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Good News! Capitalizing on Positive Events in an Interpersonal Context
Abstract
Good things happen. In fact, positive events occur more often than negative events. In this chapter, we review research showing that people often turn to others to share their good news, a process called capitalization. These studies show that both the act of telling others about good events and the response of the person with whom the event was shared have personal and interpersonal consequences. We outline a theoretical foundation and propose a model of capitalization processes that includes mechanisms linking the act of telling others and their response to personal and interpersonal outcomes. This research has shown that when the close other responds in an active and constructive manner (and not in a passive or destructive manner), both the discloser and the relationship between the discloser and the responder profit. Personal benefits linked to capitalization processes include increased positive emotions, subjective well-being, and self-esteem, and decreased loneliness. Relationship benefits associated with capitalization processes include satisfaction, intimacy, commitment, trust, liking, closeness, and stability. We also review evidence for mechanisms involved in capitalization processes. Throughout this chapter, we discuss capitalization processes in the larger context of how people “cope” during good times and the value of having supportive partners in this process. Although research has consistently emphasized coping with negative events, our work suggests that positive events similarly provide both opportunities and challenges.
... For example, older adults might tell their children that they had great fun in an adapted group exercise programme (i.e. a capitalisation attempt). Research shows that the success of capitalisation attempts largely depends on types of responses people receive from others, and successful capitalisation follows constructive and engaging responses that focus on positive aspects of the event and continue the interaction (Gable & Reis, 2010). For instance, the children might respond by saying that 'That's wonderful! ...
... For example, digital leisure can help grandparents communicate with their grandchildren and strengthen positive relationships between them (Ruiz et al., 2022). Although successful capitalisation has been linked to SWB (Gable & Reis, 2010), gerontological research has not examined the effect of capitalisation on SWB within the context of digital leisure. Given a rapid increase in ICT use by older adults (H. ...
... Third, given that successful capitalisation follows constructive and engaging responses focusing on positive aspects of the event and continue the interaction (Gable & Reis, 2010), practitioners should encourage older adults to share their positive life events in various formats (e.g. online forum) and respond to them in constructive and engaging manners when attempting to help older adults foster their SWB. ...
... PA has demonstrated benefits in key areas, including improving mental health (Carson et al., 2004;Folkman, 2008;Fredrickson, 1998;Kauffman & Silberman, 2009;Leger et al., 2020;Lyubomirsky et al., 2005;Ong, 2010;Ong et al., 2006;Pressman et al., 2019;Rackoff & Newman, 2020;Zhaoyang et al., 2020). PA has also been shown to facilitate dyadic problem-solving (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005;Tashiro & Frazier, 2007) and ease one's ability to make and maintain intimate connections more broadly (Fredrickson, 1998;Gable & Reis, 2010;Hilpert et al., 2016;Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Taken together, existing theory and research suggest that PA is a key facet of health promotion and resilience for both the partnered individual and the couple. ...
... Among different-sex couples, clinical improvements in PA are an active ingredient in both relationship (Coulter & Malouff, 2013) and individual (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005) well-being. This is because partners may assist one another in behaviors that improve PA (Gable & Reis, 2010), which could in turn benefit the quality of their relationships (Algoe & Zhaoyang, 2016;Carson et al., 2004;Gable & Reis, 2010;Kauffman & Silberman, 2009;Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Because SGMs in relationships already rely on partners for coping, this may be an easily translatable clinical technique-but results from the present study suggest the need to tailor these strategies to meet SGM-AMABs' specific needs. ...
... Among different-sex couples, clinical improvements in PA are an active ingredient in both relationship (Coulter & Malouff, 2013) and individual (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005) well-being. This is because partners may assist one another in behaviors that improve PA (Gable & Reis, 2010), which could in turn benefit the quality of their relationships (Algoe & Zhaoyang, 2016;Carson et al., 2004;Gable & Reis, 2010;Kauffman & Silberman, 2009;Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Because SGMs in relationships already rely on partners for coping, this may be an easily translatable clinical technique-but results from the present study suggest the need to tailor these strategies to meet SGM-AMABs' specific needs. ...
Positive affect (PA) is a key determinant of well-being among sexual and gender minorities (SGMs). Despite a well-formed literature on PA’s beneficial impact in other contexts (e.g., HIV care) among SGMs, little work has examined PA’s interrelations with mental and relational well-being among partnered SGMs. We examined the normative trajectory of PA among partnered SGMs assigned male at birth (SGM-AMABs; N = 155) embedded in a longitudinal cohort (2008–2022) and associated this with key indices of well-being (depression, negative communication, relationship quality, dyadic coping). Next, we modeled PA’s association with well-being among a subset of couples enrolled in this cohort (N = 43 dyads). Latent growth curve models suggested that PA declined over time, but that any increased PA was associated with lower depression and higher relationship quality. Actor–partner interdependence models suggested a similar health-promotive association of PA, as well as novel associations that should be the topic of future study. Collectively, these results imply that interventions designed to increase PA among SGM-AMABs should consider the dyadic context and may be successfully applied to increase SGM-AMABs’ well-being.
... Sharing mutual positive emotions is beneficial for not only the partner but also the actor who willingly embraces the partner's disclosure (Hicks & Diamond, 2008;Monfort et al., 2014). Conversely, passive, and destructive responses are negatively related to the relationship outcomes (see Gable & Reis, 2010;Peters et al., 2018, for reviews). The positive and negative consequences of different levels of PRCA have been explored in several studies. ...
... The impacts of positive events in daily life are generally underestimated compared to negative ones. Indeed, positive situations occur more often than negative ones (Gable & Reis, 2010). If a person shares own happiness and thinks that s/he gets the attention s/he expects from the partner, this protects the person from the impact of adverse situations. ...
... Mattering, however, relates to when interest and support could be provided without request. It should also be acknowledged that these constructs are double-edged in the sense that they not only nourish the relationship when perceived positively, but they may also have destructive effects when they are not perceived positively enough (Flett et al., 2016;see;Gable & Reis, 2010). Although PRCA and PM were investigated together from the perspective of basic psychological needs in a friendship study (Demir & Davidson, 2013), the interplay between them from the attachment perspective has yet to be explored. ...
Why do some perceive a partner’s response as heartening while others interpret the same response as demoralizing? This study examined how attachment anxiety and avoidance influence perceived partner responses toward capitalization attempts (PRCA) and perceived mattering (PM) among married couples (N = 103 dyads). Dyadic analyses delineating the actor and partner effects revealed that wives’ attachment avoidance predicted own PRCA, PM, and their husbands’ PRCA. Whereas husbands’ attachment avoidance predicted own PM and their wives’ PRCA and PM, husbands’ attachment anxiety predicted only their PRCA and PM. The interaction between wife and husband attachment anxiety also predicted the husbands’ PRCA and PM. Husbands, but not wives, perceived the lowest level of PRCA and PM when both couples had high attachment anxiety. The results were discussed in the context of the interplay between attachment orientations and partner responsiveness in Turkish culture.
... Sharing good news with others is done with good reason as discussing positive events with others is associated with a range of benefits. Beyond any interpersonal benefits, sharing positive events and news with others allows people to savor life's upswings, increasing attention to and appreciation of positive experiences (Gable & Reis, 2010;Gable et al., 2004). ...
... By positive information, we mean information that an individual globally evaluates as positively valenced. In contrast to the research that shows secrecy is burdensome and that people are better off sharing good news (Critcher & Ferguson, 2014;Gable & Reis, 2010;Gable et al., 2004;Larson et al., 2015;Quinn & Chaudoir, 2009;Slepian et al., 2017), the current research reveals that keeping positive information secret can be beneficial by fostering feelings of energy for the positive secret holder. ...
... In addition, the intent to share also had an independent effect on energy (similar to the positive effects of actually sharing good news with others; Gable & Reis, 2010). Importantly, participants felt more energized in the secret good news condition relative to the non-secret good news condition independent of whether they intended to share their good news. ...
Existing wisdom holds that secrecy is burdensome and fatiguing. However, past research has conflated secrecy with the kinds of adverse events that are often kept secret. As a result, it is unclear whether secrecy is inherently depleting, or whether these consequences vary based on the underlying meaning of the secret. We resolve this confound by examining the consequences of positive secrets. In contrast to the prior research, five experiments (N = 2,800) find that positive secrets increase feelings of energy, relative to (a) content-matched positive non-secrets, (b) other pieces of unknown positive information, and (c) other kinds of secrets. Importantly, these energizing effects of positive secrets were independent of positive affect. We further found that positive secrets are energizing because, compared to other kinds of secrets, people keep them for more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated reasons. That is, these secrets are more freely chosen, more consistent with personal values, and more motivated by internal desires (than by external pressures). Using both measures and manipulations of these motivations, we found that a motivational mechanism helps explain the energizing effect of positive secrets. The present results offer new insights into secrecy, how people respond to positive life events, and the subjective experiences of vitality and energy.
... This research makes several theoretical contributions. First, by exploring how coworkers' WIC generate beneficial and detrimental effects on employees' well-being outcomes, we challenge the prevailing consensus that capitalization can universally boost recipients' well-being (Gable and Reis, 2010). Our integrated model provided a basis for further inquiry into the nature and function of interpersonal relationships in organizations. ...
... Although there are benefits to promoting WIC among coworkers (enhanced relatedness; e.g. Gable and Reis, 2010), managers need to recognize its potential dark side in the workplace. Our findings reveal that coworkers' WIC generates anxiety and undermines detachment, aligning with SDM. ...
Purpose
Although coworkers’ workplace interpersonal capitalization occurs every day in the workplace, we know little about how it affects employees’ well-being or why and when this impact occurs. To address these questions, we theorized and tested a model that links coworkers’ capitalization to well-being outcomes via perceived relatedness and anxiety and the boundary condition of learning goal orientation.
Design/methodology/approach
Time-lagged survey data were collected ( N = 304) from a range of organizations in mainland China. Path modeling was used to examine the hypotheses.
Findings
The results indicated that coworkers’ capitalization drives an employee to experience either relatedness or anxiety, depending on the employee’s learning goal orientation. Furthermore, responses to relatedness and anxiety trigger autonomous motivation and psychological detachment, respectively.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the capitalization literature by comprehensively explaining the negative and positive effects of coworkers’ capitalization on employees’ well-being.
... For example, the concept of capitalization explains the interpersonal process of disclosing positive events to close others, which has been linked to individual and relationship well-being [26]. When engaging in capitalization, people disclose positive information to enhance their level of positive affect, and in turn experience lower emotional distress and increased intimacy [27]. This has been studied further, demonstrating that the sharing of positive moods and life events has shown positive benefits to both the sender and the receiver, and has been associated with increased daily positive affect and life satisfaction [17], increased relationship satisfaction and feelings of trust [17,28,29], increased self-esteem and decreased loneliness [30], and decreased negative affect [27]. ...
... When engaging in capitalization, people disclose positive information to enhance their level of positive affect, and in turn experience lower emotional distress and increased intimacy [27]. This has been studied further, demonstrating that the sharing of positive moods and life events has shown positive benefits to both the sender and the receiver, and has been associated with increased daily positive affect and life satisfaction [17], increased relationship satisfaction and feelings of trust [17,28,29], increased self-esteem and decreased loneliness [30], and decreased negative affect [27]. Interestingly, previous studies suggest that even when experiencing negative life events (e.g., coping with a chronic illness like cancer), engaging in capitalization and sharing positive emotions and events with intimate partners enhances relationship well-being independently of sharing bad news [e.g., 29]. ...
