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The Astounding Effectiveness of Dual Language Education for All
Abstract
Our longitudinal research findings from one-way and two-way dual language enrichment models of schooling demonstrate the substantial power of this program for enhancing student outcomes and fully closing the achievement gap in second language (L2). Effect sizes for dual language are very large compared to other programs for English learners (ELLs). Dual language schooling also can transform the experience of teachers, administrators, and parents into an inclusive and supportive school community for all. Our research findings of the past 18 years are summarized here, with focus on ELLs' outcomes in one-way and two- way, 50:50 and 90:10, dual language models, including heritage language programs for students of bilingual and bicultural ancestry who are more proficient in English than in their heritage language.
... An additional four studies focused on the outcomes of minoritylanguage students learning through their heritage language and the mainstream language of instruction, English, either together with majority-language students (two-way immersion) or separately (Collier and Thomas, 2004;Marian et al., 2013;Murray, 2007;Stewart, 2011). The studies in the United States looked at primary students' scores on national standardized tests. ...
... The studies in the United States looked at primary students' scores on national standardized tests. Collier and Thomas (2004) used the first-and second-language Reading scores of Spanish-speaking (N = 29,319) and French-speaking (N = 160) students in primary 1-5, in order to compare the effectiveness of several bilingual and immersion models in each language. A similar study was carried out by Marian et al. (2013), who analyzed the Reading and Maths scores of minority-and majority-language students in years 3-5 (N = 2,009) to gauge, the effectiveness of two-way immersion against its alternatives. ...
... The findings of these studies varied by context. In the USA, Collier and Thomas (2004) demonstrated that one-and two-way immersion programs enhanced test results for minoritylanguage students over 5 years of schooling and helped close the achievement gap between children with Spanish and English as their home languages. Marian et al. (2013) also identified positive effects of two-way immersion: immersion students who spoke Spanish at home outperformed their counterparts enrolled in transitional programs of instruction, while immersion students who spoke English at home outperformed their counterparts enrolled in monolingual programs. ...
Introduction
This paper aims to provide a first systematic research overview of student learning outcomes in programs teaching school subjects through languages other than English (LOTE) which are not the mother tongue of the students, according to school- or researcher-administered assessments and stakeholder perspectives, following the PRISMA statement. For brevity, we shall refer to these types of programs as CLIL in LOTE, though we have also included programs which use other labels, such as bilingual education or immersion, due to their similarities with those labeled “content and language integrated learning” (CLIL).
Methods
The selected studies, published between November 1994 and December 2023, were identified through the search of SCOPUS and EBSCO. In determining which studies to include in the review, we employed the following selection criteria: (1) articles focusing on children and youth (ages 5–17 years), (2) articles focusing on CLIL programs in LOTE, (3) articles focusing on student achievement, (4) articles focusing on studies that have collected primary data, and (5) studies that used school−/researcher-administered assessments (objective) or self/ hetero-reported measures (subjective). The screening of titles, abstracts and keywords left a final sample of n = 29 scientific papers, which were then read exhaustively and assessed for methodological quality.
Results
Most studies (26 of 29) addressed academic and/or linguistic outcomes, with some studies additionally addressing social/cultural outcomes, behavioral/affective outcomes, and/or (meta) cognitive outcomes. Of the learning outcomes reported, 25 (53%) were positive, five (11%) were negative, four (9%) were neutral, eight (17%) were mixed and four (9%) identified factors influencing outcomes.
Discussion
Theoretically, the study contributes to establishing more general theories about the specific role of CLIL in LOTE in students’ learning. Empirically, the study outlines pathways for future research on CLIL in LOTE. In practice, the study presents challenges identified by stakeholders to suggest pathways forward in CLIL teaching/learning.
Systematic review registration
Open Science Framework (OSF): https://osf.io/mc9uj.
... Historically, dual language education (DLE) programs have followed the practice of separation of languages: providing separate instructional blocks in English and the partner language in which the teacher provides monolingual instruction through one language at a time. Overall, this approach has produced compelling results, as studies going back decades have consistently found that students in DLE programs perform as well or better than their peers in other program models on measures of English literacy and academic achievement by the upper elementary or secondary grades, and that they develop oral and written proficiency in the partner language as well (Collier & Thomas, 2004Howard et al., 2003;Howard & Zhao, 2024;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008;Lindholm-Leary, 2001;Steele et al., 2017;Umansky & Reardon, 2014). Moreover, this finding holds for students from various subgroups: those classified as English learners (ELs), those formerly classified as ELs, English home-language speakers from a variety of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds, and students with special learning needs (Collier & Thomas, 2004Howard et al., 2003;Howard & Zhao, 2024;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008). ...
... Overall, this approach has produced compelling results, as studies going back decades have consistently found that students in DLE programs perform as well or better than their peers in other program models on measures of English literacy and academic achievement by the upper elementary or secondary grades, and that they develop oral and written proficiency in the partner language as well (Collier & Thomas, 2004Howard et al., 2003;Howard & Zhao, 2024;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008;Lindholm-Leary, 2001;Steele et al., 2017;Umansky & Reardon, 2014). Moreover, this finding holds for students from various subgroups: those classified as English learners (ELs), those formerly classified as ELs, English home-language speakers from a variety of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds, and students with special learning needs (Collier & Thomas, 2004Howard et al., 2003;Howard & Zhao, 2024;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008). Additionally, there is evidence that the cognitive benefits of bilingualism, such as enhanced executive function, relate to a bilingual's ability to activate one language while suppressing the other, as is required when instruction is provided in separate language blocks (Bialystok et al., 2008;Freeman et al., 2016;Olulade et al., 2016). ...
... To be clear, concerns regarding the lack of CLSP and persistent opportunity gaps have not been shown to be more pronounced in DLE than in any other educational model. On the contrary, many studies show that ELs in DLE programs are reclassified faster than those in other programs, and that reclassified ELs from DLE programs reach or exceed grade-level expectations or district averages on English achievement measures (Collier & Thomas, 2004Lindholm-Leary & Hernández, 2011;Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008;Steele et al., 2017;Umansky & Reardon, 2014). Moreover, although partner-language outcomes are rarely included in accountability metrics, there is also evidence that DLE programs help students classified as ELs and others from multilingual households maintain and develop their oral and written proficiency in their home language (i.e., the partner language), and that the partner-language performance of these students is typically on par with or higher than that of comparable students in other programs, Promising practices... as well as that of DLE students from Englishspeaking homes (Howard et al., 2003;Howard & Zhao, 2024;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2008). ...
