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High Self-Esteem: Multiple Forms and Their Outcomes
Abstract
Self-esteem has been empirically investigated extensively and has become deeply ingrained in the social and popular conscience.
Varied definitions of self-esteem across disciplines and perspectives and inconsistent empirical findings with self-esteem
have yielded a messy research literature and have produced many lingering questions. In this chapter, we briefly review the
“mess” of self-esteem, first focusing on its inconsistent empirical findings. Then, we propose a differentiated view of high
self-esteem as being either fragile or secure, and how this differentiated view can help “clear the waters” of self-esteem
research. Next, we highlight self-esteem’s importance in personal and cultural identity processes, examining in particular
potential cultural changes influenced by the concept of high self-esteem. Finally, we discuss where self-esteem comes from
and how we can cultivate “healthy” self-esteem, and we discuss two individual difference measures—authenticity and mindfulness—that
relate to secure self-esteem processes.
... Identity development is a central developmental task for adolescents and emerging adults (Arnett 2014;Erikson 1968), who are among the major users of social media (Greenwood et al. 2016;Lenhart 2015). Self-esteem and identity clarity represent two important dimensions of identity development (Campbell et al. 1996;Erikson 1968;Heppner and Kernis 2011), both of which have crucial psychosocial implications, such as better interpersonal relationships, better mental health, lower levels of rumination, and fewer depressive symptoms (Campbell et al. 1996;Heppner and Kernis 2011;Luychx et al. 2007;Trzesniewski et al. 2013). Although existing literature has revealed the relationship between social comparison and poor self-assessment (de Vries and Kühne 2015; Vogel et al. 2014), there is virtually no research on how social media social comparison associates with youth's identity clarity. ...
... Identity development is a central developmental task for adolescents and emerging adults (Arnett 2014;Erikson 1968), who are among the major users of social media (Greenwood et al. 2016;Lenhart 2015). Self-esteem and identity clarity represent two important dimensions of identity development (Campbell et al. 1996;Erikson 1968;Heppner and Kernis 2011), both of which have crucial psychosocial implications, such as better interpersonal relationships, better mental health, lower levels of rumination, and fewer depressive symptoms (Campbell et al. 1996;Heppner and Kernis 2011;Luychx et al. 2007;Trzesniewski et al. 2013). Although existing literature has revealed the relationship between social comparison and poor self-assessment (de Vries and Kühne 2015; Vogel et al. 2014), there is virtually no research on how social media social comparison associates with youth's identity clarity. ...
... Self-esteem and identity construction have been theorized to associate in different manners. Self-esteem can play the role of an identity motive (Heppner and Kernis 2011), an identity outcome (Heppner and Kernis 2011), or a parallel correlate of identity clarity (Campbell et al. 1996). In this study, we took the last, parallel perspective. ...
Social comparison on social media has received increasing attention, but most research has focused on one type of social comparison and its psycho-emotional implications. Little is known about how different types of social comparison influence youth’s identity development. Drawing on the theories of identity processing styles and social comparison, we examined how two different forms of social comparison on social media related to three identity processing styles, which in turn predicted youth’s global self-esteem and identity clarity. We surveyed 219 college freshmen (Mage = 18.29; 74% female) once in the Fall and once in the Spring. Social comparison of ability on social media was related to concurrent diffuse-avoidant identity processing style, which predicted lower identity clarity months later. In contrast, social comparison of opinion on social media did not influence college freshmen’s global self-esteem and identity clarity through identity processing styles. The findings clarified the implications of online social comparison for youth’s identity development.
... Second, research has focused too narrowly on the level or amount of positive self-esteem. In a recent, multidimensional account of self-esteem, Heppner and Kernis (2011) argued that it is important to distinguish between levels of self-esteem and the degree to which self-esteem is secure (versus insecure and defensive). The relevance of this distinction to identity research was noted by Kroger and Marcia (2011). ...
... Differentiating between level of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem It is difficult to proffer a single, consensually agreed upon definition of self-esteem, which is a multidimensional construct that comprises adaptive and maladaptive aspects (Heppner & Kernis, 2011). A distinction between individuals' level of global selfesteem and the degree to which self-esteem is fragile (versus relatively more secure) has gained prominence (Deci & Ryan, 1995;Kernis & Paradise, 2002). ...
... In the current study, we measured contingent self-esteem which, according to Heppner and Kernis (2011), represents the core of fragile self-esteem. Because people high on contingent self-esteem hinge their self-worth on achieving sociallyprescribed or self-imposed standards, they are sensitive to evaluation. ...
Although research suggests an interplay between identity development and self-esteem, most studies focused on the role of identity commitment and measured only level of self-esteem. This study examined longitudinal associations between Berzonsky’s (2011) styles of identity exploration and two distinct features of self-esteem: level of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem. Participants were 167 college students (mean age = 19 years; 66% female) who completed questionnaires tapping into identity styles and features of self-esteem at two measurement waves separated by a 4-month interval. Both information-oriented and normative styles were found to be predicted by contingent self-esteem. Follow-up analyses demonstrated that the content of contingent self-esteem predicting both identity styles was different. A diffuse-avoidant identity style was predicted mainly by low levels of self-esteem. Although we also observed some effects of identity styles on the self-esteem variables, the self-esteem variables had overall a more consistent influence on the identity styles than the other way around.
... Further, the self-confident use of personally endorsed standards by late adolescents and college students motivates them to evaluate their identity choices and commitments made earlier in life and, consequently, to arrive at an integrated and consolidated identity and subsequent feelings of self-worth. In sum, reciprocal pathways linking identity processes and self-esteem can be expected to emerge through adolescence and the transition to adulthood (Grotevant, 1987;Heppner & Kernis, 2011). ...
... Further, several identity theorists also drew attention to the reverse model -referred to as the self-esteem main-effects model -in which self-esteem is conceived of as a driving force behind identity processes (Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Vignoles, Regalia, Manzi, Golledge, & Scabini, 2006). Grotevant (1987), among others, stressed that this reversed path -from self-esteem to identity formation -also merits empirical attention because it can be expected that self-esteem exerts an influence on the identity processes outlined earlier. ...
... More recently, however, multiple components of self-esteem have been emphasized, with the distinction between secure versus fragile self-esteem (i.e., the degree to which self-esteem is vulnerable to or affected by positive or negative external influences) being an important aspect of this heterogeneity (Kernis, 2003). Self-esteem instability refers to the magnitude of short-term fluctuations in contextuallybased feelings of self-worth (Heppner & Kernis, 2011). Notably, self-esteem instability has been found to predict psychosocial outcomes over and above self-esteem level. ...
Based on a dual-cycle identity model, we examined how identity processes were associated with self-esteem in high school and college students. Cross-lagged analyses in three longitudinal studies found that commitment making and identification with commitment were positively related and ruminative exploration was negatively related to self-esteem. A self-esteem main-effects model was supported in high school students (with self-esteem predicting these identity processes) and a reciprocal model was supported in college students (with identification with commitment and ruminative exploration being reciprocally related to self-esteem). Apparently, high self-esteem functions as a resource for tackling identity-related issues in high school and college students. When adolescents enter college and make the transition to adulthood, identity consolidation, in turn, increasingly plays into self-esteem as well.
... In addition, building on a heterogeneous view on self-esteem (Heppner & Kernis, 2011), researchers have argued that other self-esteem aspects, beyond level of self-esteem, need to be considered as psychological risk factors for depressive symptoms. In particular, the concept of contingent self-esteem is potentially important (Cambron, Acitelli, & Pettit, 2009). ...
... Although it has been shown that high levels of self-esteem are generally protective against depressive symptoms and health problems more generally (e.g., Marsh & Craven, 2005), some studies counter intuitively showed that high levels of self-esteem can also relate to maladjustment, in particular anger and aggression (e.g., Baumeister et al., 2003). To explain these inconsistent findings, researchers have begun to examine other aspects within the broader self-esteem construct, viewing self-esteem as a heterogeneous construct (Bos, Huijding, Muris, Vogel, & Biesheuvel, 2010;Heppner & Kernis, 2011). ...