Self-disclosure and the social sharing of emotions facilitate social relationships and can positively affect people's well-being. Nevertheless, individuals might refrain from engaging in these interpersonal communication behaviours with other people, due to socio-emotional barriers, such as shame and stigma. Social robots, free from these human-centric judgements, could encourage openness and overcome these barriers. Accordingly, this paper reviews the role of self-disclosure and social sharing of emotion in human-robot interactions (HRIs), particularly its implications for emotional well-being and the dynamics of social relationship building between humans and robots. We investigate the transition of self-disclosure dynamics from traditional human-to-human interactions to HRI, revealing the potential of social robots to bridge socio-emotional barriers and provide unique forms of emotional support. This review not only highlights the therapeutic potential of social robots but also raises critical ethical considerations and potential drawbacks of these interactions, emphasising the importance of a balanced approach to integrating robots into emotional support roles. The review underscores a complex but promising frontier at the intersection of technology and emotional well-being, advocating for careful consideration of ethical standards and the intrinsic human need for connection as we advance in the development and application of social robots.
... On the other hand, when responders show general positivity and interest toward their partner (e.g., happiness, enthusiasm, and smiling), dyads are expected to be more physiologically synchronized with each other. When responding to the good news of others with displays of enthusiasm and excitement, responders' behavior is linked to positive outcomes for the couple (Gable & Reis, 2010;Gable et al., 2006). Positive emotion and, in particular, shared positive emotion within a dyad have been linked to physiological synchrony (Chen et al., 2021). ...
... At a time when many scholars are trying to understand what synchrony means and why it occurs, these data in combination with other work illustrate that even the same behavior can be differentially associated with synchrony depending on the situation and the process underlying the behavior. When hearing their partners' disclosures of good news, people have a key opportunity to demonstrate responsiveness by exhibiting enthusiasm, interest, and attentiveness, thereby signaling their support for their partner's aspirations (Gable & Reis, 2010;Peters et al., 2018a). Accordingly, in this study, we found that responders' behaviors played an important role in couples' physiological synchrony: Greater behavioral positivity and less neglect and withdrawal from responders were associated with more dyadic synchrony. ...
Physiological synchrony—or similarity between two people’s physiological responses—is thought to have important consequences for health and well-being and has been observed in social relationship contexts. The present study investigated variability in dyads’ physiological synchrony as a function of both partners’ behaviors during an emotionally salient discussion. We examined concurrent covariation in cardiac interbeat intervals in a sample of young adult romantic couples (N = 79 dyads) who discussed the coordination of a personal goal with the future of their relationship (data collected from 2013 to 2015). Partners assigned to be disclosers revealed hypothetical good news (e.g., a dream job offer) with their partner, the responder, who reacted to this disclosure. To understand covariation–behavior associations, we examined three motivationally relevant behaviors that may underlie synchrony based on people’s role in the discussion. We found significant variability in how much couples experienced covariation, and covariation depended, at least in part, on people’s behaviors during the discussions. When disclosers spoke more (a behavior associated with less satisfying relationships and less positive partner perceptions), dyads experienced less physiological covariation. Furthermore, when responders showed more neglect and withdrawal, and when both partners displayed less positive emotion, dyads experienced less physiological covariation. These findings underscore couples’ physiological synchrony as a heterogeneous process that can emerge with the presence of greater behavioral and emotional positivity.
... Implicit in the above hypotheses is the assumption that hedonic IER provides relational benefits in Western cultural contexts, while such benefits or potential drawbacks of counter-hedonic regulation might be weaker in Asian cultural contexts. Indeed, evidence is mounting that couple members who help their partner regulate their emotions in a hedonically pleasant way attain higher relationship quality, while failure to do so can seriously undermine relational quality (Feeney & Collins, 2015;Gable & Reis, 2010;. However, this evidence, primarily based on Western populations, may not extend to Asian populations, who are less motivated toward hedonic goals and instead value more balanced emotional experiences. ...
... This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. This finding adds to the large body of literature documenting the benefits of hedonic emotion regulation in close relationship contexts (Feeney & Collins, 2015;Gable & Reis, 2010;Levenson et al., 2014). Importantly, however, our analysis showed that these well-established benefits were substantially attenuated among Chinese. ...
A central tenet guiding contemporary research on emotions is that people are fundamentally motivated to feel good and avoid feeling bad. This principle translates from intrapersonal to extrinsic interpersonal emotion regulation; people not only strive to achieve the hedonic goal of managing their own emotions, but they also help others reach the same goal—the process called hedonic interpersonal emotion regulation (hedonic IER). Here, we challenge the centrality of this principle in romantic relationships by testing a hypothesis that, compared with European Americans, Asians use hedonic IER less and benefit less from their partners’ use of this strategy. Findings across three studies (total N = 2,540) supported this hypothesis. First, European Americans used hedonic IER more than Asians both in positive and negative situations, and, moreover, this cultural difference was mediated by dialectical beliefs about emotions (Study 1). Second, compared with Chinese, European Americans anticipated greater relationship satisfaction in response to their partners’ hedonic IER attempts in both positive and negative situations, and this effect was again mediated by dialectical emotion beliefs (Study 2). Third, compared with Asian couples, European American couples perceived that their partners used hedonic IER more in positive situations. Moreover, when European Americans perceived that their partners used hedonic IER more, they showed greater vagal withdrawal during a positive discussion (i.e., physiological reactivity linked to enhanced social sensitivity and engagement), while Asians did not show this association (Study 3). These findings highlight the critical role of sociocultural contexts in shaping IER and its relational consequences.
... This work also makes important contributions to the literature on emotion and self-disclosure, which currently provides limited understanding of interpersonal processes in contexts involving contemporaneously expressed positivity and negativity (e.g., Van Kleef, 2016). Research on self-disclosure has often focused on positive disclosures or negative disclosures, or the value of disclosing about positive events to others (e.g., Gable & Reis, 2010). The value of expressing positivity when disclosing about negative events has received scant consideration. ...
... Finally, this work contributes to the literature on close relationships. Whereas previous work has focused on the personal and relational benefits of disclosing about positive events and experiences (e.g., Gable & Reis, 2010;Peters et al., 2018), findings from the current work suggest that expressing positivity in negative contexts may also have benefits for seekers, providers, and their relationships. Although the current investigation focused on the effects of positive expressivity within the support interaction, the effects we observed on provider prorelational sentiments and efficacy beliefs and seekers' perceptions of provider responsiveness suggest that seeker-expressed positivity may confer benefits beyond the support interaction to the relationship more generally. ...
Receiving high-quality, responsive support in times of distress is critical but difficult. In a theoretical review, we previously proposed a process model that explains why support-seekers’ positive expressivity can elicit—but may sometimes suppress—supportive responses from partners (providers) within distress-related contexts. In the current work, we aimed to test direct and indirect pathways linking seeker’s positive expressivity in negative disclosures to provider’s support while addressing notable gaps in the existing literature. Studies considered seeker-expressed positivity as broad, unitary construct (Studies 1, 2, and 4) and explored different types of positivity (Studies 1, 3, and 4): partner-oriented positivity (e.g., gratitude), stressor-oriented positivity (e.g., optimism), and unspecified positivity (e.g., pleasant demeanor). In behavioral observation studies of romantic couples (Studies 1 and 4), seeker-expressed positivity in negative disclosures positively predicted provider responsiveness, even when controlling for seeker-expressed negativity and other plausible third variables. Online experiments with manipulations of seeker-expressed positivity (Studies 2 and 3) yielded causal evidence of positivity’s direct support-eliciting effects. Considering positivity types, partner-oriented positivity and stressor-oriented positivity showed the most robust support-eliciting potential; unspecified positivity also appeared valuable in some contexts. Evidence for several of the model’s indirect pathways emerged in correlational (Study 4) and experimental (Studies 2 and 3) work, providing insights into support-eliciting and support-suppressing mechanisms through which positivity operates. These findings underscore support-seekers’ active role in obtaining support, highlight the value of positive expressivity for eliciting high-quality support, and lay the groundwork for further research on positive expressivity’s effects in support-seeking contexts.
... For example, the literature on positive and negative work reflection also suggests that these are largely independent processes ( Jimenez et al. 2022), perhaps because they stimulate the approach and avoidance systems, which are themselves independent of one another. Similarly, Langston (1994) and Gable & Reis (2010) also noted a distinction between coping with adverse circumstances/negative events and capitalizing on what is positive in people's lives. These authors discuss that these processes are distinct because they are rooted in independent neurophysiological systems-appetitive and aversive (see also Gable et al. 2003)-consistent with JD-R theory and research (Bakker et al. 2023a, Ilies et al. 2020). ...
... A stream of literature in social psychology following Langston's influential work on capitalization ensued. This research firmly established that capitalizing on positive events by sharing them with close others (romantic partners, spouses) is indeed a strategy that enables people to amplify their benefits (see Gable & Reis 2010). Gable et al. (2004, p. 228) formally defined capitalization as "the process of informing another person about the occurrence of a personal event and thereby deriving additional benefit from it." ...
We review theory and research on how work events and experiences influence employee well-being, with a particular focus on the day-to-day effects of positive events and experiences. Then we discuss how employees can amplify the beneficial effects of work on well-being by savoring and reflecting upon positive events and experiences from work, and by capitalizing on them via interpersonal means, such as sharing work events and experiences with others. We integrate theory and research on savoring and interpersonal capitalization within affective events theory and the broader job demands–resources (JD-R) theory—and we explain how these approach-oriented agentic strategies that employees can easily use to derive additional psychological benefits from work experiences can extend JD-R theory. Specifically, we discuss how using these strategies can build additional resources, fulfill employees’ basic psychological needs, and make their jobs more meaningful, thereby enhancing well-being at the day-to-day level and in the long term.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 11 is January 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Cognitive abilities such as personal mastery, problem-solving skills and planfulness associated with self-esteem may facilitate the long-term positive influence of social connectedness on socioeconomic outcomes by fostering conducive developmental environments and opportunities. These psychological resources may operate as coping resources, which may trigger more adaptive coping options (e.g., positive reframing) to avoid or remove constraints stemming from social disconnectedness (Gable & Reis, 2010). ...
Social bonds are key for adolescent psychosocial development; how youth perceive their connectedness with family, school, peers, and communities varies widely, which may be interrelated with self-esteem over time. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 8760), researchers examined how: (1) family, school/peer, and community connectedness linked with youth self-esteem trajectory classes, (2) self-esteem trajectory classes link with young adult socioeconomic and relationship outcomes including education level, income and close relationship quality, and (3) social connectedness is differentially related to young adult outcomes across self-esteem trajectory classes. While results showed that connectedness was universally beneficial, there were multiple significant differences between self-esteem classes with high self-esteem class showing highest levels of community, school and parental connectedness. Among all comparisons, consistently high self-esteem yielded optimal young adult socioeconomic outcomes in education level and income compared with both decreasing and increasing classes and better relationship quality compared with increasing class. Identifying members of different self-esteem trajectory classes with various patterns, and differing levels of social connectedness and young adult outcomes provides useful information for early developmental efforts, and program formulation.
... People tend to spend much of their active day time (45% according to U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016) in the presence of another person. Everyday social encounters are important for psychological well-being (Gable & Reis, 2010) and decoding emotion expressions is an important skill for successful social interactions (Calvo et al., 2014). ...
Emotion Recognition Accuracy (ERA) is vital for social functioning and social relationships, yet empirical support for a positive link with well-being has been sparse. In three studies, we show that the Assessment of Contextualized Emotions (ACE) which distinguishes between accurately perceiving intended emotions and bias due to perceiving additional, secondary emotions, consistently predicted personal and social well-being. Across thirteen world cultures, accuracy was associated with higher well-being and life satisfaction, and bias linked to loneliness. A social interaction study in Czech Republic found accuracy (bias) was positively (negatively) associated with social well-being. The effects of accuracy and bias on well-being were partially mediated by social interaction quality in a third study. These findings further our understanding of ERA's social functions.
... People tend to spend much of their active day time (45% according to U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016) in the presence of another person. Everyday social encounters are important for psychological well-being (Gable & Reis, 2010) and decoding emotion expressions is an important skill for successful social interactions (Calvo et al., 2014). ...