This monograph is an excerpt from the book Dual Language Tandem Teaching: Coordinating Instruction Across Languages Through Cross-Linguistic Pedagogies (Velazquez Press). https://velazquezpress.com/products/dual-language-tandem-teaching-volume-1-coordinating-instruction-across-languages-through-cross-linguistic-pedagogies
... Despite the difficulties observed in getting the child into school, Collier and Thomas (2004) point out that after six to eight years of academic instruction, bilingual students do very well, or better than their monolingual peers on academic tests. i.e., the child learns Pomeranian first and then Portuguese, or both at the same time, what we call simultaneous bilingualism. ...
... After about one year of schooling, Francis developed fluent speech, although he still had difficulties in pronouncing some words and writing sentences. Studies indicate that, despite the difficulties observed in the entry of the bilingual child with typical school development, after six to eight years of academic instruction, bilingual students do as well (or better) than their monolingual peers in academic tests (Collier & Thomas, 2004). ...
This study presents the findings of research conducted with bilingual Pomeranian children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) living in Santa Maria de Jetibá, Espírito Santo—known as the most Pomeranian city in Brazil. A significant portion of the local population exhibits characteristics of simultaneous bilingualism, specifically in Portuguese and Pomeranian. This pioneering research explores ASD within traditional communities in Brazil, focusing on the unique features of communicative interactions among children whose language development occurs in a simultaneous bilingual context.
The study suggests that its findings can inform the development of inclusive public education policies for the bilingual Pomeranian population with ASD. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights that may benefit bilingual children with ASD from other traditional cultures or immigrant communities, enhancing their language development and inclusion.
... Differentiating assessment, using a variety of assessment tools and methods to measure ELLs' learning and progress, taking into account their language proficiency levels and cultural backgrounds (Gottlieb, 2006). This may include the use of performance alternative assessment formats that allow ELLs to demonstrate their understanding in ways that are less reliant on language skills (Collier & Thomas, 2004 90 https://pierreonline.uk or understand concepts that would otherwise be too challenging . Scaffolding techniques may include the use of visual aids, graphic organisers, and cooperative learning activities to support ELLs' comprehension and engagement. ...
... Differentiating assessment, using a variety of assessment tools and methods to measure ELLs' learning and progress, taking into account their language proficiency levels and cultural backgrounds b, 2006). This may include the use of performance-based assessments, self alternative assessment formats that allow ELLs to demonstrate their understanding in ways that are less reliant on language skills (Collier & Thomas, 2004). Furthermore, ongoing professional development and support have been identified as critical factors in promoting the sustainability and effectiveness of differentiated instruction practices for ELLs . ...
This research paper explores the impact of differentiated instruction on the academic success of English Language Learners (ELLs), a group that frequently encounters distinct challenges in educational settings. The study utilises a quantitative methodology, adopting a pre-test/post-test control group design to generate robust, empirical data that can clarify the effectiveness of this teaching approach. The sample of the study consists of 200 ELL pupils, selected from two schools with similar demographic and academic profiles. These pupils were evenly divided into an experimental group, which received differentiated instruction, and a control group, which was taught through traditional methods. Differentiated instruction, in this context, refers to tailored teaching strategies that address the varied needs, learning styles, and linguistic backgrounds of ELL pupils. The study's primary findings indicate that differentiated instruction has a positive influence on the academic success of ELLs. This is demonstrated by the noticeable improvement in the experimental group's scores on standardised English language proficiency tests and their overall academic achievement. These results support the notion that individualised teaching approaches can more effectively equip ELL pupils with the language skills and knowledge required to excel in an English-speaking academic setting.
... In their study at the Houston, Texas school district, they reported that students who were native-Spanish speakers in the two-way dual language schools, were at or above grade level for reading in both English and Spanish in Grades 1-5. In English achievement, English Language Learners (ELLs) in the two-way classes outscored ELLs in the other two bilingual programs (transitional and developmental one-way) at all grade levels (Collier & Thomas, 2004). They also conducted a study in two school districts in Maine, which implemented a dual language program in French and English and found that after four years, ELLs who were at the 31st percentile on the English Terra Nova, reached the 72nd percentile, which is above grade level. ...
... They also conducted a study in two school districts in Maine, which implemented a dual language program in French and English and found that after four years, ELLs who were at the 31st percentile on the English Terra Nova, reached the 72nd percentile, which is above grade level. The authors stated that after following students over time in these two studies, "both one-way and two-way bilingual programs lead to grade-level and above-grade-level achievement in second language, the only programs that fully close the gap" (Collier & Thomas, 2004). ...
Evaluation of Two Way Immersion program in elementary schools.
... English-only policies, such as ESL pull out classes or one-way submersion (English) programs, continue to be prevalent throughout the U.S. While prevalent, the programs listed above do not fall into the "dual language" or "two-way" category of bilingual education and are not as effective as dual-language education models (e.g., Collier & Thomas, 2004;Rolstad et al., 2005). ...
... Our findings align with the existing literature that highlights the effectiveness of dual-language education models that prioritize the development of both languages (e.g., Barnett et al., 2007;Collier & Thomas, 2004;Kim et al., 2015;Serafini et al., 2022). In our study, as both groups of learners (ELs and SLs) continued to nurture the growth of both languages within a dual language educational setting, we observed growth of phonological working memory across both languages from Grades 1 to 3. Importantly, because this educational model gives both ELs and SLs the opportunity to access and use L1 regularly, L1 is preserved and maintained from Grade 1 to Grade 3, demonstrating significant growth in both groups of learners. ...
The phonological loop of the working memory system plays a key role in language learning. This study examined the trajectories between two dual language learner groups (English Learners [ELs] and Spanish Learners [SLs]) on phonological loop measures in L1 and L2. At Grade 1, children completed a battery of vocabulary and cognitive measures and were retested in Grade 3. A series of random effects ANOVAs showed that SLs outperformed ELs on
English loop measures, with strong growth in the English loop, but not in Spanish. No significant difference in Spanish loop performance occurred at Grade 3. Considerations for future research and practical implications are discussed.
... Screening students in a language other than English is especially relevant for the growing number of students who participate in dual-language immersion programs. Students in these immersion programs often learn to read in more than one language, and these programs have been shown to be highly effective for ELs (Collier & Thomas, 2004). ...
... More specifically, it could be related to the dual-language program at the participating school. Duallanguage and bilingual programs have been shown to be especially helpful for improving ELs' reading and language skills (Collier & Thomas, 2004;Durán et al., 2010). ...
Many schools now screen students for dyslexia in early grades. However, there are valid concerns that these screeners may be biased or ineffective at screening students who are not yet proficient in English (i.e., English Learners; ELs). The present study examined the performance of 54 first graders on a dyslexia screener. Results showed that students who were ELs performed similarly to their peers who were proficient in English on many literacy subskills. Additionally, we found that EL students were not significantly more likely to be “flagged” as at risk for dyslexia. These findings have practical implications for using universal screeners to identify students, including students who are designated ELs, as being at risk for learning disabilities, including dyslexia.
