserve and in unprotected sites closer to its boundary) were obtained for M. bonaci, O. chrysurus and S. trispinosus, although this pattern was only marginally significant for O. chrysurus. Despite these positive signs, recovery and spillover of S. trispinosus were probably inhibited by increased poaching from 2003 on. Our results indicate that the NTR at Itacolomis Reef was established a priori on poor quality habitats. Thus, future spatial comparisons between protected and unprotected sites would underestimate changes due to protection. These findings highlight the importance of baseline information and continued monitoring for adequately understanding the effects of NTRs, as well as the need of closer collaboration between natural and social scientists in order to effectively protect high-quality habitats in the long term while accounting for the socio-economic needs of local fishing communities.
Marine reserves are areas of the sea where fishing is not allowed. They provide refuges where populations of exploited species can recover and habitats modified by fishing can regenerate. In some places, closed areas have been used for fisheries management for centuries [1] and, until recently, natural refugia also existed, inaccessible through depth, distance or adverse conditions. Developments in technology have left few areas of fishing interest beyond our reach. Recently, the idea of marine reserves as fisheries management tools has re-emerged with developing interest in ecosystem-based management, and observations of incidental fisheries benefits from reserves established for conservation. In light of new evidence, we argue that, by integrating large-scale networks of marine reserves into fishery management, we could reverse global fishery declines and provide urgently needed protection for marine species and their habitats.
The newly elected democratic government of South Africa, has promulgated new policies and legislation which advocate alternative approaches to resource management which involve user groups. Co-management has been identified as one such strategy. An overview and analysis of selected coastal and fisheries co-management case studies in South Africa is given and key lessons are highlighted. Research findings indicate that co-management in South Africa is still in its infancy, making it difficult to provide conclusive statements about its success or failure. Nevertheless, the paper highlights some of the key conditions that are required for co-management to operate effectively in South Africa and some of the existing obstacles to practical implementation.
In this study, we sought to investigate the biology (diet and reproduction) and ethnobiology (fishers knowledge and fishing spots used to catch snappers) of five species of snappers (Lutjanidae), including Lutjanus analis, Lutjanus synagris, Lutjanus vivanus, Ocyurus chrysurus, and Romboplites saliens at five sites along the northeast (Riacho Doce, Maceió in Alagoas State, and Porto do Sauípe, Entre Rios at Bahia State) and the southeast (SE) Brazilian coast (Paraty and Rio de Janeiro cities at Rio de Janeiro State, and Bertioga, at São Paulo State.).
We collected 288 snappers and interviewed 86 fishermen. The stomach contents of each fish were examined and macroscopic gonad analysis was performed. Snappers are very important for the fisheries of NE Brazil, and our results indicated that some populations, such as mutton snapper (L. analis) and lane snapper (L. synagris), are being caught when they are too young, at early juvenile stages.
Local knowledge has been shown to be a powerful tool for determining appropriate policies regarding management of target species, and artisanal fishermen can be included in management processes. Other suggestions for managing the fisheries are discussed, including proposals that could provide motivation for artisanal fishermen to participate in programs to conserve resources, such as co-management approaches that utilize local knowledge, the establishment of fishing seasons, and compensation of fishermen, through 'payment for environmental services'. These suggestions may enhance the participation of local artisanal fishermen in moving to a more realistic and less top-down management approach of the fish population.
"The management of small-scale artisanal fisheries in Brazil should be a priority because of their importance as a source of food for internal markets and their location in sites with high biodiversity, such as the Atlantic Forest coast. Fishing spots, territories, and sea tenure have been widely studied within artisanal fisheries, and, in this study, a fishing spot of this type may be a defended area or an area that imposes rules for users, making the exclusion of outsiders feasible, or even a place in which fishing occurs with some exclusivity. This analysis takes into account the importance of fishing areas for the conservation of artisanal fishing in Brazil and the relative temporal stability of these areas. In particular, examples of the use of the marine space on the coast of Brazil in areas such as Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Bahia States are presented. Fishing spots used by artisanal fishers were marked using a Global Positioning System (GPS). An informal division of the marine space and high temporal stability, often in the range of 10-30 yr, in the use of the fishing spots were found. For some fishing areas, information published in the 1960s provided a relevant comparison for the current use of the fishing spots at sea. Such information is very helpful for the management of artisanal fishing in Brazil because tourism has increased in some areas, recreational fishers have been fishing in marine spots used by artisanal fishers, and industrial fishers are spread over a wide range of the marine space in these coastal waters. This stability in the use of marine space among artisanal fishers plus local rules support the case for local co-management of artisanal fisheries. Reserving areas for artisanal fishers and understanding the behavior of other users are essential aspects for the management and conservation of artisanal fishing in Brazil."