... However, the main goal of the present study was to investigate the unique longitudinal effects of contingent self-esteem and level of self-esteem on depressive symptoms, which should provide important new information on the possible psychological risk factors of depressive symptoms. Previous research has shown that, although level of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem are clearly distinct constructs (e.g., Burwell & Shirk, 2006;Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Kernis, 2003;Sargent et al., 2006), they show a moderate, negative association (e.g., Bos et al., 2010;Crocker & Luhtanen, 2003;Kernis, Lakey, & Heppner, 2008). This association indicates that individuals with lower self-esteem levels are generally more prone to higher contingent self-esteem. ...
The present study tested longitudinal relations between depressive symptoms and two aspects of self-esteem in university freshmen: (1) students’ level of self-esteem, and (2) the degree to which students’ self-esteem is dependent on meeting particular standards (i.e., contingent self-esteem). Using three-wave longitudinal data (N = 494), possible vulnerability as well as scar effects were tested. Results showed that both aspects of self-esteem increased the vulnerability for depressive symptoms. However, contingent self-esteem only predicted higher subsequent levels of depressive symptoms when not controlling for self-esteem level. In contrast, level of self-esteem was a unique predictor for depressive symptoms.
... From a theoretical perspective, resisting compromise belongs to a set of defending or selfprotecting behaviors that the individual uses to maintain consistency between set goals/standards and discordant information from the environment and the individual's own self-doubts (Alicke & Sedikides, 2009;Cramer, 2000;Heppner & Kernis, 2011). These strategies are necessary for healthy functioning (Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Taylor & Brown, 1988) and are applied universally to protect the individual's identity (Gregg, Sedikides, & Gebauer, 2011). ...
... From a theoretical perspective, resisting compromise belongs to a set of defending or selfprotecting behaviors that the individual uses to maintain consistency between set goals/standards and discordant information from the environment and the individual's own self-doubts (Alicke & Sedikides, 2009;Cramer, 2000;Heppner & Kernis, 2011). These strategies are necessary for healthy functioning (Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Taylor & Brown, 1988) and are applied universally to protect the individual's identity (Gregg, Sedikides, & Gebauer, 2011). For example, the need for compromise (and, thus, the acknowledgment or perception of goal-performance discrepancies) can be averted or diminished by discounting or denying negative feedback and seeking self-confirming feedback (Caudroit, Stephan, Brewer, & Le Scanff, 2010;Kerpelman et al., 1997). ...
Few studies have assessed potential underlying mechanisms related to vocational identity development. Informed by goal-setting and self-regulatory theories, this study (N = 286 young adults; mean age = 20.5 years) tested the relationship between vocational identity and career goal–performance discrepancy (i.e., the appraisal that unsatisfactory progress is being made in one’s career) and assessed the process roles of willingness/unwillingness to compromise (as mediator) and career calling (as moderator) in this relationship. As expected, we found that a stronger vocational identity was associated with less willingness to compromise and fewer perceptions of career-related discrepancy and that willingness to compromise partially mediated the relationship between vocational identity and career goal–performance discrepancy. Additionally, career calling strengthened the negative relationship (i.e., moderated) between vocational identity and willingness to compromise and strengthened the negative relationship (i.e., moderated the mediation effect) between vocational identity and career goal–performance discrepancy.
... Comme évoqué précédemment, les processus identitaires peuvent être liés différemment à l'estime de soi selon la période de développement (Meeus et al., 2005). Selon Luyckx (2013), de nombreuses études transversales ont conjointement traité des influences de l'identité sur l'estime de soi, en faveur d'un « modèle des effets principaux de l'identité » (Erikson, 1972), ainsi que de l'estime de soi comme force motrice des processus identitaires en faveur d'un « modèle des effets principaux de l'estime de soi » (Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Vignoles et al., 2006). Au fil des recherches, un troisième modèle plus complexe, le « modèle réciproque », a émergé (Orth et al., 2008). ...
De nos jours, les configurations socio-technologiques modernes conduisent les communautés scientifiques, médicales et éducatives à de nombreux débats concernant les usages numériques des jeunes. Les périodes d’adolescence et d’émergence de l’âge adulte correspondent toutes deux à une phase d’exploration identitaire, qui consiste à tester des rôles dans différents contextes et à les intégrer dans une identité personnelle cohérente. Des recherches traitant du bien-être des jeunes au travers de leurs usages numériques suggèrent qu’une utilisation forte peut mener les jeunes à des issues défavorables sur le plan socio-émotionnel tandis que d’autres indiquent que ces espaces peuvent permettre de développer des compétences psychosociales, de se sentir soutenus émotionnellement. Ce travail de recherche vise à proposer un cadre conceptuel et méthodologique qui permet d’étudier les relations entre les expériences en ligne des jeunes et leur développement psychosocial au travers de la construction de leur identité et de leur niveau d’ajustement psychologique, tout en prenant en compte les caractéristiques spécifiques des jeunes (ie., période d’âge et sexe). Notre population se compose d’adolescents scolarisés en lycée et de jeunes adultes étudiants de l’enseignement supérieur. Ce travail de recherche comportait 3 temps de mesure : un premier temps en Décembre 2018 (N=1970), un second temps en Mars 2019 (N=970), et un troisième temps en Mai/Juin 2019 (N=819). Les participants ont répondu à un ensemble de questionnaires évaluant les usages numériques, les processus de la construction identitaire et les indices d’ajustement psychologique. Les données ont été traitées selon une double approche, à la fois centrée sur les personnes et centrée sur les variables. En complément, des entretiens semi-directifs ont été réalisés quatre mois après le recueil de données quantitatives. Nos résultats soulignent une grande diversité chez les jeunes et ont permis d’identifier des profils contrastés : 6 profils d’usages numériques et 7 statuts identitaires. Des analyses en tri-croisés indiquent des liens cohérents et stables entre les profils d’usages numériques et les statuts identitaires. Concernant l’ajustement psychologique, nos résultats indiquent que les profils d’usages numériques caractérisés par une présentation de soi authentique en ligne, et les statuts identitaires caractérisés par des engagements forts, présentent les meilleurs niveaux d’ajustement psychologique. A l’inverse, les profils d’usages numériques caractérisés par une présentation de soi en ligne falsifiée, et les statuts identitaires associés à de faibles engagements s’accompagnent des niveaux d’ajustement psychologique les plus faibles. L’étude des liens croisés-décalés entre le processus identitaire mal-adaptatif d’exploration ruminative et les variables d’usages numériques, en considérant les variabilités intra et inter-individuelles au fil du temps (ie., RI-CLPM), révèle de nombreuses associations spécifiques selon la période d’âge et le sexe des jeunes. Les entretiens semi-directifs ont permis de préciser le vécu psychologique d’une adolescente et d’une jeune adulte, et soulignent quelques différences d’usages liées à leurs motivations et à leurs niveaux de développement. Ces résultats permettent de compléter la littérature et de développer un nouveau regard sur les usages numériques des jeunes français. Des usages numériques semblent être problématiques pour le développement psychosocial de certains jeunes, tandis que pour d’autres, ils peuvent être plus favorables en termes de construction de l’identité et d’ajustement psychologique. Cette étude souligne l’importance de caractériser les usages numériques en prenant en compte la période d’âge et le sexe des jeunes de façon à apprécier leur incidence sur le développement psychosocial. Enfin, cette étude conduit à dégager des perspectives de recherche et des recommandations appliquées en matière d’éducation et de santé.
... Another factor that may be important in good mental health and well-being in emerging adulthood is high self-esteem. Definitions of self-esteem vary widely, as it is a highly discussed topic (Heppner & Kernis, 2011). Self-esteem was once acknowledged a determining causal factor in many important life outcomes, therefore considerable analytical attention has been drawn to its value. ...