... There is much promise in participating in dual-language education (DLE) programs. Highly regarded researchers and scholars Collier and Thomas (2004), known for their significant longitudinal studies resulting in unwavering support for the benefits of dual-language education, affirmed that "both one-way and two-way bilingual programs lead to grade-level and above-grade-level achievement in second language, the only programs that fully close the gap" (p. 11). ...
... In a review of studies that have examined the effect of various risk factors on children's response to bilingual education, Genesee and Fortune (2014) found no case in which the bilingual education program contributed to poorer academic outcomes for these children than for similar children in monolingual programs. This is possible with well-implemented enrichment programs that teach curriculum through their native language and through English (Collier & Thomas, 2004). These research studies purport similar outcomes of positive academic and linguistic benefits for Latinx bilingual learners participating in dual-language education programs and further support Thomas and Collier's (2002) widely recognized research and longitudinal study. ...
Our nation is characterized by diversity in languages, ethnicities, nationalities, and cultures with projected increases in English learners attending U.S. schools. Consequently, it is imperative that we recognize how to maximize the academic and linguistic assets of our English learner student population. This study compared the performance on the State of Texas Assessment of Academic Readiness (STAAR) Reading between bilingual learners in a one-way dual language program compared to the average scale scores of English learners in Texas. Data points taken in three different grade levels from the same group of bilingual learners result in positive long-term outcomes of bilingual learners by fifth grade. Data analysis revealed that the percentage of bilingual learners participating in the study scored above the Texas English learners’ average score, and this increased exponentially through the grade levels, reaching 64% in the STAAR English reading assessment. This supports that students in dual-language education programs learning English as a second language can develop English while maintaining and fostering their native language. This study contributes to empirical studies focused on the research-authenticated benefits of Latinx bilingual learners’ participation in one-way dual-language education programs.
... Dual Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) programs have been shown to be a promising means of reaching all students' academic, linguistic (bilingual and biliterate), and cross-cultural goals for both language minoritized and majoritized speakers (Thomas & Collier, 2003;Collier & Thomas, 2004;Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003). The conventional path toward these promises has been conceptualized under the strict separation of the two languages for instruction. ...
... With a substantial number of research studies demonstrating the benefits of bilingualism and the effectiveness of DLBE programs for both language-minoritized and languagemajoritized students (e.g., Thomas & Collier, 2002Collier & Thomas, 2004;Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Tedick & Wesely, 2015), the rapid economic globalization at the turn of the 21st century, and more state policies that reward bilingualism (such as the Seal of Biliteracy), proficiency in languages other than English has become an important goal for all (mainstream English-dominant families also developed interest in language immersion education, Dorner, 2011) and thereby DLBE programs are growing in popularity across the states. Various forms of DLBE programs are implemented to suit the local communities' needs during the widespread expansion process. ...
Traditionally strict language separation policies in dual language bilingual education (DLBE) programs reflect parallel monolingualism and have been criticized as failing to recognize the sociolinguistic realities of bilingual students (García & Lin, 2017). To leverage bilingual learners’ full linguistic repertoires as resources, this study explored how Sánchez, García, and Solorza’s (2018) translanguaging allocation policy could be strategically and purposefully designed in a third grade Mandarin/English DLBE classroom where the majority of the students were English-dominant speakers.
Taking the form of participatory design research (Bang & Vossoughi, 2016), I (as a researcher) and a Mandarin teacher worked together to co-design translanguaging documentation, translanguaging rings, and translanguaging transformation spaces across different content areas – Chinese Language Arts, Science, and Social Studies. During the process, we also engaged in equitable forms of dialogue and listening to openly discuss, negotiate, and develop our translanguaging co-stance in iterative ways. Data collection included classroom and design meeting recordings, observational field notes, and teacher and students’ artifacts and interviews throughout the school year of 2018-19. Inductive and deductive coding were adopted for data analysis.
Findings revealed that translanguaging pedagogies took many shapes based on contextual factors, such as the different pedagogical purposes and curricular demands across content areas. Students were able to develop deeper content understandings, build cross-linguistic connections, and develop their bi/multilingual identities and critical consciousness in those flexible bilingual spaces. Findings also demonstrated that the ideological (re)negotiation between the researcher and the teacher was a bumpy and discursive journey, replete with tensions, confusions, and difficult conversations. Overall, it was a balancing act to create translanguaging spaces while maintaining the language-minoritized (Mandarin) space and privileging students’ use of Mandarin given the societal dominance of English. This study provides implications for new theoretical and pedagogical understandings of translanguaging, and suggests that researcher-teacher collaboration provides a promising way to generate evidence-based, practitioner-informed, and context-appropriate knowledge for DLBE curricular and pedagogical improvements.
... For example, Head Start teachers' instructional support in the DLLs' home language (e.g., quantity of Spanish use, instructional strategies such as questioning and literacy materials in Spanish) has been found to predict DLLs' home language skills (White et al., 2020). Other studies comparing bilingual and English-only programs have also suggested that bilingual programs support children's Spanish development without slowing down their English acquisition (Collier and Thomas, 2004;Rolstad et al., 2005;Barnett et al., 2007;Figueras-Daniel and Li, 2021). Nonetheless, observations of preschool teachers' classroom practices with DLLs have suggested that teachers tend to use few linguistically responsive practices (e.g., providing key words in children's home language, giving children opportunities to use both English and the home languages) and more basic, low-quality language and literacy instructions (e.g., not using many openended questions or advanced vocabularies) with DLLs (Justice et al., 2008;Sawyer et al., 2016). ...
... Most MSHS teachers used some Spanish during teaching and learning activities to accommodate the linguistic and cultural needs of MSFW children. Indeed, teachers' use of the home language of DLLs has been found to benefit children's home language growth (Collier and Thomas, 2004;Rolstad et al., 2005;Barnett et al., 2007;Figueras-Daniel and Li, 2021). ...
Children of migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSFW) are among the most underprivileged, underserved groups in the United States. The current study examined how home and classroom language and literacy experiences uniquely and interactively contributed to MSFW children’s emergent literacy skills in English and Spanish. Participants were 255 Spanish-English dual language learning children (Mage = 49 mon; 98.3% Latino/Hispanic) and their parents and 47 teachers, drawn from the Migrant and Seasonal Head Start (MSHS) Study. Parents reported how often the target children engaged in language and literacy activities (i.e., teaching letters, words, or numbers, book-reading, singing, and storytelling) with their family members. Teachers reported how often the target children engaged in classroom language and literacy activities (e.g., book-reading, learning letters, retelling stories, etc.). Children’s emergent literacy skills in English and Spanish were assessed by standard tests. After controlling for demographic variables, home and classroom language and literacy activities uniquely predicted children’s emergent literacy skills in Spanish, but not in English. Additionally, home and classroom activities compensated one another in supporting children’s English and Spanish emergent literacy development. That is, language and literacy activities in one context showed a stronger effect for children who experienced less frequent activities in the other context. Together, these findings shed light on ways to support MSFW children’s emergent literacy skills and reveal the importance of integrating and connecting home and school learning experiences.