Emotion Recognition Accuracy (ERA) is vital for social functioning and social relationships, yet empirical support for a positive link with well-being has been sparse. In three studies, we show that the Assessment of Contextualized Emotions (ACE) which distinguishes between accurately perceiving intended emotions and bias due to perceiving additional, secondary emotions, consistently predicted personal and social well-being. Across thirteen world cultures, accuracy was associated with higher well-being and life satisfaction, and bias linked to loneliness. A social interaction study in Czech Republic found accuracy (bias) was positively (negatively) associated with social well-being. The effects of accuracy and bias on well-being were partially mediated by social interaction quality in a third study. These findings further our understanding of ERA's social functions.
... Enjoyment is a powerful predictor of individuals' online self-disclosure behavior (Sun et al. 2015) since social media platforms are known for their pleasurable and interactive features, with new ones being added regularly to retain existing users and attract new ones (Krasnova et al. 2010;Sun et al. 2015). Sharing parenting experiences on social media can help alleviate feelings of sadness and anxiety, and reading about others' experiences can assist in reevaluating and reducing negative feelings (Doty and Dworkin 2014;Haslam, Tee, and Baker 2017;Gable and Reis 2010;Lin, Tov, and Qiu 2014). Kaur and Kumar (2021) posit that the antecedents of sharenting include feeling connected, feeling happy, having proud moments, and reducing stress. ...
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the psychological mechanisms that motivate sharenting behavior (the practice of parents sharing information and multimedia content about their children on social media) in the context of mini‐me fashion, where mothers or fathers wear matching outfits with their children. Based on mimicry behavior theory and self‐presentation, we use a mixed‐method approach to analyze 200 Instagram posts (study 1) and 303 surveys (study 2), and we examine the relationships of mimicry behavior and hedonism with self‐presentation and their impacts on brand engagement. The findings make theoretical contributions by confirming that mini‐me sharenting is considered an act of online self‐presentation primarily driven by hedonism and mimicry desire, thus leading to higher brand engagement and eWOM. Furthermore, the level of fashion market mavenism amplifies the impact of hedonism on brand engagement.
... Spouses and friends experienced greater affection when discussing enjoyable activities, but, on average, still experienced substantial affection (just below the midpoint of the scale) when discussing disagreements. Capitalizing on positive experiences is an important driver of connection in relationships (Gable & Reis, 2010) and seems to also promote feelings of affection. While affection appeared to be context-dependent at the micro (conversational) level, few differences emerged at the macro (relationship type) level. ...
Feelings of affection (i.e., fondness and intense positive regard) are a hallmark of close relationships. Existing studies have often examined affection as a trait or behavior, but rarely as an emotional experience in social interactions. In two dyadic observational interaction studies (total N = 314 individuals), 49 US-based married couples (age range: 21–65) and 108 friendship dyads (age range: 15–26) engaged in two naturalistic 10-min conversations about (a) a topic of disagreement (conflict conversation) and (b) something they enjoyed doing together (pleasant conversation) and reported on their subjective emotional experiences (e.g., affection, using an emotion checklist following each conversation) and relationship satisfaction. Conversation transcripts were analyzed using natural language analysis. Results showed that experiences of affection were most strongly associated with experiences of compassion, amusement, and excitement, as well as with less anger, and were unrelated to most other negative emotions. Natural language analysis further showed that greater positive (but not negative) emotional tone was associated with greater affection (especially among friends in the pleasant conversations). Levels of affection were consistently higher in pleasant versus conflict conversations and similar across marital versus friendship interactions. Finally, experiences of affection were associated with greater relationship satisfaction for friends across conversations and for spouses (women) in the pleasant conversation. These findings contribute to our understanding of affection as a foundational emotional experience in close relationships and highlight avenues for future research.
... This suggests that the relieving effects of social sharing may partly depend on the listener's responses. Prior research has indeed showed that a sharer's positive affect increases more when a listener responds enthusiastically (Gable & Reis, 2010) whereas a sharer's negative affect reduces more when a listener responds supportively (Nils & Rimé, 2012). Particularly in the case of negative affect, the listener's supportive behaviours can signal to the sharer that they do not have to face the shared event alone but instead have access to both parties' psychological resources which can be combined when coping with the event (Zaki & Williams, 2013). ...
We collected data from two sources – social media and online questionnaires – to investigate the emotional consequences of social sharing during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Study 1 tracked and analysed sentiment of tweets posted over the course of a month in the crisis period and found that users who tweeted more frequently about COVID‐19 expressed decreasing negative sentiment and increasing positive sentiment over time. Granger causality tests confirmed that this association was better interpreted in the forward direction (sharing levels predicting sentiment) than in the reverse direction (sentiment predicting sharing levels). Study 2 focused on immediate emotional consequences of sharing COVID‐19‐related events and found that participants reported improved overall affect about an event after sharing it, especially when that event was a personal experience rather than a news story. Reported positive feelings about both kinds of events were also significantly higher after sharing. Taken together, both studies suggested that social sharing is linked with emotional relief and may therefore help people to deal with their negative experiences during a persistent collective crisis.
... Here we focus on the psychological construct of 'feeling heard'-the perception that another individual truly comprehends your thoughts, feelings, and preferences, and receives it with attention, empathy, respect, and mutual understanding (Roos et al. 2023). The experience of feeling heard plays a significant role in human-human relationships (e.g., Gable and Reis 2010;Reis, Lemay Jr, and Finkenauer 2017). Feeling heard often involves empathy, where the listener not only seems to understand the speaker but also shares the speaker's emotions, deepening the sense of being genuinely understood (Myers 2000). ...
Chatbots are now able to engage in sophisticated conversations with consumers in the domain of relationships, providing a potential coping solution to widescale societal loneliness. Behavioral research provides little insight into whether these applications are effective at alleviating loneliness. We address this question by focusing on AI companions applications designed to provide consumers with synthetic interaction partners. Studies 1 and 2 find suggestive evidence that consumers use AI companions to alleviate loneliness, by employing a novel methodology for fine tuning large language models to detect loneliness in conversations and reviews. Study 3 finds that AI companions successfully alleviate loneliness on par only with interacting with another person, and more than other activities such watching YouTube videos. Moreover, consumers underestimate the degree to which AI companions improve their loneliness. Study 4 uses a longitudinal design and finds that an AI companion consistently reduces loneliness over the course of a week. Study 5 provides evidence that both the chatbots' performance and, especially, whether it makes users feel heard, explain reductions in loneliness. Study 6 provides an additional robustness check for the loneliness alleviating benefits of AI companions.
... Positive emotions widen the perceptual access of individuals, increasing their social connections (Fredrickson, 2013;Mauss et al., 2011). As perspective-taking enables understanding and approaching others, social resources are acquired, establishing social bonds (Gable & Reis, 2010;Yu et al., 2021). Thus: ...
Service organizations, particularly in the hospitality sector, are constantly under pressure to meet the ever-increasing and ever-changing expectations of the customers, in an innovative manner; making employee creativity a mainstream demand. Researchers and practitioners are pondering ways to frame employee creativity in the hospitality industry. This study aims to empirically investigate the role of positive affect in framing employee creativity in the hospitality industry. The broaden-and-build theory was employed to explain the framework under study, examining relations between affective, cognitive, psychological, and social factors that may shape employee creativity in the hospitality industry. Data was collected from 391 employees, working in hotels and restaurants in Pakistan, on a structured survey, by using a purposive sampling approach. The PLS-SEM approach was considered for data analysis. The findings show a positive relationship between positive affect and perspective-taking. The previously understudied relationship between perspective-taking and thriving at work was found significant. The relationship of perspective-taking with structural and relational social capital was also found significant. Supporting prior research, our results show that thriving at work and relational social capital lead to employee creativity. Interestingly, the relationship between structural social capital and employee creativity was insignificant. This study provides valuable insights for practitioners and hospitality managers to shape employee creativity by considering positive affect as a stimulator.
... This notion fits well with the extensive literature showing that perceived availability of support, beyond actual enacted levels of support, is a central determinant of successful relationships and individual well-being. The caregiving component of perceived responsiveness is prominent in many forms and theories, including the safe haven function of attachment theory (i.e., the idea that caregivers will be available when called upon), partner support for goal-directed strivings (Rusbult et al., 2009), exploration and growth (Feeney & Thrush, 2010), and perceiving an enthusiastic response when sharing news of an accomplishment or good fortune (Gable & Reis, 2010). In all of these models, the key element is the belief that partners genuinely care about each other's welfare and are willing to take beneficial action when called upon. ...
Responsiveness represents a conceptually broad and inclusive process with many influential manifestations in couple relationships. In this chapter, we review theory and research on responsiveness from the standpoint of three steps that comprise the responsiveness process: (1) how partners elicit responsiveness, (2) how they enact responsiveness toward each other, especially by high-quality listening, and (3) how they experience responsiveness when their partner enacts it. The 3Es model of responsiveness describes and stresses the dyadic and interdependent essence of responsiveness, reflecting our view that this construct can only be understood by considering how partners simultaneously and interactively influence each other’s actions, feelings, and beliefs. Moreover, the 3Es model of responsiveness is intended to be integrative, providing a framework for knitting together many existing theories and phenomena in relationship science and generativity, suggesting essential questions for future research, theory development, and applications.
... High-quality relationships are characterized by relatively more positive relationship behaviors that make the partner feel understood, appreciated, and supported (e.g., Gable & Reis, 2010;Reis et al., 2004) and relatively fewer relationship behaviors that threaten, undermine, or hurt the partner (e.g., Goodboy & Myers, 2010). Examples of positive relationship behaviors include self-disclosure (Sprecher & Hendrick, 2004), arranging date nights (Girme et al., 2014), completing household chores (Newkirk et al., 2017), and engaging in self-expanding activities with the partner (Muise et al., 2019). ...
What role do financial worries play in close relationship functioning? In this research, we examine how financial worry – negative thoughts and feelings about finances – is associated with perceived relationship behaviors. Participants recalled how their partner acted during a recent disagreement (Study 1, N = 97 couples) or recalled the frequency of positive and negative behaviors enacted by their partner during the previous week (Study 2, N = 99 couples). Feeling more worried about finances was associated with recalling less supportive behavior from one’s partner at the disagreement (Study 1) and with perceiving more negative behaviors from one’s partner in the last week (Study 2). Truth and Bias Model analyses suggest that part of this link may be attributed to biased perceptions, as the link between financial worry and perceiving more negative behaviors persisted even after controlling for participants’ own reported behaviors (i.e., accounting for similarity) and for their partner’s own reported behaviors (i.e., accounting for accurate perceptions). In sum, financial worry is linked to how partners notice and interpret a loved one’s actions within their relationship.
... Collaborators can provide support and encouragement in the face of setbacks, failures, and rejection, as well as amplify and capitalize on positive experiences. For instance, when partners respond in positive ways, recipients experience more positive emotions, greater subjective well-being, higher self-esteem, and reap relational benefits, such as greater liking, closeness, satisfaction, commitment, and stability in the relationship (Gable & Reis, 2010). Similarly, good collaborators are not only there to help through difficult times but to celebrate the big and small "wins" along the way. ...
Much of psychological science relies on collaboration—from generating new theories and study ideas, to collecting and analyzing data, to writing and sharing results with the broader community. Learning how to collaborate with others is an important skill, yet this process is not often explicitly discussed in academia. Here, five researchers from diverse backgrounds share their experiences and advice on starting and sustaining collaborations. In doing so, they reflect on aspects of both successful (and failed) collaborations with students, colleagues within and outside of psychology, and members of industry and organizational partners beyond academia. Recommendations and challenges of productive collaborations are discussed, along with examples of how collaborative teams can contribute to psychological science, address real‐world issues, and make the process of conducting research more enjoyable and rewarding.
... The positive effect of the upregulation of positive emotions on perceived social support is in line with prior research indicating that seeking out others to capitalize on positive events is associated with increased positive affect and enhanced social bonds (e.g., Gable et al., 2004;Gable & Reis, 2010;Reis et al., 2010). The results also highlight the emerging significance of positive ER in the context of affective disorders. ...