Gender is recognized as an important social determinant of health, but past research on gender differences in psychological well-being have not produced conclusive results. This study investigated gender differences in eudaimonic well-being and life satisfaction in emerging adulthood. A cross-sectional study with a sample of 1990 emerging adults (50% males) from the Spanish general population was conducted. Participants were assessed through five questionnaires. Results showed that women scored higher than men in purpose in life and personal growth. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the most important predictors of emerging adult men’s and women’s eudaimonic well-being and life satisfaction were higher self-confidence and lower negative self-evaluation. Other significant variables in the eudaimonic well-being of both women and men were higher score in the masculine/instrumental trait, higher emotional social support, higher educational level, and higher score in the feminine/expressive trait. Furthermore, higher instrumental social support was associated with eudaimonic well-being in females. Other predictors of women’s and men’s life satisfaction were higher score in the feminine/expressive trait, less age, higher educational level and higher instrumental social support. In addition, higher emotional social support was associated with life satisfaction in males. The results suggest that gender is important in the psychological well-being of people in emerging adulthood, although self-esteem and instrumental social support are, in both emerging adult women and men, the most important predictors of psychological well-being.
... Much like psychologically controlling parents provide or withdraw love based on the child's ability to meet parentally imposed standards, children of psychologically controlling parents have their own self-esteem hooked on the attainment of standards for excellence. In turn, this fragile type of selfworth involves vulnerability to psychopathology and to internalizing problems in particular (Heppner and Kernis, 2011;Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2016). ...
... By combining insights from several differing approaches to identity (e.g. Gregg, Sedikides, & Gebauer, 2011;Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Spears, 2011;Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2011), Vignoles proposes that these processes are guided by six identity motives: ...
The 21st century has seen a dramatic rise in Internet access and connectivity across the world. To date, only a small amount of research has been published on the subject of culture and Internet usage. This thesis investigates whether, and how, individuals from two different cultures (Saudi Arabia and the UK) engage with online social networks (OSNs) differently, and what might be the underlying psychological factors explaining such differences.
A first qualitative study used interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA; Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009) to investigate motivations for using OSNs among Saudi and British participants. Both groups reported that they used OSNs to present a positive self-image, while desiring to maintain a sense of their ‘genuine’ self in online interactions. For Saudi participants, OSNs also provided opportunities for self-expression that were otherwise unavailable. British participants reported using OSNs for relationship maintenance.
A second qualitative study also looked at motivations, but narrowed the focus to identity motives, applying motivated identity construction theory (Vignoles, 2011) to a thematic analysis of tweets written by citizens of Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom. Motives for meaning, belonging, distinctiveness, continuity, efficacy, and self-esteem were all detectable in the tweets of both Saudi and British users. The manner in which these motives were pursued varied according to the cultural context of users within the affordances of the online context in which they were communicating.
The research project then aimed to establish a way of measuring differences in online self-presentation strategies, by developing the online self-presentation strategies scale (OSPSS). Items were selected using exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM). The scale was incorporated in a large-scale (N = 694) quantitative study of Saudi and British OSN users that measured self-presentation strategies, motivations of OSNs use and target audience. Mediation analyses were conducted to find out whether cultural differences in these dimensions were explained by two forms of cultural variation: relational mobility and Schwartz’ theory of basic values. Self-enhancement vs. self-transcendence values and relational mobility, more than openness to change vs. conservation values, accounted for mean differences between the groups in motives, targeted audiences and self-presentation strategies.
Together the studies reveal observable differences in the ways in which people from Saudi Arabia and the UK engage with OSNs. These are partially explained by the affordances that social media provide, which compensate for the unavailability of certain modes of expression and communication within offline cultural contexts, and by cultural differences in value priorities.
... That is, the sense of self-worth of people with a controlled orientation would be more readily dependent upon external approval. For such individuals, external situations that are perceived as potentially threatening their self-worth (e.g., criticisms or negative feedback) more easily elicit distorted processing of information and defensive reactions in order to protect their sense of selfworth (Deci & Ryan, 1995;Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Hodgins & Knee, 2002). However, future research would be needed to directly test these assumptions. ...
... This would allow researchers to test whether intimacy issues are initially worked out in the context of friendship relationships, and whether these acquired competences then would be transferred to romantic relationships (e.g., Collins & Sroufe, 1999;Furman, 1999;Furman & Wehner, 1994;Sullivan, 1953). Finally, future research also could take into account indicators of fragility of self-esteem, such as stability of one's self-esteem (Kernis, 2003), in addition to one's global level of self-worth, as previous research documented consistent associations between high but fragile self-esteem and maladaptive interpersonal behavior (see Heppner & Kernis, 2011). ...
The present longitudinal study tested for the role of perceived parental autonomy-support and late adolescents' self-worth in their intimacy development. A sample of 497 Belgian late adolescents (Mage = 17.9, 43.5% girls) participated in this two-wave study. Results indicated that perceived autonomy-supportive parenting did not relate significantly to change in adolescents' experienced intimacy (in terms of closeness and mutuality), but was associated with a decrease in unmitigated agency (an excessive focus on the self) and unmitigated communion (an excessive focus on the other) across time. Adolescents' self-worth predicted an increase in experienced intimacy and a decrease in unmitigated agency and communion, and the initial level of experienced intimacy predicted an increase in self-worth. Finally, results suggested that adolescents' self-worth may mediate some of the longitudinal relations between perceived parental autonomy-support and adolescents' intimate functioning. No evidence was found for moderation by romantic involvement, gender or age.
... Based on self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988) and the psychology of self-defence, one can take the text as self-esteem motivated performative action (Strandell, 2017). The self-protective verbal behaviour (Heppner & Kernis, 2011) in the mirriiysa text strongly suggests that identity in general and sense of self in particular emerges from a process of interaction. The text suggests also that discursive and performative constructions of identity reinforce each other. ...
The article sets out to examine the way the Hararghe Oromo in Ethiopia use their mirriiysa culture to express and cultivate criticality, mindfulness, interpersonal sensitivity and emotional intelligence. The paper discusses the nature of the performance culture and analyses the social psychological meanings of a set of mirriiysa texts collected from a group of folk performers who participated also in the interpretation and analysis of the cultural, social and psychological meanings of the texts. For theory, the study drew on interpretivism. During data analysis, the horizontal and vertical planes of analysis interacted and reinforced each other. The act of removing earwax symbolizes a cultural dimension of intersubjectivity and interaffectivity. The analyses indicated that mirriiysa is a socio-cultural performance wherein listening, understanding and responding occur in socially meaningful and interactive contexts. To understand the communicative intent of a mirriiysa text, one should take broader perspectives and pay due attention to the non-linguistic elements that offer the performance holistic import. The paper highlights the implication of these and other findings for our understanding of the meanings of mirriiysa and other genre performances.
... These tendencies lead lower-class individuals to be more vigilant to social norms and potential social threats, such as stigmatization and social exclusion, relative to upper-class individuals. Poor students, in comparison to their more affluent schoolmates, can be hypothesized to demonstrate greater sensitivity to the normative importance of money, resulting in a stronger feeling of identity threat and more perceived devaluation by others, ultimately leading to lower self-esteem (Heppner and Kernis 2011;Steele et al. 2002). The present study investigated how the normative importance of money interacted with Chinese adolescents' family SES to affect adolescents' self-esteem across school contexts. ...
Money has become increasingly important in China since the transfer from a planned to a market economy. This study investigated whether the increased normative importance of money impairs Chinese adolescents’ self-esteem. National survey data from 11,819 adolescents (mean age, 14.29 years; 48 % girls) in 200 junior high schools in China were used to examine whether school-level importance of money was associated with self-esteem, and how adolescents’ family income and gender modified this association. Multilevel structure equation modeling analysis indicated that school-level importance of money was significantly and negatively related to individual students’ self-esteem after controlling for school- and individual-level family incomes. The negative effect of school-level average importance of money on self-esteem varied with Chinese adolescents’ subjective, but not objective, family income. Adolescents whose parents subjectively perceived that their families were poorer than others were more vulnerable to the negative effect of school-level average importance of money. No gender difference in susceptibility to the school-level average importance of money was observed. These findings suggest that Chinese adolescents’ self-esteem is contingent on social standards about money.
... Self-esteem is one of the most popular psychological concepts and has been extensively studied, embedding itself in social and popular consciousness. 1 In 1890, William James first introduced the concept of selfesteem in his Principles of Psychology 2 as the result of a splitting of ourselves into a 'knower self' and 'known self.' Rosenberg later commented 3 on the unique ability to be the object of one's own evaluation, reflecting the duality that James considered the basis of self-esteem. Most simply, self-esteem can be thought of as a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards oneself. ...