... Biliteracy program. 1 Professional programming and practice for ELs must be based on understanding that L1 literacy acquisition can provide vital support for English language development (August & Shanahan, 2008). ELs who have received native-and dual-language instruction through transitional, maintenance, and/or two-way immersion programs, beginning in the early years of schooling, have been shown to exceed monolingual English speakers on academic outcome measures (August & Shanahan, 2006;Collier & Thomas, 2004) and on measures of cognitive control and flexibility (Bialystok & Craik, 2010). ...
In this brief report, we shed light on how educators can reimagine quality education for Latina/o English learners at the crossroads of language acquisition and disability. We begin by providing an overview of the landscape of Latina/o learners at risk and placed in special education; we then provide a description of the Response to Intervention framework and essential considerations for designing language and literacy programming at the universal Tier I as well as Tier II and III levels for Latina/o ELs within various types of instructional programs (biliteracy, transitional bilingual, and English-only). Research suggests that this critical mass of learners has unique instructional needs that must be addressed by providing them with optimal language supports across instructional programs.
... Despite research showing that long-term bilingual programs allow children to grow bilingual identities and achieve higher levels of bilingual and biliterate development among other cognitive strengths (Bialystok, 2010;Collier & Thomas, 2004), and current calls for dual language education to become the standard for all schools (Thomas & Collier, 2012), when MLs with disabilities are placed in bilingual programs, these tend to be remedial. This is notwithstanding the fact that research is already showing that MLs with disabilities can indeed learn bilingually and that this does not pose an additional burden to their development (Gonzalez-Barrero & Nadig, 2018;Kay-Raining Bird et al., 2005). ...
... On the other hand, principals are also the defenders of teachers, students, and parents from diverse backgrounds who constantly resist policies that foreclose on equity, access, and social justice purposes (Brooks et al., 2010;Hornberger & Johnson, 2007;Menken & García, 2010). Secondly, while a significant number of studies have examined the effectiveness of DLBE programs and teachers and students' experiences within these programs (Collier & Thomas, 2004;Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2014;Tedick & Wesely, 2015), there has been limited research specifically on DLBE principalship and its associated opportunities and challenges. Therefore, we intentionally selected three champion principals of different Asian language DLBE 1 programs (Cantonese, Korean, and Mandarin), who have continuously participated in and supported the development of Asian language bilingual education, and provided transformative opportunities for Asian language and culture maintenance across generations. ...
This study examined how three champion principals of Asian language dual language bilingual education (DLBE) programs—Cantonese, Korean, and Mandarin—in California have navigated the oscillating language-in-education policies after the Lau decision. We explored principals' various roles through a lens of agency in a social justice leadership framework, specifically considering the opportunities and challenges for agentive leadership from three different phases: foregrounding and engaging, planning and implementing, and evaluating and sustaining. Findings demonstrate that the success of DLBE programs goes beyond the overarching language policies that supposedly enable bilingual education; rather it hinges on the bottom-up commitment, collaboration and resilience of principals, teachers, and parent communities. The blanket policies at the state level often overlooked Asian languages and the unique needs of Asian teachers and communities in DLBE schools, limiting principal agency. Within these confines, principals consistently engaged in advocacy work, such as in teacher recruitment, hiring and work distribution, and curriculum design and assessment, contributing to the growth and sustainability of their programs. By elevating these champions and their experiences and perspectives, this study reflects upon the politicized path to bilingual education 50 years after the Lau case and contributes valuable insights to inform future implementational research, practice, and policy, ensuring the continued flourishing of Asian language bilingual education for the growing constituency of Asian-identifying students.
... The finding under discussion is also consistent with the findings of Alidou (2003) and Heugh (2006) that learning in one's own language holds various advantages for the learner, including increased access, improved learning outcomes, reduced chances of repetition and drop-out, and socio-cultural benefits. The positive cognitive effects of using a familiar language of instruction include the ready construction of schemata for learning and the availability of prior knowledge in learning new content (Alexander & Bloch, 2014;Collier & Thomas, 2004). ...
The study sought to elicit the perceptions of teachers and subject advisors towards the use of Khelobedu, which is a dialect, as a medium of instruction. This study followed a qualitative approach, through which data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 8 Foundation Phase teachers and 2 subject advisors in Mopani District. The study revealed that teachers and subject advisors are of the view that Khelobedu would benefit the learners optimally if it can be used as a medium of instruction (MoI). The teachers’ stance on Khelobedu as MoI was also motivated by the fact that they encountered problems when teaching Khelobedu-L1 learners in Sepedi. Thus, its use as MoI is likely to assist Khelobedu learners in overcoming the linguistic barrier, facilitate learning, and enhance their understanding.
... DLE's attractiveness to school leaders and policymakers is not just generic benefits, but the "astounding" specific effects of DLE programs on student achievement, particularly for language minority students (Collier & Thomas, 2004, p. 1). Whereas English-only programs like English as a second language (or ESL) programs have been found to produce small or no effects on identified achievement gaps between English language learners and native speakers of English, bilingual education programs such as DLE yield a cumulative effect over time that may enable achievement gaps to be closed after five years of DLE participation (Collier & Thomas, 2004;Collier & Thomas, 2017;Thomas & Collier, 2002). These findings lend support to additive biliteracy, a model in which native languages and knowledge of multiple languages are highly valued as assets in thinking and learning (Lachance, 2018;Lü et al., 2017 Utah's DLI Program When Utah's DLI program was created in 2009, the benefits motivating the initiative appeared to be as economic as they were educational. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine science instruction in a Chinese dual language immersion (DLI) program. DLI programs’ meteoric growth in the past 30 years has been spurred by benefits attributed to DLI programs, including biliteracy and global or cultural awareness (Boyle et al., 2015; Soderman, 2015; Watzinger-Tharp et al., 2021). Despite these associated benefits, recent scholarship has suggested that DLI students perform worse than non-DLI students in content areas like science (e.g., Watzinger-Tharp et al., 2016). However, empirical investigations of the reasons behind such findings are rare (Lü et al., 2022).