Background
Interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) involves the use of strategies by individuals to regulate their emotions through interactions with others. Research has shown that the IER is correlated with psychological symptoms and well-being. However, few studies have investigated the longitudinal relationships between IER and its related constructs.
Methods
A cross-lagged panel design was used to examine the reciprocal relationship between IER strategies and perceived social support and their impact on depressive symptoms. Data were collected from 213 emerging Korean adults (136 females; Mage = 25.4), categorized as students, job-seekers, or workers, on three occasions with six-month intervals.
Results
Enhancing positive affect, an upregulation strategy for positive emotions, predicted an increased perception of social support and, consequently, a reduction in depressive symptoms. Soothing strategies were directly associated with increased depressive symptoms. Other IER strategies aimed at downregulating negative emotions did not have any significant effect on the perception of social support or depressive symptoms. Furthermore, perceived social support did not predict longitudinal changes in the tendency to use IER strategies.
Conclusions
These findings suggest that IER strategies, especially those that focus on upregulating positive emotions, may enhance the perception of social support. This offers a promising avenue for designing interventions to support emerging adults facing difficulties in a variety of social and relational transitions.
... In recent years, research has begun to discuss the functions that others can play in emotional regulation, which is quite reasonable regarding actual life experience. When you are sad, if you have the support of relatives or friends, your mood will adjust faster (Uchino et al., 1996); when we are emotionally aroused, whether good or bad, a typical response is to share it with others (Gable & Reis, 2010). Therefore, interpersonal emotion regulation is a fairly common phenomenon. ...
人際情緒調節是目前的新興議題，近期研究多建立在 Gross（1998）的理論架構，以個體角度出發（Reeck et al., 2016; Christensen & Haynos, 2020; Zaki & Williams, 2013）。 然而華人相較於歐美更仰賴以人際關係處理情緒（Trommsdorff & Rothbaum, 2008），且 看重情緒調節如何影響關係和諧（何文澤等人，2017）。實證研究亦發現人際情緒調節的 效果有不少文化差異（Ray-Yol et al., 2020）。由此可見，現有的理論並不適合描繪華人 的人際情緒調節歷程。研究目的：提出以關係角度建構的人際情緒調節模型，作為後續 研究的基礎。研究方法：以質性方法，訪談 24 對在學情侶。研究結果：經以主題分析法 分類出華人親密關係人際情緒調節的四階段：情緒覺察、情緒原因同理、調節動機、調 節策略。情侶於各階段的契合度高低會影響下階段的契合度，進而影響情緒調節訴求的 成敗。契合度低時，情侶會採用同步化方式來提升彼此的契合度。研究結論：本人際情 緒調節模型的互動焦點圍繞著契合度與同步化兩大構念，是現有人際情緒調節理論較少提及之處，突顯了以關係角度研究的必要。本研究將其與現有理論、華人人際關係研究比較，提出未來的研究方向與後續應用參考。
It has been over 20 years since Gross (1998) published a milestone paper on emotion regulation. The focus has shifted to interpersonal context, the primary source of emotion and emotion regulation. The existing theories of interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) emerged from an individual perspective (Reeck et al., 2016; Zaki & Williams, 2013). However, recent research showed cultural differences in the outcome of IER. Chinese culture emphasizes interpersonal harmony when regulating emotions (Ho et al., 2017; Trommsdorff & Rothbaum, 2008). Research purpose: This study proposed using a relational-focused perspective to construct a new IER model embedded with Chinese culture. Research method: 24 couples were interviewed about their experience regulating negative emotions with their partners. The experiences were analyzed with thematic analysis. Research results: Four stages of IER were identified, which are emotion awareness, empathy of emotion cause, regulation motivation, and regulation strategy by time order. The interaction congruence of each stage influenced the congruence of the next stage and decided the results of IER. When couples interact incongruently, individuals try to synchronize with their partners to promote congruence. Research conclusions: The concepts of congruence and synchronization construct an IER process model of intimate relationships. Both concepts are little told in existing IER theories, indicating the value of a relation-focused perspective. This study compares the model with existing theories and researches about Chinese interpersonal relationships, and discusses its
future research directions and applications.
... https://doi.org/10.that between parent and child [14]. It has been found to support and strengthen not only the relationship, by increasing satisfaction, intimacy, and commitment, but also its members, by increasing subjective well-being and self-esteem, e.g., [15]. ...
Feeling heard is considered a cornerstone of close relationships and crucial to healthy self-development, but psychologically, this sentiment of feeling heard remains understudied. The current paper therefore aims to define and measure the experience of feeling heard. Based on an integrative literature review, feeling heard is conceptualized as consisting of five components at two conceptual levels. At the interpersonal level people feel heard when they have 1) voice, and receive 2) attention, 3) empathy, 4) respect. At the collective level people should experience 5) common ground. In two population surveys (N = 194, N = 1000), we find that feeling heard is a unitary concept, and we develop and validate the feeling heard scale (FHS); a concise eight-item scale with good psychometric properties. Results show that the FHS is a distinct predictor of conversation intentions in many different contexts and relationships. In fact, the FHS is the strongest predictor of intentions for conflict behavior among a set of 15 related variables (e.g., acquaintance, intimacy). We conclude by reflecting on the potential applications of this scale: in interpersonal relations and professional contacts, the FHS enables the assessment of one crucial dimension of social interaction.
... Capitalisation, which describes the process of disclosing positive events to a close other (attempt), whose response is perceived as genuine and enthusiastic (perceived partner responsiveness, hereafter termed responsiveness) (Langston, 1994;Gable and Reis, 2010), is another way of looking into couple communication. A study by Soriano et al. (2018) has examined the relationship between capitalisation and FCR around the first mammogram post-diagnosis, from which inconsistent results have emerged: although they had hypothesized that both attempts and responsiveness would buffer FCR, attempts never significantly predicted lower FCR and responsiveness only predicted lower FCR after the mammogram. ...
Fear of cancer recurrence is fear or worry about cancer recurrence or progress. Fear of recurrence can impact patients’ quality of life and wellbeing. Cancer survivors’ families support them practically and emotionally, making them a vital supplement for official healthcare. Given the well-established important role of the family in dealing with cancer, we compiled the studies that examined the relationship between family-related factors and fear of cancer recurrence (FCR) among cancer survivors (CSs). One of the foremost studies in this field is the FCR model presented by Mellon and colleagues, which included concurrent family stressors and family-caregiver FCR as factors linked to survivor FCR. Our goal was to prepare the ground for a family-based model of FCR that is more comprehensive than the one proposed by Mellon et al. sixteen years ago. The studies included those with samples of adult cancer survivors from different regions of the world. Most of the studies we reviewed are cross-sectional studies. We categorized family-related factors associated with survivor FCR into partner-related factors, including subgroups of disclosure to partner, cognitions of partner, and partner’s sources of support; parenthood-related factors, including having children and parenting stress; family-related factors, including living situation, family history of cancer, family’s perception of the illness, and family characteristics; and social interactions including social support, disclosure, social constraints, and attitudes of others. This review sheds light on how significant others of cancer survivors can affect and be affected by cancer-related concerns of survivors and emphasizes the necessity of further investigation of family-related factors associated with FCR.
... Research focused directly on perceived support in adult populations display similar findings. Adults who felt supported reported that their use of problem solving, and positive reframing strategies associated with cognitive flexibility increased over time (Gable & Reis, 2010). Creative problem solving and reflexivity features of cognitive flexibility have also been longitudinally predicted via the perceived support of psychological safety in a university sample (Carmeli et al., 2014). ...
... According to Gable and Reis's (2010) model of capitalization processes, capitalization-as the "social sharing of positive events" (p. 198)-fosters relational intimacy; the benefits of sharing one's positive news online stem from audience members' responses. ...
Given their need for social recognition, narcissists often engage in activities that are valued on social media. While communicating about such socially rewarding activities on social media—what we refer to as narcissistic content—has become common, little is known about how narcissists communicate and how this communication affects social media engagement. Using the hashtag #workout and a combination of application programming interface and human coders to generate a unique dataset of 1096 Instagram posts, we show that online communication style varies with the degree of narcissism and that such communication deeply shapes audiences’ engagement with narcissistic content. Further, we show that using more hashtags significantly increases low-level engagement, while using more emojis significantly increases high-level engagement when posted by a profile with a higher degree of narcissism. By shedding light on these overlooked aspects, we aim to guide both research and practice toward a more holistic understanding of narcissistic communication and its effects on social media.
... Support, however, must be calibrated to the partner's needs because too much support can make individuals feel inadequate (Zee & Bolger, 2019), and being highly responsive can be taxing for those under high stress and with some personal vulnerabilities such as avoidant attachment (Smallen et al., 2021). Other routes to resilience include sharing positive experiences (Gable et al., 2004;Gable & Reis, 2010), engaging together in novel, fun activities (Aron et al., 2000;Girme et al., 2014), and expressing gratitude (Algoe et al., 2010), all of which can promote relationship growth and intimacy. follow from pandemic-related stress (Bradbury-Jones & Isham, 2020;Gresham et al., 2021). ...
Embedded within the sociocultural context of romantic relationships are features such as race, culture, neighborhoods, the legal system, and governmental policy. Due to the inherent difficulties with studying large structures and systems, little work has been done at the macro level in relationship science. This volume spotlights the complex interplay between romantic relationships and these structural systems, including varied insights from experts in the field. In turn, more diverse and generalizable research programs on the social ecology of relationships can be developed, helping to facilitate advances in theory. Scholars and students of relationship science in psychology, sociology, communication, and family studies will benefit from these discussions. This title is part of the Flip it Open programme and may also be available Open Access. Check our website Cambridge Core for details.
... Perceived responses to capitalization attempts (PRCA) that are enthusiastic (i.e., active and constructive), in contrast to withdrawn, dismissive, or undermining, are associated with an increase in daily positive affect and well-being (Gable et al., 2004;Lambert et al., 2013;Monfort et al., 2014;Otto et al, 2015;Reis et al., 2010). Active-constructive responses display the responder's interest in the capitalizer's experiences and well-being through follow-up questions about the positive event, emphasis on good outcomes of the event, and comments on the personal meaning of the event for the capitalizer (Gable & Reis, 2010). Following suit with much of the earlier work on capitalization, we examined PRCA at the trait level to study the downstream daily emotional and behavioral effects of typically perceiving active-constructive responses to one's capitalization attempts. ...
Successful capitalization and feelings of gratitude are both dependent upon perceived responsiveness of a social partner, but they are understudied in combination and have yet to be studied jointly in a daily context. Taking a new approach to studying capitalization, the current study examines the effect of daily capitalization on momentary gratitude and investigates the role of the capitalizer’s typical perceived responses to capitalization attempts (PRCA) on daily gratitude and future capitalization attempts. Age and social closeness are studied as amplifiers, as older adults prioritize positive emotional experiences and it is more common to capitalize with closer others for whom the capitalizer’s good news is salient and who are thus motivated to provide support to the capitalizer. Participants (N = 290) aged 25–85 years completed a trait-level survey followed by ecological momentary assessment surveys (six per day) for 10 days. Results demonstrate that people experienced higher daily gratitude when capitalizing, especially when interacting with a social partner rated as high in closeness. Those who had higher trait active–constructive PRCA also experienced higher daily gratitude, with this effect strengthened among older adults. Perceived responses were also associated with more attempts to capitalize in daily life. This work suggests engaging in capitalization and perceiving regular enthusiastic and supportive responses to one’s capitalization attempts have daily emotional and behavioral benefits. Notably, regular enthusiastic responses to capitalization attempts may be a motivator for future attempts across adulthood, but it may be particularly likely to foster feelings of gratitude in old age.