Objective
To describe the development and psychometric properties of the Spinal Cord Injury-Quality of Life (SCI-QOL) Self-esteem item bank.
Design
Using a mixed-methods design, we developed and tested a self-esteem item bank through the use of focus groups with individuals with SCI and clinicians with expertise in SCI, cognitive interviews, and item-response theory- (IRT) based analytic approaches, including tests of model fit, differential item functioning (DIF) and precision.
Setting
We tested a pool of 30 items at several medical institutions across the United States, including the University of Michigan, Kessler Foundation, the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, the University of Washington, Craig Hospital, and the James J. Peters/Bronx Department of Veterans Affairs hospital.
Participants
A total of 717 individuals with SCI completed the self-esteem items.
Results
A unidimensional model was observed (CFI = 0.946; RMSEA = 0.087) and measurement precision was good (theta range between −2.7 and 0.7). Eleven items were flagged for DIF; however, effect sizes were negligible with little practical impact on score estimates. The final calibrated item bank resulted in 23 retained items.
Conclusion
This study indicates that the SCI-QOL Self-esteem item bank represents a psychometrically robust measurement tool. Short form items are also suggested and computer adaptive tests are available.
... As one of the oldest themes in social science (first introduced by Williams James in 1890) and after more than 23000 articles, chapters and books that directly focus on the importance of self-esteem in human behaviour, self-esteem is characterised by a diversity of opinions, conceptualisations, measurements, theories and definitions (e.g. Guindon, 2010;Heppner & Kernis, 2011;Kernis, 2006;Owens, Stryker, & Goodman, 2001). Historically, most research on self-esteem has focused on global measures of self-worth (e.g. ...
Worldwide, suicide among young men is a major public health concern in most countries. In Norway, as well as abroad, in spite of great efforts invested, we still have scarce scientific evidence of effective prevention strategies, and suicide rates among young men remain high. The failure of effective prevention may be related to the fact that most studies of suicide are based on clinical populations, and the detection and treatment of mental disorder is the main focus in suicide prevention strategies. Yet, a large portion of suicides are not preceded by symptoms of mental disorder (i.e. non-clinical suicides). However, research on non-clinical suicide is almost totally lacking. To further improve our ability to prevent suicide, a broader research focus is needed to understand the complexities of suicides among young men outside the mental illness paradigm.
The present study was undertaken to provide a deeper understanding of the role of age, gender and the underlying psychological mechanisms, such as self-esteem, that regulate the dynamics in suicide among young non-clinical men, and thereby to provide knowledge that may lead to new issues for prevention.
The three studies included in this dissertation utilised a unique dataset, consisting of 120 in-depth interviews and 12 suicide notes relating to 20 suicides among individuals with no prior psychiatric treatment and no previous suicide attempts (Dieserud, 2006). A sub-sample, consisting of ten cases of young men, aged 18-30, was the focus of this study. The first aim was to provide a deeper understanding of the role of self-esteem in the suicidal process of young non-clinical men who took their lives in the transition period from late adolescence to young adulthood (paper 1). In paper 2, the aim was to explore developmental issues and experiences of the deceased which may have left them vulnerable to suicide when facing adult challenges and defeats. Finally, the aim in paper 3 was to identify any signs in the period immediately before the young men ended their life that might have indicated risk of suicide in near term. All studies are qualitative, phenomenological and hermeneutical, utilising the competence of those close to the deceased; i.e. how they themselves were trying to understand how “he” so suddenly and unexpectedly could end his own life. In-depth interviews with mothers, fathers, male friends, siblings and (ex-)-girl friends brought forward how each one of them experienced the deceased and his conduct in all its complexity. In total 61 interviews, as well as six suicide notes, were analysed guided by Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA).
The findings show that for these young men, the transition to young adulthood, a period of major life challenges, seemed to be associated with deficiencies in the affective capacity to regulate personal defeats. A main finding was that the understanding of these suicides was linked to how a discrepancy between ideal and actual self-performances appeared unsolvable. The analyses pointed to a psychological logic of suicide as a way out of unbearable mental pain; pain that was related to a collapse in the regulation of self-esteem. Developmentally, these young men appeared to have compensated for their lack of self-worth by exaggerating the importance of success and being successful and thus developed a fragile adult achievement based self-esteem, which left them vulnerable in the face of rejections and perceptions of failures. The vulnerability in these young men seemed to be related to how their indispensable efforts to achieve in relation to neglectful or judgemental fathers/father figures left them trapped in anger, and how their dependency in the relationship with their mothers rendered them weak and shameful. Consequently, it may be assumed that the intolerable discrepancy between ideal and actual self, when reaching adulthood (paper 1), is associated in particular with experiences of shame; from being unable to meet significant others’ ideal standards (paper 2). Contrary to previous research, suggesting that mental illness, and in particular depression, in the period prior to death is an important risk factor for suicide, few of the informants mentioned depression or other mental illnesses in their narratives. Thus, the analysis of the role of self-esteem regulation in the suicidal process of young men who in spite of accomplishment and success, unexpectedly took their lives in young adulthood (papers 1 and 2) provides knowledge that may increase our understanding of non-clinical suicides, which is of importance for tailoring better prevention strategies.
A major challenge in this respect is related to the fact that most young men who take their own lives are not in contact with, nor seek help from, any health professionals prior to their death. Despite a vast amount of research on clinical risk factors for suicide, research on warning signs is scarce. Thus, the last part of this study was conducted to identify possible warning signs of non-clinical suicides among young men. According to the informants, the young men did not disclose any plans of suicide or make any direct request for help prior to death. Four indirect signs, related to the psychological condition of the young men in the period prior to ending their life, were identified: 1) repeatedly pointing to the irreversibility of a mistaken decision; 2) the desperation they felt in this respect; 3) using their own death as a threat; and 4) and referring to death as a place to go (paper 3).
In summary, because non-clinical suicides are not preceded by identifiable symptoms of mental disorder, and most young men who take their life do not seek help prior to death, the present findings underscore that talk or actions indicating suicidality, as well as worrisome indirect appeals for emotional support, should not be left unquestioned, but rather explored directly with the person. Such interpersonal inquiries may mediate some understanding that despair and threats, as well as withdrawal, may be appropriate responses at a personal level, without being effective for problem solving at a social level. Guidelines to increase responsibility for young men under conditions of despair and isolation may carry the potential to save lives.
... Based on a heterogeneous view of self-esteem, scholars have argued that aspects beyond self-esteem level (i.e., whether selfesteem is high or low) need to be considered in predicting behavior and adjustment (Heppner & Kernis, 2011). In particular, the concept of self-esteem contingency has recently received much attention. ...
The current study investigated the antecedent role of perceived parental goal promotion for students’ self-esteem level and contingency. Additionally, we examined the mediating role of experienced need satisfaction. Using three-wave longitudinal data in a sample of 494 college students (mean age at Time 1 = 18.41 years, 84% female), we found that intrinsic parental goal promotion at baseline directly and positively predicted students’ initial self-esteem level. Further, intrinsic parental goal promotion indirectly predicted both students’ initial self-esteem level (positive effect) and initial self-esteem contingency (negative effect) via need satisfaction. Extrinsic goal promotion only directly and positively predicted students’ initial self-esteem contingency. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Research in translation psychology has shed light on some of the cognitive processes
that underlie the translators’ work, such as their personality traits or emotions.
However, little has been written about the psychological processes that translation
students experience during their training, particularly those concerning how, when and
to what extent they perceive themselves as translators. This research examines how
translation students develop their translator identity, encompassing their translation-
related beliefs, self-perceptions and professional self-projections. Concretely, it
examines the factors that are involved in its development: 1) the evolution of
translation students' beliefs regarding translation, 2) the confidence they have in
translation abilities or translator self-efficacy beliefs, 3) their commitment to becoming
translators, and 4) the dynamics governing their student and translator identities. To
do this, twelve participants from two Chilean undergraduate translator programmes
engaged in five semi-structured interview rounds during the final two years of their
studies. A total of fifty-four interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and examined
using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), which aims to describe the
psychological processes underlying individual experiences.