To investigate the reasons possibly underlying these findings, we studied science teaching within/beyond Forest School (a pseudonym). We utilized complexity theory and activity theory to conceptualize science teaching at Forest School as a nested activity system consisting of subjects, tools, objects, rules, division of labor, awareness, and motivation (Khayyat, 2016; Yamagata-Lynch & Haudenschild, 2009). Our dataset includes interviews with 10 DLI teachers and district and state professionals, along with field notes taken from teaching and PD observations and publicly available Utah DLI documents. We initially coded for science teaching references; second cycle coding involved axial coding (Saldaña, 2016) for activity theory elements to identify indirect influences on and barriers to science teaching.
We found science teaching presented significant challenges for Chinese DLI teachers. Teachers described dynamic lessons on recycling and utilizing and describing the five senses. However, some participants struggled to teach and assess science. One source of challenges was differences in how science was taught in China, as well as teachers’ relative inexperience in teaching science; some teachers had only taught English in the past. Science posed a challenge for teachers and students alike, the latter struggling to understand the subject’s complex and technical vocabulary. Moreover, available resources like the SEED standards-based textbook included Chinese language that was far too difficult for students, requiring teachers to find, develop, and translate science resources. Our findings offer perspective that may illuminate the reasons behind Watzinger-Tharp et al.’s (2016) findings, while also building on Sung and Tsai’s (2019) work on the knowledge and skills of Chinese DLI teachers.
... rohmah and Wijayanti (2023) also uncovered that the indonesian language as the national language has gained more power which presents threat to the existence of Javanese as a local language. this point strengthens the previous research showing that the language policy enacted by the government has brought about a huge effect on the existence of other languages (crystal, 2000;Fishman, 1991;sakhiyya & martin-anatias, 2023) On the other hand, acquisition of english language may open many opportunities, such as, improved academic achievement, access to educational and career opportunities, and enhanced social integration (collier & thomas, 2004;garcía & Wei, 2014). similarly, the significance of acquiring proficiency in the indonesian language for individuals seeking opportunities in indonesia or in fields related to indonesian studies, business, diplomacy, or cultural exchange have been highlighted by scholars, among others, arka and sneddon (2013) and sneddon (2003). ...
The current linguistic landscape study aims to analyze the multilingualism aspects observable in the school-scape of an exemplary institution of Darussalam Islamic Educational Complex of Gontor. A descriptive research project, this study obtained the data from both top-down and bottom-up signs visible in public places within the educational complex; thus, only signs apparent from outside of buildings totaling 148 signs were analyzed. The data analysis shows that there are four languages observable in the vicinity with English and Arabic as the most often employed languages. This situation shows a strong loyalty the institution’s language policy. Although the educational complex is a multilingual community, multilingual signs are the least among the public signs. Most of the signs are monolingual signs of either English or Arabic. The enacted language policy provides bigger rooms for English and Arabic to be visible in the school-scape, which leads to the subsumption of the national language of Bahasa Indonesia and the local language of Javanese. This condition reveals their pragmatic concern to empower the students to be ready for various facets of international life. As such, this study informs the school management about the value of the linguistic diversity and offer insights that potentially guide the development of educational strategies that leverage the linguistic landscape as a source for language learning and cultural enrichment. The findings also inform government policymakers about the importance of linguistic diversity in educational settings.
... Depending on the educational system, one or more of these languages can be an additional (and often foreign), language or a second language. With both additive plurilingual and bilingual education becoming part of mainstream education in public and state schools, a highly diverse population can access this type of education for free for the first time, potentially transforming the experience into an inclusive and supportive school community for all (Collier & Thomas, 2004). ...
The shift of plurilingual and bilingual streams into mainstream education has highlighted the need for inclusive teaching practices to support learning in diverse contexts. While research evidences the need for improved methodological training, there is less focus on providing teachers with the training needed in a diverse classroom with pupils who require educational support, despite increasing numbers in schools. Teachers need to be aware that providing a constructive classroom climate is crucial in creating an inclusive classroom. Similarly, developing the social and emotional competences of pupils promotes prosocial skills such as supportive peer relationships and empathy, necessary traits in the diverse classroom. This chapter presents a theoretical perspective on the emotional, social, and psychological benefits of providing a supportive and inclusive classroom climate in plurilingual and bilingual education and discusses how pedagogical and metacognitive strategies, as promoted in CLIL, can be used as everyday strategies to scaffold learning in the inclusive classroom.
... Deller and Rinvolucri (2002) stated that L1 use created a relaxing and emotionally comfortable language classroom. Likewise, Collier and Thomas (2004) found out that bilingualism provoked greater emotional and behavioral wellness. According to other studies, the loss of the mother tongue was associated with lower levels of motivation, self-esteem, and general language abilities (Fuller & Leeman, 2020). ...
El Translenguaje entre el Inglés y el Español e Identidades Positivas en el Aula de Español como Segunda Lengua en un Colegio Privado en Asunción Abstract Even though Paraguay is a bilingual country, most language institutes have a monolingual policy, and they do not allow students to use their first language in the classroom. This can be an obstacle to fostering positive identities, which can negatively affect students' academic success (García-Mateus & Palmer, 2017). This research draws upon Translanguaging theory to explore how this practice influences the development of students' positive identities when learning a foreign language. The study also aims to explore students' and teachers' perceptions of Translanguaging practices. A descriptive case study was conducted in a private school in Asunción, capital of Paraguay, where a Translanguaging methodology is implemented in the Spanish as a second language (SSL) classroom with international students. An online survey, interviews with teachers, a focus group with students, and class observations were conducted. The data revealed that Translanguaging offers various benefits when learning a second language. For instance, Translanguaging helps in understanding new vocabulary, explaining grammar, and clarifying concepts. The results showed this practice also fosters aspects related to identity, such as self-expression. However, students and teachers also acknowledged one of the main drawbacks of Translanguaging: dominant language overuse. The general results showed that teachers and students perceive Translanguaging as a useful pedagogy for learning a new language and for fostering positive identities in the language classroom.
... A landmark longitudinal study [7] of program options for students classified as ELs. They compared several program options, including English as a second language, early-exit bilingual education, late-exit bilingual education, one-way dual language, and two-way dual language education. ...
... Note, though, that there are very sound reasons for not assuming that monolingualism is the 'gold standard' of language development, and many studies show cognitive and social advantages of bilingualism (e.g. Bialystok, 2007Bialystok, , 2012Collier & Thomas, 2004;Genesee, 2015). ...