... It is noteworthy that there may have been a tendency (which was further qualified by SES as well as gender and conversation type) for spouses to have lower cardiovascular reactivity when their partner used a more diverse positive emotion vocabulary in the present study. In light of the many benefits of sharing positive emotions with close others (e.g., Gable & Reis, 2010;Wells et al., 2022), it will be fruitful to further explore MEIER, STEPHENS, AND HAASE 8 when and for whom the partner's use of more and more diverse positive emotion words relates to lower cardiovascular reactivity. ...
Putting feelings into words is often thought to be beneficial. Few studies, however, have examined associations between natural emotion word use and cardiovascular reactivity. This laboratory-based study examined emotion word use (i.e., from computerized text analysis) and cardiovascular reactivity (i.e., interbeat interval changes from baseline) across two interaction contexts (i.e., conflict and positive conversations) in 49 mixed-sex married couples (age: M = 43.11, SD = 9.20) from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. We focused on both frequency (i.e., relative proportion of emotion words) and diversity (i.e., relative proportion of unique emotion words) of emotion words. Data were collected between 2015 and 2017 and analyzed treating both partners and conversations as repeated measures, resulting in 196 observations overall (four per dyad). Findings showed that (1) when spouses used more negative emotion words (especially anger), they showed higher cardiovascular reactivity. This finding was robust when controlling for covariates; generalized across gender, interaction contexts, and socioeconomic status. Moreover, (2) when spouses used a more diverse negative emotion vocabulary, they showed higher cardiovascular reactivity, but this was not robust when controlling for negative emotion word frequency. Associations between (3) positive emotion word use and cardiovascular reactivity were not statistically significant. Verbalizing negative emotions thus seems to go along with higher cardiovascular reactivity, at least in the short term. Replication is needed across other relationship types, genders, and sexual orientations. These findings highlight emotion word use as an indicator of cardiovascular reactivity, which has implications for the identification of potential health risks that emerge during marital interactions.
... It is noteworthy that there may have been a tendency (which was further qualified by SES as well as gender and conversation type) for spouses to have lower cardiovascular reactivity when their partner used a more diverse positive emotion vocabulary in the present study. In light of the many benefits of sharing positive emotions with close others (e.g., Gable & Reis, 2010;Wells et al., 2022), it will be fruitful to further explore MEIER, STEPHENS, AND HAASE 8 when and for whom the partner's use of more and more diverse positive emotion words relates to lower cardiovascular reactivity. ...
Putting feelings into words is often thought to be beneficial. Few studies, however, have examined associations between natural emotion word use and cardiovascular reactivity. This laboratory-based study examined emotion word use (i.e., from computerized text analysis) and cardiovascular reactivity (i.e., interbeat interval changes from baseline) across two interaction contexts (i.e., conflict and positive conversations) in 49 mixed-sex married couples (age: M = 43.11, SD = 9.20) from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. We focused on both frequency (i.e., relative proportion of emotion words) and diversity (i.e., relative proportion of unique emotion words) of emotion words. Data were collected between 2015 and 2017 and analyzed treating both partners and conversations as repeated measures, resulting in 196 observations overall (four per dyad). Findings showed that (a) when spouses used more negative emotion words (especially anger), they showed higher cardiovascular reactivity. This finding was robust when controlling for covariates; generalized across gender, interaction contexts, and socioeconomic status. Moreover, (b) when spouses used a more diverse negative emotion vocabulary, they showed higher cardiovascular reactivity, but this was not robust when controlling for negative emotion word frequency. Associations between (c) positive emotion word use and cardiovascular reactivity were not statistically significant. Verbalizing negative emotions thus seems to go along with higher cardiovascular reactivity, at least in the short term. Replication is needed across other relationship types, genders, and sexual orientations. These findings highlight emotion word use as an indicator of cardiovascular reactivity, which has implications for the identification of potential health risks that emerge during marital interactions.
... Although we do not know precisely why perceivers formed more negative impressions of more depressive targets, this does not bode well for relationship dynamics. As noted, sharing positive events with close others creates opportunities for capitalization, an interpersonal process in which positive emotions are up-regulated (Gable et al., 2004;Gable & Reis, 2010), leading to increased personal well-being; moreover, such positive exchanges are known to have relationship consequences, such as increased intimacy, trust, commitment, closeness, and relationship stability (Pagani et al., 2019). Because people with more depressive symptoms have more difficulty sharing positive events with others, they-and their partners-may be less likely to benefit from this important relationship resource. ...
Communicating emotional experiences effectively is critical for adaptive functioning and personal and interpersonal well-being. Here, we investigated whether variability in depression symptoms undermines people’s ability to express their emotions to others (“emotional expressive accuracy”) and how those communication dynamics influence other’s impressions. In Phase 1, 49 “targets” were videotaped describing significant autobiographical events; they then watched their videos and continuously rated how positive/negative they were feeling throughout the narrative. In Phase 2, 171 “perceivers” watched subsets of videos from targets and similarly rated each target’s affect. Results from 1,645 unique target–perceiver observations indicate a link between target’s depressive symptoms and impaired emotional expressive accuracy for positive events, B = −0.002, t(1,501) = −3.152, p = .002. Likewise, more depressive targets were rated less favorably by perceivers, again when sharing positive events, B = −0.012, t(1,511) = −10.145, p < .001. Given the beneficial effects of “capitalization”—sharing positive experiences with others—these findings may illustrate one link between depressive symptoms and impoverished relationships.
... Research shows that expressing positive emotions is often associated with greater well-being (Chervonsky & Hunt, 2017;Gable & Reis, 2010), and suppressing positive emotions is often associated with poorer well-being (Roberts et al., 2021; though see Greenaway & Kalokerinos, 2017). Consistent with a social-functional perspective of emotions (Keltner et al., 2022;Sznycer et al., 2021), by suppressing positive emotions, people may miss opportunities to build or strengthen connections with other people (Epley et al., 2022;Sels et al., 2021). ...
Habitual expressive suppression (i.e., a tendency to inhibit the outward display of one's emotions; hereafter suppression) is often conceptualized as a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy. Yet, is this equally true for suppression of positive and of negative emotions? Across three studies and seven samples (total N > 1300 people) collected in two culturally distinct regions (i.e., Taiwan and the US), we examined the separability and distinct well-being effects of suppressing positive vs. negative emotions. Results consistently showed that (a) people suppressed their positive (vs. negative) emotions less, (b) the construct of suppression of positive (vs. negative) emotions was conceptually farther away from that of suppression of emotions in general, (c) suppression of positive and of negative emotions were only moderately correlated, and (d) only suppression of positive, but not negative, emotions, predicted lower well-being. An internal meta-analysis (k = 52 effect sizes) showed that these associations were robust to the inclusion of age, gender, and region as covariates. Future research may further probe the respective links between suppression of positive and of negative emotions and well-being across more cultural regions and across the life-span.
Conversational agents (CAs) are one of the most promising technologies for helping older adults maintain independence longer by augmenting their support and social networks. Voice-based technology in particular is especially powerful in this regard due to its accessibility and ease of use. There is also a growing body of evidence supporting the potential use of such technology in mitigating common issues such as loneliness and isolation, particularly for independent older adults aging in place. One of the key challenges for smart technologies deployed in this context is the development and maintenance of long-term user engagement and adoption, which is often addressed by attempting to closely mimic human social interactions. However, the more human-like the system, the more glaring fault conditions become, and the more jarring they are for users. In this study we explore the effectiveness of an alternative conversational strategy meant to encourage users to engage in positive reflection and introspection. We detail the iterative design and implementation of a prototype CA developed to engage in social conversation with older adults on selected topics of interest. We then use this system as part of a multi-method approach to investigate the effect of deliberate positivity as a conversational strategy, including its impact on user impressions and willingness to continue using the CA. Our results from different approaches, including methods such as psycholinguistic analysis, user self-report, and researcher-based coding, paint a promising picture of this conversational design. We show that the deliberate encouragement by a CA of positive conversation and reflection in users has a measurable positive impact on both user enjoyment and desire to continue engaging with a system. We further demonstrate how some user characteristics may amplify this effect, and discuss the implications of these results for the design and testing of future conversational systems for older adults.
Emotional intensity seems to be related to the selection of emotion regulation (ER) strategies. Previous studies have focused primarily on intrapersonal ER. In contrast, everyday use of interpersonal ER remains understudied, with the association between perceived emotional intensity and selection of intra- or intrinsic interpersonal ER still unclear. In a preregistered study, we used experience sampling method data from a community sample of individuals in a heterosexual relationship (n = 183) who provided reports on their daily lives over a period of 4 weeks during the first COVID-19 lockdown in 2020. Surveys included questions about various emotions, their perceived intensity, and selected ER strategies. Results revealed more frequent use of ER overall with increasing emotional intensity of all negative emotions (except for boredom). In line with our hypothesis, results showed that greater emotional intensity increased the probability of interpersonal ER more strongly than intrapersonal ER for most negative emotions, in both women and men. Additionally, we found that men used significantly more intrapersonal than interpersonal strategies at average emotional intensity of all negative emotions. A preference for interpersonal ER in the face of highly intense emotions may be related to a higher demand for resources, which is compensated through social connection. In the association between perceived emotional intensity and ER selection, our research highlights the importance of considering both intra- and interpersonal ER strategies.
Background and Aim: Creating interpersonal relationships is considered as one of the basic human motives for which social intimacy is required. Factors influencing social intimacy are self-disclosure and social anxiety. From this perspective, the goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between self-disclosure and social anxiety with social intimacy, mediated by perceived responsiveness. Methods: The research method was descriptive-correlational. The statistical population included all students of the Islamic Azad University of Kerman in 2019 (1800 people). Considering the volume of samples in the structural equations, 350 students were selected as the statistical sample using the Stratified Random Sampling method. This group took the Lefcourt (1982), Kahn & Hessling (2001) Self-disclosure, Watson and Friend (1969) Social Anxiety, and Reis et al. (2006) Perceived Responsiveness questionnaires. A total of 242 qualified questionnaires were received. Data was analyzed by structural equation method. Results: The results indicate an increase and significant effect of Self-disclosure on Perceived Responsiveness (P = 0.250), a reduced and significant effect of Social Anxiety on Perceived Responsiveness (P = -0.554), an increased and significant effect of Perceived Responsiveness on Social Intimacy (P = 0.405), an increased and significant effect of Self-disclosure on Social Intimacy (P = 0.137) and a reduced and significant effect of Social Anxiety on Social Intimacy (P = -0.178). Conclusion: Increased Self-Disclosure and Perceived responsiveness leads to an increase in Social Intimacy in relationships and increased Social Anxiety leads to a reduction in the level of Perceived Responsiveness and therefore a decrease in Social Intimacy. Due to the importance of the role of social intimacy on mental health of the community, it is proposed that the appropriate organizations prepare extensive planning to manage and treat social anxiety in individuals and hold instructive classes, especially for parents and primary school teachers.
Background and Aim: The aim of this study was to predict emotional divorce based on sexual satisfaction among couples undergoing couples therapy in Tehran. Methods: The method of this descriptive-analytical study was correlational. The statistical population included all couples who referred to two counseling centers for psychology and family therapy in Tehran in 1398, from which 120 couples were selected by available methods and answered the Multi-Questionnaire of Sexual Issues (MSQ) and Emotional Divorce. They gave. Results: The data were analyzed by stepwise regression method using SPSS software version 26. Statistical findings and results of regression analysis test showed that out of twelve subscales of sexual problems of spouses that were related to their emotional divorce, six subscales had a significant effect. Conclusion: According to the research findings, it can be concluded that when sexual satisfaction and sexual awareness of spouses are reduced and sexual mental employment, internal sexual control, sexual control and motivation The more sexual, the more likely they are to have an emotional divorce.
Research has suggested that the quality of gratitude exchanges varies, with some exchanges resulting in positive outcomes and others resulting in null and negative outcomes for intimates. However, a current conceptual model outlining the conditional nature of interpersonal gratitude exchanges is lacking within the literature. In this paper, we introduce the Dyadic Process Model of Interpersonal Gratitude, an updated conceptual model that delineates the boundary conditions of interpersonal gratitude exchanges. Using the model, we propose that the benefits associated with interpersonal gratitude expressions depend on the context in which gratitude operates, articulating the influence of communication factors and contextual factors on interpersonal gratitude exchange outcomes. Drawing from the Dyadic Process Model of Interpersonal Gratitude, we provide implications for future research and gratitude‐based interventions.