The translation-related beliefs that emerged in the participants’ narratives capture the
conceptual development of translators’ declarative and procedural knowledge of
translation, and professional skills and attributes. Their translator self-efficacy beliefs
develop mostly by means of successful controlled practice and grades but, as they
advance in their programmes, they actively seek ‘real’ instances of practice to continue
strengthening their confidence. The fluctuations in their commitment to their translator
identity are described in four translator identity statuses, which change from
participant to participant. Lastly, their student and translator identities progressively
separate as they complete their programme.
These findings constitute an original contribution to the field of translation psychology
by incorporating identity theory into translator studies to account for the students’
personal stories as individuals. Moreover, the use of IPA to explore the experiences
throughout their education from their first-person perspective gives the students a
protagonist voice. These affordances provide additional research approaches by which
translator education can be approached, examined and enriched.
The aim of the current study was to evaluate and compare the relationship of mindfulness with self-efficacy and self-esteem. The study has also investigated the difference in mindfulness levels across five dimensions: observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experiences and non-reactivity to inner experience between males and females and between young adults and middle-aged adults who belong to the Indian population. There was a total of 146 participants (F = 80, M = 66), 84 in the young adult group (20-40 years) and 62 participants in the middle adult group (41-65 years). Pearson correlation showed statistically significant (p < 0.01) moderate positive correlation between all the five dimensions of mindfulness and self-esteem; while self-efficacy had significant (p < 0.01) moderate positive correlation with all the dimensions of mindfulness except for non-judging of inner experiences. Multiple linear regression (MLR) with self-esteem as outcome variable showed model fitness of 51% (p < 0.01) with acting with awareness, non-reactivity to inner experience, non-judging of inner experiences and describing as predictive variables. With self-efficacy as outcome variable, MLR showed model fitness of 40% (p < 0.01) with non-reactivity to inner experiences, acting with awareness, observing and describing as predicting variables. Females were found to be significantly higher in acting with awareness and observing dimensions of mindfulness compared to males. Middle adults were found to be significantly higher only in the non-judging of inner experiences dimension as compared to early adults. Importance of mindfulness in improving self-concept has been established in western world. The present study, by exploring the relationship between mindfulness and self-variables in Indian population, highlights the probable positive outcomes of mindfulness enhancing techniques on self-esteem and self-efficacy of individuals, and therefore on the quality of life.
Although recent studies have found contingent self-esteem (CSE) to be negatively related to individuals’ well-being, research concerning its implications for motivation and engagement is scarce. In two studies, we investigated the relation between CSE, motivation, and engagement in achievement-related situations. A first cross-sectional study among second year high school students (N = 641; 54.1% female) confirmed the hypothesized motivational ambiguity associated with academic CSE. Beyond the contribution of academic self-esteem, academic CSE was positively related to behavioral and emotional engagement, but also to emotional disaffection and test anxiety. These associations could partially be explained by motivational quality, as CSE was also positively related to both autonomous and controlled types of motivation. In a second experimental study among university students (N = 72; 70.8% female), who participated in a tangram puzzle task under varying feedback circumstances, global CSE related to more tension, while predicting less behavioral task perseverance. These effects were not moderated by the type of feedback provided (i.e., positive vs. negative). Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
Self-esteem (SE) contingency refers to the extent to which one's level of self-esteem depends on meeting certain internal or external criteria and has been identified as a psychological risk factor. Addressing limitations of existing SE contingency questionnaires, we developed a domain-specific situation-response questionnaire for adolescents that (1) measures SE contingency in domains which are considered important for adolescents, based on multidimensional self-concept models, and (2) includes balanced numbers of positive and negative items per domain, allowing to distinguish between upward and downward contingencies. The current findings support the reliability and validity of the new 24-item questionnaire in a sample of high school students (N = 599, age range 15–22). Confirmatory factor analyses supported the 4 (domains) × 2 (valence) structure of our questionnaire and its convergent and discriminant validity was established. Finally, external validity was supported by finding the expected associations with psychological control and depressive symptoms.
This chapter builds on EMPATHICS, Rebecca Oxford’s positive psychological model of language learner well-being. Positive psychology focuses on the strengths of human existence and promotes human well-being. It looks for the best in people. In fact, it does exactly what applied linguist Merrill Swain urged language teachers and testers to do more than three decades ago: ‘Bias for the best’, i.e., allow and encourage the best in language learners. In this chapter, Oxford briefly explains why the EMPATHICS model of language learner well-being, originally containing 18 elements but in this chapter recognizing three more, has all the hallmarks of a complex system. Then the chapter moves to its main focus, where three elements of language learner well-being (identity, investment, and imagination) are discussed for the first time as major components of EMPATHICS. The identity discussion offers general comments about identity, poststructuralist views of identity, and the link between identity and self-esteem. The investment section explains that power relations, beliefs, and autonomy issues are usually at the heart of the learner’s decision about whether to invest in language learning. The imagination section not only cites the well-known motivational function of imagination but also highlights imagination in relation to (a) the creative imagination of language teachers and learners and (b) imagined communities. The conclusion synthesizes the main points regarding the three newly incorporated elements of language learner well-being. It also reminds readers to “bias for the best,” use the information found in this chapter to improve teaching, and continue to explore the complex system of language learner well-being.
This long-term prospective study examined whether illness self-concept (or the degree to which chronic illness becomes integrated in the self) mediated the pathway from self-esteem to problem areas in diabetes in emerging adults with Type 1 diabetes. Having a central illness self-concept (i.e. feeling overwhelmed by diabetes) was found to relate to lower self-esteem, and more treatment, food, emotional, and social support problems. Furthermore, path analyses indicated that self-esteem was negatively related to both levels and relative changes in these problem areas in diabetes over a period of 5 years. Illness self-concept fully mediated these associations.
Objectives:
This study explored whether self-esteem would moderate the effectiveness of a self-affirmation manipulation at increasing openness to personally relevant health-risk information.
Design:
The study employed a prospective experimental design.
Method:
Participants (N = 328) completed either a self-affirmation manipulation or a control task, prior to reading information detailing the health-related consequences of taking insufficient exercise. They then completed a series of measures assessing their cognitions towards exercise and their derogation of the information. Exercise behaviour was assessed at 1-week follow-up.
Results:
Self-esteem moderated the impact of self-affirmation on the majority of outcomes. For participants with low self-esteem, the self-affirmation manipulation resulted in more positive attitudes and intentions towards exercise, together with lower levels of derogation of the health-risk information. By contrast, there was no effect of the self-affirmation manipulation on outcomes for participants with high self-esteem.
Conclusion:
Findings suggest that self-affirmation manipulations might be of particular benefit for those with low self-esteem in terms of promoting openness towards health-risk information. This is promising from a health promotion perspective, as individuals with low self-esteem often represent those most in need of intervention. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Self-affirmation has been shown to result in more open processing of personally relevant health-risk information. Individuals low in self-esteem tend to process such information more defensively than those high in self-esteem. What does this study add? It explores whether self-esteem moderates the impact of self-affirmation on responses to health-risk information. Findings suggest that individuals with low self-esteem benefit most from the self-affirmation manipulation. This has important applied implications, as individuals with low self-esteem may be most in need of intervention.
This article presents results from a 3-year longitudinal study of the growth patterns and correlates of perceived discrimination by adults and by peers among Black, Latino, and Asian American high school students. Results revealed a linear increase over time in levels of perceived discrimination by adults, whereas perceptions of discrimination by peers remained stable over time. Asian American and non-Puerto Rican Latino adolescents (primarily Dominican) reported higher levels of peer and/or adult discrimination than did Puerto Rican youth, whereas Black adolescents reported a steeper increase over time in levels of perceived discrimination by peers and by adults than did Puerto Rican adolescents. Peer and adult discrimination was significantly associated with decreased self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms over time. Ethnic identity and ethnicity were found to moderate the relationships between perceived discrimination and changes in psychological well-being over time. Results underscore the need to include perceptions of discrimination when studying the development and well-being of ethnic minority adolescents.