Assessment of the language development of Aboriginal children in Central Australia is a major challenge, because little is known about the children’s language repertoires and paths of development. The Central Australian language context presents a specific challenge for describing what young children are learning and for developing an appropriate vocabulary assessment tool. National Indigenous policies now have a focus on young children’s development, and existing monolingual English language assessment tools are bound to be inaccurate and unfair, either under-reporting knowledge that is present, or under-reporting difficulties children may have. In response, a multilingual ‘spoken’ MacArthur Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI) app, the Little Kids' Word List, has been developed for four of the languages spoken by young children in Central Australia: Eastern & Central Arrernte, Western Arrarnta, Warlpiri and English, and another two languages are being added. The Little Kids’ Word List app has been intentionally designed for fairer language assessments of the speech production and comprehension of young Indigenous children in Central Australia. The development processes explored the complex linguistic contexts, multilingual repertoires and cultural practices of the children’s families. This is reflected in the content and design of the app, making it appropriate for these young Aboriginal children developing their languages knowledge. In contrast to a monolingual English-based tool developed in different cultural settings, the Little Kids’ Word List app can make visible the Central Australian cohort's languages strengths and knowledge base.
... As the findings in this study revealed, an Englishonly environment may cause language shift and loss for young children, which may lead to negative consequences in their homes and families, as documented by Wong-Fillmore (1991). Therefore, it is important that policy for early education include the consideration of native languages through policies that support bilingual education, as researchers have documented (e.g., Collier & Thomas, 2004;Combs, Evans, Fletcher, Parra & Jiménez, 2005). ...
In recent years, Family Language Policy (FLP) researchers have demonstrated the importance and necessity of revealing the language policies of immigrant families to investigate the language learning and maintenance processes of immigrant families and communities. This article contributes to a growing conversation of family language policies by presenting a multiple case study of three Korean American families, which conducted audio and video recorded participant observation and semi-structured interviews of family members. It examined the policies that families develop and employ in order to nurture and maintain their native language in monolingual contexts. Analyses of observations and interviews show that families developed family language policies that are resourceful and effective for language maintenance despite larger social institutions that favored monolingualism. The parents of all families pursued and maintained relationships with other Korean speakers in their extended families and church communities and created a home environment that invited and prioritized their heritage language. The article concludes with implications for immigrant families, communities, and teachers of immigrant-origin children.
... Being able to teach them in their native language is the Cadillac way of doing this." Ben's comments reflected his belief that the DLI instructional model is highly effective for all students, which is based on research on DLI student outcomes (Collier & Thomas, 2004;Morita-Mullaney et al., 2020a;2020b). Other principals talked about their DLI strand programs enhancing engagement among parents, both those who were native speakers of the target language and those who were native English speakers. ...
Purpose: Building on research in educational leadership, dual language leadership, and leader identity development, this study examines how principals of schools with dual language immersion (DLI) strands perceive and enact their leadership roles and identities. As DLI strands proliferate in schools and districts, this research contributes to understandings of principals’ leader identities as they implement these programs. Research Methods/Approach: We used an embedded single case study design, with the phenomenon of Indiana school leadership in DLI strands as the case and principals as the embedded units of analysis, and we conducted semistructured interviews with over 80% of Indiana DLI strand principals ( n = 26). We conceptualized this as a single case, due to the common policy context of state legislation related to DLI and school choice. Findings: The DLI strand principals described their leadership work through primarily instructional and distributed leadership dimensions, drawing upon their historic, epistemic, and political understandings of their roles. Principals draw less upon the emotional and narrative dimensions of their leader identities, which are more apparent in teacher identity literatures. Implications for Research and Practice: Principals of new DLI strands often have limited expertise related to DLI models and have not considered how their roles should accommodate leading “two schools in one.” We provide recommendations for both practitioners and researchers in leadership preparation to encourage school leaders’ deeper engagement in reflective work across the dimensions of leader identity development. We furnish a matrix of questions to guide this work.
... DLI programs have been developed as educational alternatives focused on providing effective linguistic and academic support to multilingual learners in school settings (de Jong, 2016). The research literature overall supports this program model as the most effective way to provide quality education for multilingual learners from minoritized and majoritized language groups (e.g., Collier & Thomas, 2004;Howard et al., 2018). Due to their academic success, these programs continue to be on the rise in the U.S. (Gross, 2016). ...
This paper examines national, state, and local factors impacting the creation of a new dual language immersion program (DLI) program in a Midwestern school district, a relatively understudied regional context. Using a critical bifocal lens and an ethnographic case study methodology, we examined two main questions: first, why was the DLI program created in the focal school district? And second, what were the most salient factors that impacted the creation and implementation of the DLI program? The findings show the
significance of analyzing the role of dissimilar social factors in the context of historical and contemporary local and national circumstances when implementing educational options like DLI programs. The evidence provided by this study helps to problematize unidimensional explanations regarding equity and the role of various social actors in the decision making process in school communities. This study highlights the importance of considering
local issues from more comprehensive perspectives in bi/multilingual, multiracial, and multiethnic learning contexts.
... Moreover, the longer children are able to learn through a familiar language, the greater their chance of success (Bamgbose 2000;Heugh et al. 2011;Taylor & von Fintel 2016). Long experience in South Africa and elsewhere has shown the deleterious consequences of an abrupt transition to a language of learning in which neither students nor, often, their teachers are proficient (Brock-Utne 2007;Collier & Thomas 2004;Desai et al. 2010;MacDonald 1990). These consequences are exacerbated in poorly resourced contexts. ...
... It is unclear if the families who spoke Spanish at home reported improvements in their children's Spanish skills as a result of the learning opportunities provided by the school or as a result of being at home with their families and exposed to their home language the majority of the time. DLE programs are seen as opportunities to create better alignment or cultural match with the home environment of English learners (ELs) compared to that created by non-DLE programs [24,25]. DLE programs aim to support heritage languages and promote bilingualism, biliteracy, and biculturalism, which, in turn, enhance the social capital of ELs, improve academic performance, and reduce the achievement gap [26]. ...
The present study examined parents' and teachers' perceptions of student learning in Spanish-English Dual Language Education (DLE) programs during the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants included 72 parents of students from kindergarten to second grade and eight teachers in two schools in the southeastern U.S. Parents retrospectively reported their perceptions of their children's instruction and learning experiences in English and Spanish during the 2020-2021 school year. Teachers reported if their students had opportunities to practice oral bilingual skills and their perception of students' improvement in English and Spanish skills. Parents reported that there were more opportunities to practice English than there were to practice Spanish. Teachers reported that remote instruction offered fewer opportunities than hybrid instruction did to practice oral language skills. Overall, the teachers agreed that students' language skills in English and Spanish improved. Similarly, the parents agreed that students' language skills improved; however, they reported that their English skills improved more than their Spanish skills did. Student and family background factors, such as language fluency and parental education, were negatively associated with barriers to remote access. Implications for future research and suggestions for supporting students attending DLE programs during remote instruction are offered.
... This includes both the English language learners (ELLs) and the English dominant students (EDS). The areas most frequently assessed are oral language skills, reading, writing, and mathematics (Bae, 2007;Collier & Thomas, 2004;Lindholm-Leary & Block, 2010;Thomas & Collier, 2002). ...