Expressive suppression, which involves hiding emotions, is a common emotion regulation behavior in relationships but interferes with perceived responsiveness and closeness. These relationship costs make it important to identify the contexts in which the use and harmful correlates of expressive suppression are more likely to occur. Building from theory positing that different contexts entail different risks of rejection, we investigated whether expressive suppression was (a) more intense and (b) associated with worse relational outcomes in high-risk than low-risk relationship interaction contexts. In two studies (conducted in 2016–2017 and 2022), Belgian couples engaged in separate discussions about each other’s most annoying characteristics (high-risk context) and valuable characteristics (low-risk context). For each discussion, each couple member reported how much they had suppressed their emotions, felt their partner was responsive toward them, and felt close to their partner. In Study 1 (n = 101 couples), expressive suppression was assessed for emotions in general. In Study 2 (n = 130 couples), expressive suppression was assessed for negative and positive emotions separately. In both studies, participants reported suppressing emotions more intensely in high-risk than in low-risk contexts. Actors’ (and sometimes partners’) expressive suppression was also associated with lower perceived responsiveness and closeness. However, results regarding whether suppression was associated with worse relational outcomes in the high-risk versus low-risk context were inconsistent, depending on the specificity of emotions assessed with the suppression measure (general, negative, or positive) and the relational outcome. The findings suggest that expressive suppression might be harmful regardless of the risk of relationship interactions.
Capitalization, the process of sharing positive events to savor and relive positive moments, brings intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits to the sharer. In students' academic lives, academic achievements represent significant positive events that offer opportunities for capitalization. With the rise of social media, capitalizing on academic achievements has transitioned from traditional face-to-face interactions to digital platforms, where students increasingly share and celebrate their achievements. Given the significance of capitalization for well-being and the scarcity of research in this area, this study seeks to advance the understanding of the significance of capitalization within the context of a student's academic achievements and social media. Specifically, it aims to explore the practice of academic achievement capitalization on social media by examining the reasons for using these platforms, the motivations driving this practice, and the associated outcomes. Utilizing a qualitative exploratory research design, one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten college students who frequently capitalize on their academic achievements. Content analysis of the interviews revealed that social media features are instrumental in facilitating the capitalization of academic achievements. Moreover, the study identified five key motivations driving this behavior: seeking validation, self-presentation, inspiring others, seeking support, and emotional expression. Consistent with existing research on capitalization, students experience predominantly positive outcomes, both interpersonal and intrapersonal, from sharing their academic achievements on social media, highlighting how digital platforms and capitalization help maximize the positive impact of these experiences. The findings provide an understanding of how and why students celebrate and showcase their academic achievements on social media, emphasizing how the capitalization of these achievements and the social media responses they receive influence their personal and social well-being
Research examining initiation and outcomes of ER has primarily examined when people regulate their own emotions. In the present study, we investigated what predicts the initiation and outcomes of interpersonal emotion regulation (IER). We also examined whether the associations varied by major depressive disorder (MDD), which is characterized by several emotion regulation challenges, including in IER. Adults with and without MDD (N = 215) completed a 14-day EMA protocol, reporting on their emotional experience, recent events, and recent IER interactions. For IER initiation, we examined two features of subjective emotional experiences: participants’ affect (negative affect, positive affect) and emotional awareness (attention to emotion, emotional clarity), and two situational characteristics: event unpleasantness and goal interruption. For IER outcomes, we focused on sharing partners’ characteristics. Analyses utilized multilevel modeling. We focus on reporting within-person findings. Participants were more likely to initiate IER when the situation was more unpleasant and when goals were interrupted. Regarding IER outcomes, the extent to which participants experienced improved feelings about the problem and relational closeness varied depending on who was the sharing partner. Additionally, perceived warmth of sharing partner was associated with better IER outcomes. Initiating IER did not differ by MDD status, whereas associations between perceived warmth and IER outcomes did. Findings elucidate factors relevant to the IER process and serve to provide important insight into the contexts in which individuals might seek others to support their regulation and when the sharing partner were the most helpful in IER.
Interpersonal communication is an integral part of everyday life. People are constantly sharing thoughts, opinions, and information with others, both online and offline. Further, such social sharing has important implications for what people think, buy, and do. However, while it is clear that interpersonal communication is both frequent and important, research is only starting to understand what people share and why. This article reviews the literature on interpersonal communication and word of mouth, focusing on the drivers of social transmission and the implications for individuals and society at large. It discusses how factors like audiences, modalities (e.g., speaking or writing), channels (e.g., email or text), and devices (e.g., phone or PC) moderate what gets shared, and it outlines areas that deserve further attention. Such areas include the diffusion of false information, conversations and conversational dynamics, and how automated textual analysis can be used to shed light on a range of interesting questions.
Having people around, especially if they provide social support, often leads to positive outcomes both physically and mentally. Mere social presence is especially beneficial when it comes from a loved one or romantic partner. In these studies, we aim to expand the understanding of how the presence of one’s romantic partner affects emotion regulation in parental situations. Specifically, we examined how partner presence influences the parent’s emotional intensity, emotion regulation, and interpretation of their child’s emotion regulation. We examined these questions in parents of both non-autistic children (Study 1) as well as autistic children (Study 2), which we hypothesize leads to more intense emotional interactions. The parents of autistic children were better able to regulate their emotions when their partners were present compared to when they were absent. Furthermore, in both studies, parents’ ratings of their children’s ability to regulate their emotions were higher when their parent’s partner was present compared to when the partner was absent. However, in both studies, we found no significant difference in the parents’ emotional intensity when their partners were present compared to when their partners were absent during the emotionally charged interaction with their child. Our findings help highlight the impact of partner presence on parent and child emotion regulation.
Introduction
Enhancing the well-being of urban school students is a growing challenge. The online mode of teaching during and post-pandemic era has increased students’ daily screen time. As they spend more time indoors, they tend to disconnect from nature even more, adversely impacting their well-being. This study aimed to design and execute two well-being interventions—a positive psychology intervention (PPI) and a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) in natural settings for urban school students in India.
Methods
One hundred eighty participants (aged 17–20) from a senior secondary school were randomly assigned to three groups: PPI, MBI, and a control group (CTR). Participants self-reported their levels of well-being, gratitude, inclusion of nature in self, sense of connectedness, resilience, awareness, perceived stress, and positive and negative emotions using a survey questionnaire at two times—pre- and post-interventions. Repeated-measures ANOVA was employed across time and groups, and post hoc analyses for group differences were carried out through the Bonferroni test.
Results
Results indicate that both PPI and MBI interventions, when executed in natural settings, enhance student well-being, gratitude, inclusion of nature in self, sense of connectedness, resilience, awareness, positive emotions and decreased levels of perceived stress, and negative emotions.
Discussion
The study provides valuable insights for school authorities, policymakers, and urban planners to include natural settings in school premises and offer well-being interventions for students to connect with nature consciously.
Background: The ideas-informed society represents a desired situation in which: (1) citizens see value in staying up to date, and; (2) citizens regularly keep themselves up to date by actively, openly and critically engaging with new ideas, developments and claims to truth. As a result, it is hoped citizens become increasingly knowledgeable, better able to make good decisions, and better positioned to support new progressive norms and beliefs. Yet despite these potential benefits, a substantive proportion of the population do not value staying up to date, nor attempt to do so.
Methods: With this research project we seek to identify whether the theoretical lens of anomie can account for why “ideas refusers” do not engage with ideas, as well as provide clues as to how they might be encouraged to do so. To explore the possible impacts of anomie on ideas-engagement we conducted four online focus groups, interviewing a purposive sample of ten individuals who previously indicated they were ideas refusers.
Results: Our findings identify eleven themes which seemingly account for why ideas refusers do not currently engage with ideas. Of these, ten are related to anomie, including themes which encapsulate feelings of frustration, anxiety, confusion and powerlessness regarding the complexities of modern society.
Conclusions: We also identify three areas of future focus that might help the ongoing development of the ideas-informed society. These are: (1) the more positive and relevant reporting of ideas; (2) supporting “healthy” face-to-face engagement with ideas; and (3) supporting effective ideas engagement through social media.
In this chapter, Professor Catharina Guse highlights Positive Psychology interventions and well-being to inform the critical area of ‘Towards Well-being: Self-care in the Supervisory Space’. Strategies for health care professionals and well as clinical supervisors in self-care and self-management are explored.
A theoretical framework is proposed for examining the interpersonal processes involved in the support of a relationship partner's goal strivings, personal growth, and exploratory behavior, and for examining consequences of receiving either responsive or unresponsive support in this domain. These processes were examined using both observational and experimental methods. In Phase 1, couples were videotaped as they discussed personal goals for the future. In Phase 2, support behavior was experimentally manipulated to examine immediate effects on the recipient. Results indicated that responsive (nonintrusive) support of a relationship partner's goal strivings and explorations have important implications for the recipient's happiness, self-esteem, and perceived likelihood of achieving specific goals. The importance of research examining this type of support is discussed.
The “chameleon effect” refers to the tendency to adopt the postures, gestures, and mannerisms of interaction partners (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). This type of mimicry occurs outside of conscious awareness, and without any intent to mimic or imitate. Empirical evidence suggests a bi-directional relationship between nonconscious mimicry on the one hand, and liking, rapport, and affiliation on the other. That is, nonconscious mimicry creates affiliation, and affiliation can be expressed through nonconscious mimicry. We argue that mimicry played an important role in human evolution. Initially, mimicry may have had survival value by helping humans communicate. We propose that the purpose of mimicry has now evolved to serve a social function. Nonconscious behavioral mimicry increases affiliation, which serves to foster relationships with others. We review current research in light of this proposed framework and suggest future areas of research.
This paper presents the findings of four studies on the rules of friendship. Studies I and 11 established the strength of endorsement of 43 friendship rules in British, Italian, Hong Kong and Japanese samples. Study Ill found differences in reported rule-keeping between sustained and lapsed friendships by self and other, and between sustained relationships rated high and low in quality. Study IV examined the role of rule breaking in friendship breakdown, and dissolution of friendship was attributed to the breaking of a number of our endorsed rules. Six rules were endorsed as very important in Study I and distinguished between behaviour in lapsed and current friendships; also relationship breakdown was related to failure to keep to these rules. They dealt mainly with the exchange of rewards and intimacy. Dissolution of friendships was also attributed to the breaking of third party rules.
Several literatures converge on the idea that approach and positive affect related to goal pursuit are managed by one self-regulatory system and that avoidance (or withdrawal) and negative affect related to threats are managed by a second self-regulatory system. After briefly reviewing these literatures, the authors consider the relation of these themes to the broader domain of personality. In particular, they map individual differences in the responsivity of the approach system onto the personality dimension of extraversion and map individual differences in the responsivity of the withdrawal system onto the dimension of neuroticism. This mapping requires a slight refocusing of current conceptions of extraversion and neuroticism. However, such a refocusing brings a gain as well as a cost: In particular, it would embed these dimensions more explicitly in a process-oriented conceptualization of action control.
It was predicted that attachment is associated with exploration in adults. An exploration scale that measures willingness to explore the physical, social, and intellectual environments was constructed. Study 1 measured chronic attachment patterns and found that both anxiety and avoidance correlated negatively with the desire to explore. Study 2 primed attachment styles by exposing participants to attachment-related sentences in an ostensible sentence memorization task. Participants primed with a secure style were more open to exploration than were participants primed with the insecure styles. Together, the results of Study 1 and Study 2 provide converging evidence that the behavior systems of attachment and exploration are linked in adults.