Self esteem has become a household word. Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused efforts on boosting self-esteem, on the assumption that high self-esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits-an assumption that is critically evaluated in this review. Appraisal of the effects of self-esteem is complicated by several factors. Because many people with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize objective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a heterogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept their good qualities along with narcissistic, defensive, and conceited individuals. The modest correlations between self-esteem and school performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the result of good school performance. Efforts to boost the self-esteem of pupils have not been shown to improve academic performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, although the correlations, vary widely, and the direction of causality has not been established. Occupational success may boost self-esteem rather than the reverse. Alternatively, self-esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory studies have generally failed to find that self-esteem causes good task performance, with the important exception that high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure. People high in self-esteem claim to be more likable and attractive, to have better relationships, and to make better impressions on others than people with low self-esteem, but objective measures disconfirm most of these beliefs. Narcissists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventually. Self-esteem has not been shown to predict the quality or duration of relationships. High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in groups and to criticize the group's approach. Leadership does not stem directly from self-esteem, but self-esteem may have indirect effects. Relative, to people with low self-esteem, those with high self-esteem show stronger in-group favoritism, which may increase prejudice and discrimination. Neither high nor low self-esteem is a direct cause, of violence. Narcissism leads,to increased aggression in retaliation, for wounded pride. Low self-esteem may contribute to externalizing behavior and delinquency, although some studies have found that there are no effects or that the effect of self-esteem vanishes when other variables are controlled. The highest and. lowest rates of cheating and bullying are found in different subcategories of high self-esteem. Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness. Although the research has not clearly established causation, we are persuaded that high self-esteem does lead to greater happiness., Low self-esteem is more likely than high to lead to depression under some circumstances. Some studies support the buffer hypothesis, which is that high self-esteem mitigates the effects of stress, but other studies come to the opposite conclusion, indicating that I the negative effects of low self-esteem are, mainly felt in good times. Still others find that high self-esteem leads to happier outcomes regardless of stress or other circumstances. High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex. If anything high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity or drinking, but in general effects of self-esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females. Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic, interventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self-esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved outcomes. In view of the heterogeneity of high self-esteem, indiscriminate praise might just as easily promote narcissism, with its less desirable consequences. Instead, we recommend using praise to boost self-esteem as a reward for socially desirable behavior and self-improvement.
Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.
Four studies examined the construct validity of two global self-esteem measures. In Studies 1 through 3, the Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale (SISE) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) showed strong convergent validity for men and women, for different ethnic groups, and for both college students and community members. The SISE and the RSE had nearly identical correlations with a wide range of criterion measures, including domain-specific self-evaluations, self-evaluative biases, social desirability, personality, psychological and physical health, peer ratings of group behavior, academic outcomes, and demographic variables. Study 4 showed that the SISE had only moderate convergent validity in a sample of children. Overall, the findings support the reliability and validity of the SISE and suggest it can provide a practical alternative to the RSE in adult samples. More generally, the findings contribute to the research literature by further elaborating the nomological network of global self-esteem.
This article presents an examination of college student drinking motives from a self-determination perspective. We predicted positive associations between controlled orientation (a chronic orientation toward pressures and experiencing a lack of choice in one's behaviors), and drinking as a means of regulating affect (enhancement and coping motives) and social approval (social rewards and conformity motives). Contingent self-esteem involves deriving self-worth from meeting expectations and was expected to mediate the relation between controlled orientation and drinking motives, which were in turn expected to predict alcohol consumption and related consequences. College students' (N = 204) controlled orientation, contingent self-esteem, motives for drinking, and patterns of alcohol use were assessed. Mediation analyses provided support for our theoretical framework. Results suggest that “controlled” individuals drink to regulate affect and social approval in part because they have a greater tendency to base self-worth on contingencies.
A variety of conceptualizations of authenticity exist, ranging from emphasizing actualization of "being needs" (Maslow, 1968) to engaging in self-determined behavior consistent with intrinsic organismic needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). These conceptualizations are complemented by some empirical data indicating that authenticity is linked to greater psychological functioning and subjective well-being (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). In this paper, we offer a new multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity and report initial findings obtained with our measure (Goldman & Kernis,
The authors examined whether stability and level of self-esteem interact with daily hassles in predicting severity of depressive symptoms. As predicted, Time 2 depression scores (with Time 1 scores controlled) were highest among individuals with unstable self-esteem who reported considerable daily hassles. By contrast, self-esteem level did not interact with daily hassles to predict Time 2 depressive symptoms. These findings held even after negative self-concept items were eliminated from the depressive symptom inventories. Additional analyses revealed that self-esteem stability accounted for variance independent of the tendency to over generalize following failure or negative event attributional style. These findings support the contention that unstable self-esteem reflects fragile feelings of self-worth that exacerbate depressive symptoms under certain circumstances.
We examined the extent to which individual differences in authenticity and mindfulness predicted verbal defensiveness. Participants first completed measures of authenticity [Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 38 (pp. 283–357).] and mindfulness [Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848]. Within the next few weeks, participants completed the Defensive Verbal Behavior Assessment [Feldman Barrett, L., Williams, N. L., & Fong, G. T. (2002). Defensive verbal behavior assessment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 776–788]. Their responses to potentially self-threatening experiences subsequently were rated for the extent to which they reflected openness and honesty as opposed to defensiveness. Our findings indicated that authenticity and mindfulness correlated positively and that higher scores on each related to lower levels of verbal defensiveness. Additional analyses revealed that the relation between authenticity and verbal defensiveness was indirect, mediated by mindfulness. These findings support the view that higher authenticity and mindfulness relate to greater tendencies to engage self-relevant information in a relatively non-defensive manner.
A meta-analytic review finds that college students' self-esteem increased substantially between 1968 and 1994 when measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). Children's scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) show a curvilinear pattern over time, decreasing from 1965 to 1979 and increasing from 1980 to 1993. Children's SEI scores are directly correlated with social statistics (e.g., divorce rate, unemployment) for the corresponding years. Analyses for age differences find that SEI scores decrease slightly during the transition from elementary school to junior high and then rise progressively through high school and college. RSE scores increase steadily with age. Results are discussed in terms of the antecedents of self-esteem, including social acceptance, competencies, and the culture of self-worth.
Consistent with recent research on initials-preferences, we assumed that people's preferences for their initials reflect an implicit form of self-esteem that buffers them against challenges to their self-worth. Accordingly, we proposed that high self-esteem persons who demonstrated weak initials-preferences would be particularly likely to engage in compensatory self-enhancement activities. Results of two studies revealed converging support for this prediction: Among people high in explicit self-esteem, those with weaker initials-preferences displayed more unrealistic optimism, stronger preferences for an excessively positive personality profile, and smaller actual-ideal self-discrepancies. Findings are discussed in terms of the distinction between secure high self-esteem—which is generally linked with psychological health—and fragile high self-esteem—which is generally associated with personal and interpersonal difficulties.