... Two-way DL programs are learning spaces where students of two different language groups (English and a partner language) learn together using both languages. There is an established body of literature supporting these programs, and a strong consensus in the field that bilingual instruction is superior to English-only instruction in supporting academic achievement and English language acquisition/attainment for ELidentified students (Collier & Thomas, 2004;Howard et al., 2018). Howard et al. (2018) provide an extensive review of data related to academic achievement and positive language and literacy outcomes of multilingual learners in these programs, as well as to the cultural context and social impact of DL programs. ...
This ethnographic case study investigates one dual language (DL) program in the midwestern United States. Drawing on concepts of “The White Space” (Anderson, 2015) and spaces of multilingualism (Blommaert et al., 2005), it explores the social perceptions, actions, and normative sensibilities of young children in a DL program where people of color are “typically absent, not expected, or marginalized when present” (Anderson, 2015, p. 10). This study shows how students and teachers co‐construct DL spaces and highlights how racially minoritized children resist, navigate, and (re)shape relationships in the White Space of the program. The article concludes by encouraging researchers and teacher educators to support DL teachers in their development of a critical consciousness to help them name and counteract inequities in DL programs.
... The language in which children are provided content instruction in school has an impact on their academic achievement (Durán et al., 2010). For example, several studies have shown that providing Spanishspeaking children content instruction in Spanish improved their educational outcomes as measured by different expressive and receptive language indices in English and children's home language (Collier & Thomas, 2004;Oller & Eilers, 2002;Rolstad et al., 2005). The premise of this finding is that providing academic instruction in children's home (first) language will yield improved language, literacy, and academic outcomes in Spanish and in English (Cummins, 1979;Krashen, 1999). ...
The amount of language input bilingual children receive influences their language acquisition. This three-year quasi-longitudinal study determined the extent home language input influences measures of expressive and receptive English vocabulary among Spanish-English school-age bilingual children. The study also determined whether a relationship exists between school of attendance and measures of expressive and receptive English vocabulary among the same group of children. One Spanish-English dual-immersion school and one English-only school in Utah participated in the study. Participants were administered two formal measures of receptive and expressive English once a year for three consecutive years. Results indicate that regardless of their home language, all children demonstrated improvements in receptive and expressive English language skills after three years. Between year one and three, the increase in English receptive language measures were statistically significant among the children who primarily heard Spanish at home. Results revealed that all children made advancements in expressive and receptive vocabulary skills, regardless of their home language and the type of school they attended. Findings suggest that exposure to a language other than English at home is not a detriment to English language development. Additionally, bilingual education is as effective as English-only education in fostering children‘s vocabulary skills in English.
... With regard to the first possibility, the finding that bilingual instruction is related to higher science readiness skills for Spanish-dominant children converges with a large body of work espousing the importance of bilingual instruction for Spanish-speaking DLL children. Specifically, research shows that bilingual instruction in preschool is related to higher literacy and math school readiness skills of Latino DLL children (Barnett et al., 2007;Burchinal et al., 2012;Collier & Thomas, 2004;Farver et al., 2009;Ryan, 2007). This study extended our knowledge about bilingual instruction in preschool to the domain of science. ...
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to describe how the language diversity (i.e., the within-group variability in dual-language skills) of Latino dual-language learner (DLL) preschoolers was related to their science readiness skills and (b) to describe the importance of language of science instruction for Spanish-dominant children.
Method:
Latino DLL children's (N = 161; ages 3-5 years) language skills were assessed in various domains of both Spanish and English, and then their science readiness skills were assessed in their dominant language. Using a latent profile analysis, profiles were generated to describe the diversity of DLLs' bilingual skills. These profiles were used as independent variables in a series of hierarchical regressions to predict children's science readiness skills. With the Spanish-dominant subsample, an interaction term was created between profile membership and language of science instruction to determine how language of instruction contributes to the relation between language and science readiness skills.
Results:
English-dominant children and children with high and balanced dual-language skills had the highest science readiness skills, and instruction in two languages was related to higher science readiness skills of certain Spanish-dominant children. Results underscore the linguistic heterogeneity of Latino DLL children and its importance for school success and bilingual instruction initiatives.
Conclusion:
Findings provide evidence for the within-group variability in the dual-language skills of Latino DLL preschool children relating to differences in their science readiness skills, as well as for how bilingual instruction is related to science readiness skill.
Applied linguists are committed to the investigation of language and real‐world problems. While this commitment leads to greater awareness of societal issues within the discipline, there are increasing pressures from societies and academic institutions to ensure that scholarship is available to, or has direct value for, the individuals and communities that are the target of our investigations. It is indeed difficult to enact social change through research when scholarship is not tailored to, and carried out with, the very individuals and communities that are being investigated. This paper attends to this opportunity by asking the following question. How do we engage in more impactful, inclusive, and sustainable research that explicitly involves the individuals and communities that we investigate? I introduce circular applied linguistics to consider the ways in which the discipline can be more impactful, inclusive, and sustainable in its research. I show how circular applied linguistics is based on the mutual benefit and shared knowledge of the researcher and the researched, creating a culture of ethical, open science, and leading to reflexive scholarship, that has greater relevance to societies.
This paper comprehensively reviews bilingual education's impact on academic achievement and language proficiency among elementary school students. It highlights the theoretical foundations and cognitive benefits of bilingual programs, which enhance executive function skills and academic performance in subjects like mathematics, reading, and science. The review shows that well-implemented programs can lead to balanced proficiency in both native and second languages and cognitive advantages such as improved problem-solving, multitasking, and mental flexibility. However, the effectiveness of bilingual education depends on program quality, teacher qualifications, and societal attitudes towards bilingualism. High-quality programs feature structured curricula, ongoing teacher professional development, and strong community support. Challenges include a shortage of qualified teachers, insufficient resources, and varying societal and political attitudes. The paper offers recommendations for best practices, such as standardized training programs for educators, increased funding, and promoting positive attitudes towards bilingualism. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies and innovative instructional strategies to further enhance the effectiveness of bilingual education.
The rising demand for dual-language immersion (DLI) programs, which offer core instruction in two languages from early grades onward, has raised questions about program design and access. We leverage the rapid expansion of DLI schools across the U.S. state of Utah to estimate effects of DLI program availability on the academic achievement of primary English speakers and English learners (ELs) in programs that serve mainly the former (one-way) or at least a third of the latter (two-way). Using within-school variation in first graders’ access to DLI programs, we find no overall effects on English, math, or science scores from grades 3 to 6. However, ELs whose primary languages match the schools’ partner languages in two-way schools show notable outperformance in math and higher English-language proficiency at grade 5. Benefits of DLI access are driven by schools with a larger share of primary speakers of the partner language.