This review demonstrates that an individualist view of emotion and regulation is untenable. First, I question the plausibility of a developmental shift away from social interdependency in emotion regulation. Second, I show that there are multiple reasons for emotional experiences in adults to elicit a process of social sharing of emotion, and I review the supporting evidence. Third, I look at effects that emotion sharing entails at the interpersonal and at the collective levels. Fourth, I examine the contribution of emotional sharing to emotion regulation together with the relevant empirical evidence. Finally, the various functions that the social sharing of emotion fulfills are reviewed and the relevance of the social sharing of emotion for emotion scientists is discussed.
This chapter tries to accomplish three objectives. Firstly, it defines the four motives and provides a selective review of research that indicates their prevalence. Secondly, it addresses the issue of the operation of four motives together to regulate self-evaluation. This chapter presents a conceptual framework for understanding the interplay of the four motives. This framework serves as a useful heuristic for consideration of potential moderators that govern the expression of the four motives. Finally, this chapter discusses several problems related to the self-evaluation motives that one believes are in need of empirical attention. This chapter serves to justify the claim that four basic self-evaluation motives have been demonstrated convincingly. Finally, the speculations of this chapter are meant to remind researchers that empirical work to date has taken certain aspects of the self-evaluation process for granted or has neglected other important issues.
A theory of accommodation processes is advanced, and the results of 6 studies are reported. Accommodation refers to the willingness, when a partner has engaged in a potentially destructive act, to inhibit impulses to react destructively and instead react constructively. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that accommodation is lower under conditions of reduced social concern and lower interdependence. Studies 3, 4, and 5 revealed that accommodation is associated with greater satisfaction, commitment, investment size, centrality of relationship, psychological femininity, and partner perspective taking and with poorer quality alternatives. Commitment plays a fairly strong role in mediating willingness to accommodate. Study 6 showed that couple functioning is associated with greater joint and mutual tendencies to inhibit destructive reactions. Study 6 also demonstrated that self-reports of accommodation are related to relevant behavioral measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
W. Wilson's (1967) review of the area of subjective well-being (SWB) advanced several conclusions regarding those who report high levels of "happiness." A number of his conclusions have been overturned: youth and modest aspirations no longer are seen as prerequisites of SWB. E. Diener's (1984) review placed greater emphasis on theories that stressed psychological factors. In the current article, the authors review current evidence for Wilson's conclusions and discuss modern theories of SWB that stress dispositional influences, adaptation, goals, and coping strategies. The next steps in the evolution of the field are to comprehend the interaction of psychological factors with life circumstances in producing SWB, to understand the causal pathways leading to happiness, understand the processes underlying adaptation to events, and develop theories that explain why certain variables differentially influence the different components of SWB (life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposed that the 4 primary reactions to relationship decline are exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Three investment model variables were expected to predict the conditions under which each response was most likely to be enacted: (a) the degree of satisfaction with the relationship prior to the emergence of problems, (b) the magnitude of the individual's investment of resources in the relationship, and (c) the quality of the best available alternative to the relationship. Four studies with 402 undergraduates provided support for the hypotheses. To the extent that prior satisfaction was high, voice and loyalty were more probable, whereas exit and neglect were less probable. Similarly, increases in investment size encouraged voice and loyalty, whereas lower levels of investment appeared to inspire exit or neglect responses. More attractive alternatives promoted exit and hampered loyalist behavior. Results are in agreement with investment model predictions. However, there seemed to be little or no relation between alternative quality and voice or neglect reactions to dissatisfaction. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Communal relationships, in which the giving of a benefit in response to a need for the benefit is appropriate, are distinguished from exchange relationships, in which the giving of a benefit in response to the receipt of a benefit is appropriate. Based on this distinction, it was hypothesized that the receipt of a benefit after the person has been benefited leads to greater attraction when an exchange relationship is preferred and decreases attraction when a communal relationship is desired. These hypotheses were supported in Exp I, which used 96 male undergraduates. Exp II, which used a different manipulation of exchange vs communal relationships with 80 female undergraduates, supported the hypotheses that (a) a request for a benefit after the S is aided by the other leads to greater attraction when an exchange relationship is expected and decreases attraction when a communal relationship is expected, and (b) a request for a benefit in the absence of prior aid from the other decreases attraction when an exchange relationship is expected. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
D. Watson and A. Tellegen (1985) proposed a "consensual" structure of affect based on J. A. Russell's (1980) circumplex. The authors' review of the literature indicates that this 2-factor model captures robust structural properties of self-rated mood. Nevertheless, the evidence also indicates that the circumplex does not fit the data closely and needs to be refined. Most notably, the model's dimensions are not entirely independent; moreover, with the exception of Pleasantness–Unpleasantness, they are not completely bipolar. More generally, the data suggest a model that falls somewhere between classic simple structure and a true circumplex. The authors then examine two of the dimensions imbedded in this structure, which they label
Negative Activation (NA) and
Positive Activation (PA). The authors argue that PA and NA represent the subjective components of broader biobehavioral systems of approach and withdrawal, respectively. The authors conclude by demonstrating how this framework helps to clarify various affect-related phenomena, including circadian rhythms, sleep, and the mood disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We examined the organization of individual differences in pleasant affect, unpleasant affect, and six discrete emotions. We used several refinements over past studies: a) systematic sampling of emotions; b) control of measurement error through the use of latent traits; c) multiple methods for measuring affect; d) inclusion of only affects that are widely agreed to be emotions; e) a statistical definition of "independence"; and f) a focus on the frequency and duration of long-term affect. There was strong convergence between the two pleasant emotions (love and joy) and between the four unpleasant emotions (fear, anger, sadness, and shame). The results indicated, however, that individual differences in the discrete emotions cannot be reduced to positive and negative affect. The latent traits of pleasant and unpleasant affect were correlated –.44, and a two-factor model accounted for significantly more variance than a one-factor model. This finding indicates that long-term pleasant and unpleasant affect are not strictly orthogonal, but they are separable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The first section of the chapter reviews basic definitions, conceptualizations, and operationalizations of interpersonal trust. After reviewing some of the linguistic origins of trust, both individualistic (dispositional) and interpersonal (dyadic) definitions and conceptualizations of trust are presented. The second section highlights some of the major theoretical foundations and bases of trust at different levels of conceptual analysis. At the ultimate level of analysis, traditional genetic evolutionary models relevant to trust as well as multilevel selection/cultural coevolutionary models are showcased. At the ontogenetic level, some prominent lifespan models of social and personality development that are most pertinent to interpersonal trust are highlighted. At the proximate level, a few of the most significant social and psychological processes bearing on trust are outlined. Following this, major models specifying the normative (i.e., typical or modal) and individual-difference processes believed to govern the development, maintenance, and deterioration of trust in close relationships are discussed. The third section provides a selective yet representative overview of research on trust, with most attention focusing on interpersonal (rather than intergroup) trust. This overview begins with the seminal contributions of Deutsch and the early Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) studies conducted prior to the mid-1960s, progresses to the dispositional movement that was popular from the late 1960s through the mid 1970s, and concludes with more recent dyadic formulations of trust. In the final section, six core principles of trust are identified. Following this, important constructs from different interpersonal models are merged to form an integrative process model, which suggests how trust might develop and be maintained in relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article describes 2 studies testing hypotheses that perceived social support operates in part as a cognitive personality construct. Both studies found that perceived support manifested a pattern of correlations more similar to cognitive variables than did support received from the environment and that the relation between perceived support and psychological distress was reduced substantially when the cognitive personality variables were controlled statistically. Study 2 also tested hypotheses generated from schema theory that perceived support would be related to the interpretation and recall of novel supportive behaviors. As predicted, low-perceived-support students interpreted novel supportive behaviors more negatively than high-support students and remembered a lower proportion of behaviors perceived as helpful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Bernice sat next to Bob on the plane. Bob smiled, and said “hello” as Bernice introduced herself. An hour later, Bernice listened attentively as Bob told her he was upset because he and his wife had just been divorced. Before their plane had touched down, Bob had asked Bernice to meet him for dinner.
During the past ten years, psychologists have begun to devote considerable attention to the sequential properties of social interaction. The majority of this research has focused on description of sequential contingencies between the behaviors of interaction partners, inferences concerning the conversational control functions of the observed behaviors, and/or assessment of the degree of mutual influence between the behaviors of interaction partners. For example, the first two strategies are embodied by research designed to examine the turn taking system in dyadic conversation (e.g., Duncan & Fiske, 1977; Jaffe & Feldstein, 1970); and the third by the various research programs investigating such processes as mutual influence between mothers and infants (e.g., Thomas & Malone, 1979; Thomas & Martin, 1976), reciprocity of self-disclosure (e.g., Warner, Kenney, & Stoto, 1979), matching of paralinguistic variables such as vocal pitch and intensity or lengths of utterances and pauses (e.g., Feldstein & Welkowitz, 1978), and synchrony of body movements (e.g., Kendon, 1970; McDowall, 1978) (see Cappella, 1981, for a review of mutual influence processes for a variety of behaviors).
This review covers four major topics. First, the authors discuss previous studies on social support that document the content of supportive communications. Next, the discussion turns to the development and validation of the Interactive Coping Behavior Coding System and its converse, the Support Activation Behavior Coding System. A third focus is research stemming from sensitive interaction systems theory, which makes predictions, based on numerous variables, concerning whether an interaction will be ameliorative or harmful. The final section presents findings on the effects of interactive coping variables on relationship maintenance.
Joint effects of daily events and dispositional sensitivities to cues of reward and punishment on daily positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) were examined in 3 diary studies. Study 1 showed that positive events were strongly related to PA but not NA, whereas negative events were strongly related to NA but not PA. Studies 2 and 3 examined how the dispositional sensitivities of independent appetitive and aversive motivational systems, the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), moderated these relationships. Participants in Study 2 with higher BAS sensitivity reported more PA on average; those with more sensitive BIS reported more NA. Also, BIS moderated reactions to negative events, such that higher BIS sensitivity magnified reactions to negative events. Study 3 replicated these findings and showed that BAS predisposed people to experience more positive events. Results demonstrate the value of distinguishing within-person and between-person effects to clarify the functionally independent processes by which dispositional sensitivities influence affect.
The question of how affect arises and what affect indicates is examined from a feedback-based viewpoint on self-regulation. Using the analogy of action control as the attempt to diminish distance to a goal, a second feedback system is postulated that senses and regulates the rate at which the action-guiding system is functioning. This second system is seen as responsible for affect. Implications of these assertions and issues that arise from them are addressed in the remainder of the article. Several issues relate to the emotion model itself; others concern the relation between negative emotion and disengagement from goals. Relations to 3 other emotion theories are also addressed. The authors conclude that this view on affect is a useful supplement to other theories and that the concept of emotion is easily assimilated to feedback models of self-regulation.
This study examined how adult attachment styles moderate spontaneous behavior between dating couples when 1 member of the dyad is confronted with an anxiety-provoking situation. Eighty-three dating couples were unobtrusively videotaped for 5 min in a waiting room while the woman waited to participate in an "activity" known to provoke anxiety in most people. Independent observers then evaluated each partner's behavior on several dimensions. Results revealed that persons with more secure attachment styles behaved differently than persons with more avoidant styles in terms of physical contact, supportive comments, and efforts to seek and give emotional support. Findings are discussed in the context of theory and research on attachment.
This chapter discusses physical attractiveness in social interactions. Physical attractiveness is, in many ways, a homely variable. The physical attractiveness variable is unpretentious for at least two reasons. First, it is unlikely that it will be found to be orthogonal to other dimensions, primarily intelligence, socioeconomic status, and perhaps genetically determined behavioral predispositions associated with morphological characteristics. Second, it seems highly unlikely that physical attractiveness will ever form the core concept of a psychological theory, even a much needed social perceptual theory, which will illuminate the way to useful and interesting predictions about social relationships. The chapter focuses on recent social psychological evidence, which suggests that even esthetic attractiveness may be a useful dimension for understanding certain social phenomena, and, perhaps, for illuminating some personality and developmental puzzles as well. Perception of the physical attractiveness level of another appears to be influenceable by the affective and experiential relationship between the evaluator and the person whose physical attractiveness level is to be judged, as well as by factors unique to the evaluator and the setting in which evaluations are made, although none of these factors have been the subject of much study. The impact of physical attractiveness upon the individual has been highlighted in the chapter.