The Policy Forum “Ecosystem-based fishery management” by E. K. Pikitch et al. (16 July 2004, p. [346][1]) proposes ecosystem-based fishery management (EBFM) as a new direction for fishery management, reversing the order of priorities, to start with ecosystem considerations rather than the target
Economics is the study of how people allocate scarce resources among competing ends. This allocation addresses the production and distribution of goods and services over time and space. It takes place within the context of both human behaviour and organisational structure. In publicly owned fisheries, economics is further concerned with the allocation of access to the resource and with managing the interaction of people with the resource. Fisheries co-management, as an arrangement where responsibility for resource management is shared between the government and user groups, is one approach to allocating access and to managing the interaction.
In Brazil, Marine Extractive Reserves—MERs (Reservas Extrativistas Marinhas) represent the most significant government-supported effort to protect the common property resources upon which traditional small-scale fishers depend. From an initial small-scale experience in 1992, MERs have expanded countrywide, now encompassing 30 units We deeply acknowledge all fisherfolk from the MERC for their patience and collaboration.
Key Words marine protected areas, customary marine tenure, Pacific Island conservation s Abstract Twenty-five years ago, the centuries-old Pacific Island practice of community-based marine resource management (CBMRM) was in decline, the vic-tim of various impacts of westernization. During the past two decades, however, this decline has reversed in various island countries. Today CBMRM continues to grow, refuting the claim that traditional non-Western attitudes toward nature cannot provide a sound foundation for contemporary natural resource management. Limited entry, marine protected areas, closed areas, closed seasons, and restrictions on damaging or overly efficient fishing methods are some of the methods being used. Factors con-tributing to the upsurge include a growing perception of scarcity, the restrengthening of traditional village-based authority, and marine tenure by means of legal recogni-tion and government support, better conservation education, and increasingly effective assistance, and advice from regional and national governments and NGOs. Today's CBMRM is thus a form of cooperative management, but one in which the community still makes and acts upon most of the management decisions.
A regional experiment in co-management is underway in the Lower Amazon that is developing the basic policy and institutional
elements for an ecosystem-based approach to floodplain management. This initiative grew out of the grassroots movement of
floodplain communities who, concerned with excessive commercial fishing pressure on local fisheries, took control of local
lakes and implemented collective agreements regulating fishing activity. This paper describes the main elements of the evolving
regional management system. This process has focused on four main dimensions of floodplain settlement and resource use: development
of sustainable management systems for floodplain resources, policies and institutions for fisheries co-management, collective
agreements for grazing cattle on floodplain grasslands, and a land tenure policy consistent with the objectives of the evolving
co-management system. Over the last year INCRA, the National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform, has begun implementation
of a comprehensive new land tenure policy that could resolve structural deficiencies in the existing co-management system
and provide the basis for the ecosystem-based management of the Lower Amazon floodplain.
This paper analyses shrimp caught from the wild and farmed shrimp in Brazil, focusing on production, amounts exported and
earnings, with comparisons drawn to all of South America and the world in general. We show that wild caught shrimp still comprises
the majority of what is produced and exported in Brazil, although aquaculture has been taking a relevant role in the internal
and external scenario, reaching similar levels of extraction in recent years. Despite some fluctuations in the amount of extracted
shrimp, Brazil increased its production from 15,000tons in 1950 to 80,000 in 2004. The money earned with shrimp product exportation,
which includes farmed shrimp as well, followed a similar tendency. Shrimp aquaculture began late in Brazil, in 1974, and grew
slowly until 1995, initiating an accelerated growing process; current estimates assume 50,000 people are employed in this
activity, producing about 76,000tons of shrimp every year. Although still incipient in relation to the world shrimp farmed
production, Brazil has been assuming a relevant role in South America, yielding 44% of its total production, in 2004. Despite
the importance of shrimp to the country, no studies have been conducted to explore the interrelations between the environmental
and social consequences of such unplanned aquaculture growth or uncontrolled wild shrimp fishing. Based on previous observations,
conflicts exist between different fishing scales. However, the consequences of shrimp farming on society (displacement from
their lands, changes in the life quality, etc.) have not yet been explored. Both activities, shrimp exploitation and aquaculture,
deserve better control and structure toward sustainable shrimp fishing and farming.