Discusses the relationships between personal expressiveness and intrinsic motivation, flow, and self-actualization. The construct of personal expressiveness has roots in eudaimonistic philosophy. Living in a manner consistent with one's daimon, or "true self," gives rise to a cognitive-affective state labeled "eudaimonia" that is distinguishable from hedonic enjoyment. A personally expressive personality pattern is described, integrating concepts of personal identity, self-actualization, locus of control, and principled moral reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
introduce and elaborate upon a critical distinction between what [the authors] call "contingent" and "true" self-esteem / contingent self-esteem involves feelings of self-worth that are dependent on matching standards of excellence or expectations (i.e., ego involvement) / it is thought to be associated with various narcissistic and defensive processes that reveal less than optimal psychological well-being / true self-esteem is more solidly based and stable, and it reflects positive mental health / discuss how this distinction fits into [the authors'] well-known theory of self-determination / describe in detail various self-regulatory processes that are thought to promote either contingent or true self-esteem / discuss how these various self-regulatory processes are related to mental health, and . . . describe the social conditions that are thought to promote self-determination and the development of true self-esteem (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Addresses three prominent themes in social-psychological research and theory on the self: (1) identity, (2) esteem, (3) and regulation. Under the rubric of identity, the authors cover sources of identity, levels of identity, and the experience of identity—self-concept. With regard to esteem, the authors discuss sources of self-esteem and a number of relatively new ideas about different forms of self-esteem. They also present research on behaviors motivated by the desire for temporary increases in self-esteem. Finally, the authors cover a number of motives and strategies related to the ongoing activity of self-regulation. Collectively, these themes (and the model within which the authors embed them) provide a framework that encompasses most of the topics relevant to the self that have been studied by social psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Aims to begin resolving the apparent paradox of high self-esteem by reviewing evidence that some people with high self-esteem possess positive self-views that are secure and confidently held, whereas others possess fragile self-views that they are driven to zealously promote and defend, often at the expense of others in their social environment. This chapter also presents evidence demonstrating that these different types of high self-esteem can be profitably distinguished on the basis of individuals' levels of implicit self-esteem, and explores some of the implications of these findings for both the understanding of what it means to have high self-esteem and the understanding of the nature of implicit self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The objective of the study was to examine the psychometric properties of a new self-report questionnaire, the Instability of Self-Esteem Scale (ISES), designed to be a complement to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), which measures global self-esteem. A total of 383 nonclinical adolescents participated in an assessment consisting of the ISES, the RSES, and two measures of psychopathology, the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale (CES-D), and the Borderline Personality Inventory (BPI). The ISES had satisfactory internal consistency and test-retest stability. The ISES and RSES were weakly correlated, this finding suggesting that they measure quite independent constructs. The different pattern of intercorrelations of the ISES and RSES with the CES-D and BPI provides support for the divergent validity of the ISES. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present investigation introduces a new way to measure the existence of self-protective cognitive strategies: defensive verbal behavior assessment (DVBA). In Study 1, the authors introduce the coding procedure for DVBA and demonstrate evidence for its interrater reliability and construct validity. In Study 2, the authors demonstrate that defensive verbal behavior is influenced both by characteristics of the person and by the situational context. Together; the two studies illustrate that (a) reliable and valid behavioral assessment of defensive processes is possible in nonclinical samples without the need for lengthy assessment times or specialized clinical knowledge anal (b) qualities of the person and the situation must be considered to provide a full account of self-protective behavior.
Recent evidence highlights the importance of distinguishing between secure and fragile high self-esteem when examining self-protective and self-enhancement strategies. The research reported here examines one way to make this distinction, namely discrepancies between individuals' explicit and implicit self-esteem. Study 1 focused on self-promotion and Study 2 focused on out-group derogation. Our findings indicated that compared to participants whose measured explicit self-esteem was congruent with situationally activated implicit self-esteem, participants whose explicit and implicit self-esteem were discrepant were more self-promoting (Study 1) or more negative in their ratings of an out-group member (Study 2). These findings converge with findings from other research that link heightened self-serving responses to discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem. We discuss the implications of our findings for the secure – fragile high self-esteem distinction. Ask people what it means to have high self-esteem and you are likely to hear something like ''Having high self-esteem means that you like yourself, you are happy with the way you are, and that you are not easily threatened.'' From this vantage point, high self-esteem individuals are people who like, value, and accept themselves, ''warts and all.'' Their positive feelings of self-worth are well-anchored and secure, and they have little need to feel superior to others or to engage in various self-promoting or defensive strategies. Instead, as Rosenberg (1965) put it, high self-esteem individuals are satisfied with being on an ''equal plane with others.'' In short, this perspective suggests that high self-esteem reflects positive feelings of self-worth that are well-anchored and secure, and that are positively associated with a wide range of psychological health and well-being indices (Kernis & Paradise, 2002; Rogers, 1959).
The authors examined the extent to which self-esteem (SE) stability relates to self-regulatory styles, self-concept clarity (SCC), and goal-related affect. The results supported the notion that individuals with unstable SE are not likely to possess a strong sense of self. Specifically, unstable as compared to stable SE was associated with (a) self-regulatory styles reflecting lower levels of self-determination, (b) lower SCC, and (c) goal-related affect characterized by greater tenseness and less interest. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Self-esteem is an academic and popular phenomenon, vigorously researched and debated, sometimes imbued with magical qualities, other times vilified as the bane of the West's preoccupation with self. Though thousands of articles have been devoted to the topic, and bookshops work to feed the public's appetite for advice on revealing, enhancing and maintaining self-esteem, conflicting claims and findings have placed the field in disarray. In a very real sense, self-esteem is a victim of its own popularity. This book seeks to add clarity to a concept earlier examined by such notable self theorists as Morris Rosenberg but eminently worthy of re-examination and extension. We do this by asking some leading thinkers on self-esteem theory, measurement and application to assess what we know about self-esteem, and link it to important aspects of society and the human experience.
Self-esteem is an academic and popular phenomenon, vigorously researched and debated, sometimes imbued with magical qualities, other times vilified as the bane of the West's preoccupation with self. Though thousands of articles have been devoted to the topic, and bookshops work to feed the public's appetite for advice on revealing, enhancing and maintaining self-esteem, conflicting claims and findings have placed the field in disarray. In a very real sense, self-esteem is a victim of its own popularity. This book seeks to add clarity to a concept earlier examined by such notable self theorists as Morris Rosenberg but eminently worthy of re-examination and extension. We do this by asking some leading thinkers on self-esteem theory, measurement and application to assess what we know about self-esteem, and link it to important aspects of society and the human experience.
People who believe that their happiness is contingent on the attainment of important goals (i.e., linkers) have been found to be less happy than people who do not hold this belief (i.e., nonlinkers; McIntosh & Martin, 1992). We hypothesized that linkers' judgments of their long-term happiness would be influenced by thoughts of positive and negative life events to a greater extent than would the happiness judgments of nonlinkers. Linkers believe that objective life events are an important determinant of happiness, therefore they should consider salient life events when judging their happiness. Nonlinkers, who do not believe life events are an important determinant of happiness, should not weigh salient life events when constructing their happiness judgments. As predicted, linkers' happiness judgments were influenced by thinking about positive and negative life events, while nonlinkers' judgments were not.
This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed.
Three studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that high trait aggressive individuals are more affected by violent media than are low trait aggressive individuals. In Study 1, participants read film descriptions and then chose a film to watch. High trait aggressive individuals were more likely to choose a violent film to watch than were low trait aggressive individuals. In Study 2, participants reported their mood before and after the showing of a violent or nonviolent videotape. High trait aggressive individuals felt more angry after viewing the violent videotape than did low trait aggressive individuals. In Study 3, participants first viewed either a violent or a nonviolent videotape and then competed with an ''opponent'' on a reaction time task in which the loser received a blast of unpleasant noise. Videotape violence was more likely to increase aggression in high trait aggressive individuals than in low trait aggressive individuals.
The presumed relationship between adolescent's self-esteem and the occurrence of social problems is a recurring theme in academic and public discourse. Evidence for this relationship is limited by an overreliance on global measures of self-esteem that combine positive and negative self-evaluations in a single measure. My study uses this prior research on the relationship of global measures of self-esteem to adolescent social problems as a comparative reference point for an analysis of the link between negative and positive self-worth and youth problems. Using nonrecursive linear structural equation models and data from the Youth in Transition study, I compare the reciprocal interrelations of self-deprecation (negative self-evaluations), positive self-worth (positive self-evaluations), and global self-esteem (which includes both positive and negative evaluations) on high school grades, depression, and delinquency. I find that when self-deprecation and positive self-worth measures are employed, nuances are revealed that were previously overlooked in studies relying exclusively on global self-esteem. For example, I find a powerful reciprocal causal relationship between self-deprecation and depression and an effect of self-deprecation and positive self-worth on grades in school. These findings encourage theoretical developments of a bidimensional construct to measure self-esteem that includes, in particular, self-deprecation.