Investigated the functional relations among cognitive appraisal and coping processes and their short-term outcomes within stressful encounters. The authors used an intraindividual analysis of the interrelations among primary appraisal (what was at stake in the encounter), secondary appraisal (coping options), 8 forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and encounter outcomes in a sample of 85 married couples (females aged 35–45 yrs and males aged 26–54 yrs). Findings show that coping was strongly related to cognitive appraisal; the forms of coping that were used varied depending on what was at stake and the options for coping. Coping was also differentially related to satisfactory and unsatisfactory encounter outcomes. Findings clarify the functional relations among appraisal and coping variables and the outcomes of stressful encounters. (47 ref)
Many theories and studies of intimacy exist, yet researchers generally overlook an elementary question: Why should intimacy, in comparison to other features of good relationships, be important for human welfare? This paper addresses two aspects of this question. First, it selectively examines existing theories and research that help indicate why intimacy is so critical for relationship development and individual welfare. Second, it proposes a process-oriented view of social support that focuses on its relation to intimacy. Although functional theories of support are securely ensconced in the literature, there has been little integration of this work with established theories of relationship dynamics. Notions of intimacy suggest several possibilities for such integration, which are explored from theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives.
In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.
In this article, we introduce this special issue by establishing a conceptual foundation for the distinction between approach and avoidance motivation. We do so primarily by explicating several reasons why the approach–avoidance distinction should be viewed as fundamental and basic to the study of human behavior. In addition, we compare and contrast the “approach–avoidance” designation with other designations that have been used in the motivational literature to cover the same or similar conceptual ground. Finally, we conclude by briefly overviewing the other contributions to this special issue, specifically highlighting how they make use of the approach–avoidance distinction.
This paper critically examines the operationalization of marital quality indices used as dependent variables. First, it looks at the functioning and construction of marital quality variables. In particular, Spanier's Dyadic Adjustment Scale is used to illustrate the arguments. Second, it presents both semantic and empirical criteria to judge the development of a marital quality index. Finally, it presents a Quality Marriage Index (QMI) based on the introduced criteria. This index was constructed using data from 430 people across four states. Several advantages of the QMI over more traditional measures are shown in terms of how covariates relate to the index.
Resting anterior brain electrical activity, self-report measures of Behavioral Approach and Inhibition System (BAS and BIS) strength, and general levels of positive and negative affect (PA and NA) were collected from 46 unselected undergraduates on two separate occasions Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures of prefrontal asymmetry and the self-report measures showed excellent internal consistency reliability and adequate test-retest stability Aggregate measures across the two assessments were computed for all indices Subjects with greater relative left prefrontal activation reported higher levels of BAS strength, whereas those with greater relative right prefrontal activation reported higher levels of BIS strength Prefrontal EEG asymmetry accounted for more than 25% of the variance in the self-report measure of relative BAS-BIS strength Prefrontal EEG, however, was not significantly correlated with PA or NA, or the relative strength of PA versus NA Posterior asymmetry was unrelated to the self-report measures
This study provides evidence that people evaluate their control over events and over feelings separately with respect to both positive and negative experiences Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that subjects made separate self-evaluations of control regarding their ability to (a) avoid negative outcomes, (b) cope with negative outcomes, (c) obtain positive outcomes, and (d) savor positive outcomes In addition, beliefs about avoiding and obtaining were more highly correlated (r = 50) than were beliefs about coping and savoring (r= 27) It is argued that coping and savoring involve different sets of cognitive and behavioral skills Multiple regression analyses generally indicated that beliefs about avoiding and coping related more strongly to measures of subjective distress, whereas beliefs about obtaining and strongly related more strongly to measures of subjective well-being These four control beliefs are discussed in relation to other conceptual models of control, and ways in which savoring may promote perceived control are described
In this article I explore the motivated construal processes that allow individuals to dispel doubt and sustain conviction in the face of less-than-perfect partners and relationships. The surface features of conviction are discussed first with a focus on the positive illusions that predict relationship well-being and stability. The structural underpinnings of conviction are then discussed with a focus on the cognitive mechanisms that contain the implications of negativity within positive relationship representations. I conclude by discussing possible self-evaluation motives that may interfere with intimates dispelling doubt and finding the sense of conviction needed to sustain satisfying, stable romantic relationships.
Marital and family research has tended to focus on distressed relationships. Reasons for this focus are documented before keys to establishing a positive relationship science are outlined. Increased study of positive affect is needed to better understand relationships, and the best way to accomplish this goal is to embrace the construct of “relationship flourishing.” The behavioral approach system and the behavioral inhibition system are described and their potential role in understanding positive relationship processes is described using, as examples, commitment and forgiveness. A link to positive psychology is made, and it is proposed that the study of positive relationships constitutes the fourth pillar of this subdiscipline. Finally, the potential for focus on positive relationship processes to integrate multiple literatures is noted.
The chapter discusses the empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. Intrinsically motivated behaviors, motivated by the underlying need for competence and self-determination, are investigated in a variety of ways at the physiological, psychological, and operational levels. One of the two general approaches; the incongruity theories and the competence and/or self-determination theories generally guides those focused on the psychological level. The chapter presents the performance-contingent rewards that actually enhance intrinsic motivation when administered in a way that places emphasis on effective performance rather than on reward acquisition. The research literature that explored the nature of intrinsic motivation and the effects of rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation highly support the competence and self-determination formulation of intrinsic motivation and also the propositions of cognitive evaluation theory. The results of individual studies provided the basis for greater understanding of the phenomena and greater specificity of the theory. Understanding of motivational processes is critical for explicating and predicting human behavior as well as a variety of interrelated beliefs, attitudes, and affects, the complex referred to as motivational subsystems. The chapter also describes a field study conducted in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of four elementary schools.
Objective:
To examine the hypothesis that diverse ties to friends, family, work, and community are associated with increased host resistance to infection.
Design:
After reporting the extent of participation in 12 types of social ties (eg, spouse, parent, friend, workmate, member of social group), subjects were given nasal drops containing 1 of 2 rhinoviruses and monitored for the development of a common cold.
Setting:
Quarantine.
Participants:
A total of 276 healthy volunteers, aged 18 to 55 years, neither seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus nor pregnant.
Outcome measures:
Colds (illness in the presence of a verified infection), mucus production, mucociliary clearance function, and amount of viral replication.
Results:
In response to both viruses, those with more types of social ties were less susceptible to common colds, produced less mucus, were more effective in ciliary clearance of their nasal passages, and shed less virus. These relationships were unaltered by statistical controls for prechallenge virus-specific antibody, virus type, age, sex, season, body mass index, education, and race. Susceptibility to colds decreased in a dose-response manner with increased diversity of the social network. There was an adjusted relative risk of 4.2 comparing persons with fewest (1 to 3) to those with most (6 or more) types of social ties. Although smoking, poor sleep quality, alcohol abstinence, low dietary intake of vitamin C, elevated catecholamine levels, and being introverted were all associated with greater susceptibility to colds, they could only partially account for the relation between social network diversity and incidence of colds.
Conclusions:
More diverse social networks were associated with greater resistance to upper respiratory illness.
The hedonic principle that people approach pleasure and avoid pain has been the basic motivational principle throughout the history of psychology. This principle underlies motivational models across all levels of analysis in psychology from the biological to social. However, it is noted that the hedonic principle is very basic and is limited as an explanatory variable. Almost any area of motivation can be discussed in terms of the hedonic principle. This chapter describes two different ways in which the hedonic principle operates—namely, one with a promotion focus and other with a prevention focus. These different ways of regulating pleasure and pain, called “regulatory focus,” have a major impact on people's feelings, thoughts, and actions that is independent of the hedonic principle per se. The chapter also presents some background information about another regulatory variable, called the “regulatory reference.” A self-regulatory system with a positive reference value essentially has a desired end state as the reference point.
Notes that researchers sometimes seem to assume that the processes by which relationships are satisfying and beneficial are simply the inverse of, or reflect nothing more than the absence of, the processes by which relationships are distressing and harmful. The authors argue that positive and negative processes in relationships may be better understood as functionally independent, not as opposites of each other. They draw on similar positions supported in other areas of research, including emotion, motivation, self-regulation, and personality. Common among these research areas is a fundamental distinction between rewarding (i.e., positive and desired) and punishing (i.e., negative and unwelcome) features of the social environment. These two dimensions are referred to as
appetite and
aversion, respectively, to capture simultaneously the evaluative and motivational properties of each system. The authors question if the well-documented association between interpersonal circumstances and well-being arise because bad relationships cause distress, because good relationships produce well-being, or both? And, when it comes to relationships, whether aversive and appetitive functions operate through a common process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that a good deal of integration is taking place within personality psychology today, prompted in part by researchers taking fresh looks at ideas that have been around for some time. The author illustrates this assertion by describing several examples of re-emergent ideas. One re-emergent idea which finds applications in many areas of personality and social psychology is the notion that human beings have distinct approach and avoidance systems. Another set of ideas that is re-emerging is psychoanalytic theory, a phenomenon that is attributable in part to an enhanced realization of this theory's roots in evolutionary theory. A 3rd re-emergent theme (again with many applications) is that personality is social. Fresh looks at these various ideas provide active research areas, but also provide new lenses to use in viewing other research areas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A study with 130 newlywed couples was designed to explore marital interaction processes that are predictive of divorce or marital stability, processes that further discriminate between happily and unhappily married stable couples. We explore seven types of process models: (a) anger as a dangerous emotion, (b) active listening, (c) negative affect reciprocity, (d) negative start-up by the wife, (e) de-escalation, (f) positive affect models, and (g) physiological soothing of the male. Support was not found for the models of anger as a dangerous emotion, active listening, or negative affect reciprocity. Support was found for models of the husband's rejecting his wife's influence, negative start-up by the wife, a lack of de-escalation of low intensity negative wife affect by the husband, or a lack of de-escalation of high intensity husband negative affect by the wife, and a lack of physiological soothing of the male, all predicting divorce. Support was found for a contingent positive affect model and for balance models (i.e., ratio models) of positive-to-negative affect predicting satisfaction among stable couples. Divorce and stability were predicted with 83% accuracy and satisfaction with 80% accuracy.
Two studies investigated whether affective responses to competitive performance situations are moderated by attachment style. In Study 1, participants (n= 115) imagined their reactions to a superior or inferior performance against their romantic partner or an acquaintance. Results showed that participants low in attachment avoidance, relative to those high in avoidance, indicated more positivity after an inferior performance (empathy effect) to their partners, and this finding held only in domains of high importance to the partner. In Study 2, participants (n= 53) imagined comparisons with their partner or a close friend. Low-avoidance participants, relative to high-avoidance participants, exhibited sympathy and empathy effects in comparisons involving their romantic partner but not those involving a friend. The findings are discussed in terms of one's model of other and perceived self–other separation, which are defined by avoidance but not anxiety.
A self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model was used to make predictions about the positivity of perception of the performance of friends and strangers. The model predicts that when the target of perception is close (i.e., a friend) the target's performance should be perceived more positively on dimensions of low personal relevance (to the perceiver) and less positively on dimensions of high personal relevance. If the target is psychologically distant (i.e., a stranger), this tendency should be attenuated. Thirty-four female subjects were given positive and negative feedback on a social sensitivity and an esthetic judgment task. One task had greater relevance for some subjects and the other task had greater relevance for the remaining subjects. Subjects rated their perception of a friend's and a stranger's performance on these tasks. The patterning of positivity in perception conformed to the pattern predicted by the SEM model. Subjects' awareness of their behavior as well as individual differences in self-esteem and repression-sensitization were also examined and discussed.