The volume espouses an ecosystemic standpoint on multilingual acquisition and learning, viewing language development and use as both ontogenesis and phylogenesis. Multilingualism is inclusively used to refer to sociolinguistic diversity and pluralism. Whether speech, writing, gesture, or body movement, language is a conduit that carries meaning within a complex, fluid, and context-dependent framework that engages different aspects of the individual, the communicative interaction, communicative acts, and social parameters. Continually modified over the years to better represent its multidisciplinary scope, the sociobiological notion of language has found steady and productive ground within major theoretical frameworks, which, individually or holistically, contribute to a rounded understanding of language acquisition, learning, and use by exploring both system-internal and system-external factors and their interaction. Summoning the work of leading academics, the volume outlines the changing dynamics of multilingualism in children and adults internationally with the latest advances and under-represented coverage that highlight the ecosystemic nature of multilingual acquisition, learning, and use.
Although relationships between ethnic identity and school achievement in minority children are well-evident in the literature, mechanisms underlying the relations are not clearly understood. Drawing from adjustment theory, this book chapter reviews relevant literature to understand psychosocial adjustment pathways by which ethnic identity transmits positive or negative effects to school achievement, focusing on Bangladeshi minority children. The review suggests that lower psychosocial school adjustment mediates the association between minority ethnic identity and lower achievement throughout elementary schooling. This chapter also discusses future directions for research and policy implications to improve minority children's school achievement during elementary education.
As DLBE educators and researchers, part of our conscientization call (Freire, 2020) is to name problems, tensions, and contradictions in DLBE settings so that we may act on them. This allows DLBE stakeholders to fulfill the two-part definition of Paolo Freire’s (1970) critical consciousnesses: problem-posing and acting. One such problem brought to the field’s collective consciousnesses is how emergent bilinguals (EBs) are many times treated as a homogenous group in the research literature, when in reality EBs include
many heterogenous peoples with distinct sociocultural realities and educational experiences. The study and application of intersectional analyses can be one way to address the enduring call to realize the action-component of critical, or sociopolitical, consciousness so that DLBE programs may garner greater equity in the pursuit of social justice. In service of this aim, the three questions that guide this theoretical literature review are: (a) What is intersectionality, and how is it relevant to DLBE? (b) How has intersectionality (not)
been explored in the DLBE literature? (c) How can intersectional analyses foster socially just DLBE programs moving forward? This chapter is organized by the three research questions with the major themes in the research.
This study offers a review of existing research on translanguaging, inclusion, and computational literacies. It assesses existing school statistics and a student opinion survey released by the New York City Department of Education in Spring 2019 to investigate the attitudes and experiences of students at a public secondary school in the South Bronx that incorporates translanguaging into grades 6–8 computer science and Spanish courses given to most students. The findings of this study indicated that both Language Heritage Learner (LHL) and Non-Language Heritage Learner (NLHL) and perceived overall positive cultural responsiveness from the school community regarding their language identity in a setting where translanguaging exists (most notably in the Dual Language programme), but a minority of staff felt that they did not sufficiently incorporate considerations for cultural heritage and linguistic background into instruction. This study concludes with implications to further improve cultural responsiveness at the staff and administrative levels, the limitations of the study, and thoughts on further research on the issue of assessing whether culturally responsive education is accessible to neoindigenous student populations, particularly given that a citywide survey instrument facing hundreds of thousands of students throughout New York City does not specifically ask about language inclusivity.
This study explored the challenges that undergraduate tertiary students encounter in the development of communicative competence skills in three selected tertiary institutions in Lesotho. Adopting the qualitative approach, the study employed a case study design for data collection strategies which included face-to-face interviews with lecturers (n=11), focus group discussions with students (n=100) as well as classroom observations (n=18). The findings from the face-to-face interviews revealed that traditional teaching methodologies which are mostly employed in the language classrooms because of large classrooms do not enhance students’ communicative competence. Furthermore, the findings from the focus group discussions showed lack of motivation to learn English language and the anxiety caused by the fear to speak the target language. Further noted from the observations is that lack of language exposure due to scarcity of interactive activities in the classrooms may further render students communicatively incompetent. On these premises, the study recommends that students should be exposed to language through activities that encourage interaction. Also recommended is that lecturers should balance fluency and accuracy activities so as to improve students’ discourse, linguistic, interactional as well as strategic competencies. Finally, lecturers should create a relaxed atmosphere in their classrooms for all students, including the shy ones to freely express themselves, fearing no negative evaluation or communication apprehension.
Key terms
Language acquisition, Communicative competence, English as a second language, Language anxiety, Motivation, Socio-cultural theory, Translanguaging, Communicative language teaching, Interactive activities, Interlanguage fossilisation.
Ongoing globalisation processes call forth a need to foster students’ intercultural competences and language skills. Simultaneously, teachers face an increasing diversity of students’ first languages and cultures within classrooms, demanding responsive and integrative practices from them which address all students. Bilingual education is one possible format in which these challenges can be met; however, it requires a high level of teacher professionalism. This systematic literature review harvests international research on bilingual education teachers published between 1995 and 2020. It compares frameworks and research on bilingual education teachers’ required competences for secondary education and generates a professional competence model for bilingual education teachers. This systematic review of 79 individual reports identifies a total of 16 converging competences, many focusing on language proficiency and pedagogical/psychological knowledge. Furthermore, it yields important implications for bilingual teacher training such as the fostering of (academic) language proficiency, cooperation skills and knowledge of bilingual education research.
This chapter discusses the interplay between demographic change, language policy, and pedagogic practices, drawing on a year-long institutional ethnographic and discourse analytic study at an adolescent newcomer program in Central Ohio. The focal argument of this chapter, based on this study, is that a “flexible” Ohio language policy that responds to US Supreme Court decisions is, in practice, “English-centric” and does not respond adequately or systematically to students’ languacultural backgrounds.
This exploratory study reports on the implementation of a novel web-based multilingual learning platform. This tool allows content to be delivered in different languages simultaneously, including languages of the students. In addition, it creates access to content knowledge aligned to the local curriculum, and in doing so, responds to an emerging need of both teachers and learners, in particular in light of an increasing linguistically and culturally diverse context. Our pilot research aimed to examine implementation elements and the perceived potential impact of the platform in mathematics. We conducted our study in an elementary school in the region of Toronto, Canada, attended by a significant number of students with a refugee background. A language biographical approach allowed us to highlight the role of the multilingual access to content knowledge, particularly on learning autonomy. Our results suggest that the use of this multilingual web-based platform may stimulate the learning autonomy of students and a positive attitude towards maths. In addition, our results suggest that additional strategies may be needed to improve the teachers’ ability to implement digital as well as language friendly strategies in their classrooms.