John Vasconcellos, Foreword Andrew Mecca, Preface Neil J. Smelser, Self-Esteem and Society Bonnie Bhatti, David Derezotes, Seung Ock Kim, and Harry Specht, The Association between Child Maltreatment and Self-Esteem Martin V. Covington, Self-Esteem and School Failure: Analysis and Policy Implications Susan Crockenberg and Barbara Soby, Self-Esteem and Adolescent Pregnancy Thomas J. Scheff, Suzanne M. Retzinger, and Michael Ryan, Crime, Violence, and Self-Esteem Leonard Schneiderman, Self-Esteem and Chronic Welfare Dependency Rodney Skager and Elizabeth Kerst, Psychological Research and Theory on the Relationship between Self-Esteem and Alcohol and Other Drug Use Harry Kitano, Alcohol, Drug Use, and Self-Esteem: A Sociocultural Perspective
This review focuses on self-understanding, the cognitive basis for self-conception. its purpose is to construct from the psychological literature a descriptive account of self-understanding development between infancy and adolescence. The paper begins by distinguishing self-understanding from other aspects of self-concept, in particular self-esteem. It is argued that a developmental model of self-understanding is a necessary step in the assessment and study of children's self-esteem. Next, the review presents a justification for studying self-understanding separately from other social cognitive achievements (such as understanding other people). With reference to William James's theory, the self as a cognitive concept is analyzed into its diverse components. Empirical studies of self-understanding in infants, children, and adolescents are then summarized and placed within the theoretical framework of this conceptual analysis. The review identifies the developmental trends consistently uncovered by empirical studies and presents a chronological account based on these trends. Finally, the review proposes a developmental model that outlines genetic and conceptual relations among different aspects of self-understanding. This model is extrapolated from the available literature, which is still in a germinal phase; therefore, the model is considered speculative at this point. It is hoped that the model will be subject to further empirical testing in time and will provide a theoretical basis for more precise definition of developmental patterns in self-understanding between infancy and adolescence.
Interest in mindfulness and its enhancement has burgeoned in recent years. In this article, we discuss in detail the nature of mindfulness and its relation to other, established theories of attention and awareness in day-to-day life. We then examine theory and evidence for the role of mindfulness in curtailing negative functioning and enhancing positive outcomes in several important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioral regulation, and interpersonal relationships. The processes through which mindfulness is theorized to have its beneficial effects are then discussed, along with proposed directions for theoretical development and empirical research.
In contrast to measures of explicit self-esteem, which assess introspectively accessible self-evaluations, measures of implicit self-esteem assess the valence of unconscious, introspectively inaccessible associations to the self. This experiment is the first to document a relationship between individual differences in implicit self-esteem and social behavior. Participants completed either a self-relevant or a self-irrelevant interview, and were then rated bythe interviewer on their anxiety. When the interview was self-relevant, apparent anxiety was greater for participants low in implicit self-esteem than for participants high in self-esteem; implicit self-esteem did not predict anxiety when the interview was self-irrelevant. Explicit self-esteem did not predict apparent anxiety in either interview, but did predict participants' explicit self-judgments of anxiety. Self-handicapping about interview performance was greater for participants low in both explicit and implicit self-esteem than for those high in these measures. The experiment provides direct evidence that effects of implicit and explicit self-esteem may be dissociated.
Discusses the interpersonal motivations associated with different levels of self-esteem (SE). Although SE refers to an intrapsychic attitude, SE scales often measure self-presentational orientation. High SE scores are associated with a tendency to present one's self in a self-enhancing fashion characterized by willingness to accept risks, focus on outstandingly good qualities, strategic ploys, and calling attention to one's self. Low SE scores are associated with a tendency to present one's self in a self-protective fashion characterized by unwillingness to accept risks, focus on avoiding outstandingly bad qualities, avoidance of strategic ploys, and reluctance to draw attention to one's self. Evidence shows that most people rate themselves as above average on SE scales. Measures emphasizing social SE may be more sensitive to interpersonal and self-presentational issues than nonsocial SE measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Notes that across different theorists addressing different stages of development, the functions of various self-representations have surfaced as an important consideration. Topics discussed include definitions of self, the I-Self vs the Me-Self, antecedents and consequences of the self as a cognitive and social construction, developmental differences in self-representations during childhood and adolescence, the distinction between global and domain-specific self-evaluations, the Jamesian discrepancy model of self-esteem, social sources of individual differences in self-evaluation, multiple pathways to self-worth, extension of the model in light of the profiles of the school shooters, and liabilities associated with exceedingly high self-esteem for some individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors argue that self-image maintenance processes play an important role in stereotyping and prejudice. Three studies demonstrated that when individuals evaluated a member of a stereotyped group, they were less likely to evaluate that person negatively if their self-images had been bolstered through a self-affirmation procedure, and they were more likely to evaluate that person stereotypically if their self-images had been threatened by negative feedback. Moreover, among those individuals whose self-image had been threatened, derogating a stereotyped target mediated an increase in their self-esteem. The authors suggest that stereotyping and prejudice may be a common means to maintain one's self-image, and they discuss the role of self-image-maintenance processes in the context of motivational, sociocultural, and cognitive approaches to stereotyping and prejudice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
address a number of important self-esteem issues from the perspective of Cognitive–Experiential Self Theory (CEST) / [present] the essential features of CEST that are most relevant to self-esteem issues / CEST also assumes that the motive of self-enhancement is only 1 of 4 basic motives [the others being the need to maximize pleasure and minimize pain, to develop and maintain a coherent, accurate model of the world, and the need to maintain relatedness with others] that are equally important and that serve as checks and balances on one another / present research that shows that compromises among these motives account very well for how high and low self-esteem individuals respond to favorable and unfavorable feedback / discuss some implications of distinguishing between the rational and experiential systems for the conceptualization and measurement of self-esteem / conclude by applying CEST to issues related to psychological adjustment (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research and theory on self-esteem have flourished in recent years. This resurgence has produced multiple perspectives on fundamental issues surrounding the nature of self-esteem and its role in psychological functioning and interpersonal processes.
Self-Esteem Issues and Answers brings together these various perspectives in a unique format. The book is divided into five sections. Section I focuses on core issues pertaining to the conceptualization and assessment of self-esteem, and when self-esteem is optimal. Section II concentrates on the determinants, development, and modifiability of self-esteem. Section III examines the evolutionary significance of self-esteem and its role in psychological processes and therapeutic settings. Section IV explores the social, relational, and cultural significance of self-esteem. Finally, Section V considers future directions for self-esteem researchers, practitioners, parents, and teachers. This volume offers a wealth of perspectives from prominent researchers from different areas of psychology. Each expert contributor was asked to focus his or her chapter on a central self-esteem issue. Three or four experts addressed each question. The result is that
Self-Esteem Issues and Answers provides a comprehensive sourcebook of current perspectives on a wide range of central self-esteem issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
summarize the recent efforts . . . to understand the role of stability of self-esteem (in combination with its level) in psychological functioning / [describe] the nature of stability of self-esteem and its assessment / present a theoretical framework for understanding the joint influences of stability and level of self-esteem on people's reactions to evaluative events / research that bears on this framework will be described / conclude by focusing on some issues of validity related to the assessment and conceptualization of stability of self-esteem (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
At each of two sessions a week apart, 101 college subjects produced open-ended lists of items in nine categories of self-knowledge and also completed scales that provided measures of self-esteem, private self-consciousness, public self-consciousness, and social anxiety. Analyses showed that subjects' productions of self-knowledge were invested with self-evaluation in two ways: (a) Positiveness of self-evaluation (self-esteem) was significantly correlated with numbers of affectively positive items produced (such as liked activities, good qualities, and names of friends), and (b) concern about evaluation of self by others (social anxiety) was associated significantly with both production of relatively few items of self-knowledge and repeated production of the same items on the two testing occasions. These findings suggest that self-esteem is a pervasive component of measured self-concept, even for measures that lack manifest esteem-related content.
We blocked subjects on their tendency to link the attainment of lower order goals (e.g., being one's ideal weight) to the attainment of a higher-order goal (i.e., being happy). We then assessed the number of everyday hassles these subjects experienced, the amount of rumination they reported, their level of depression, and the extent to which they were bothered by a number of physical symptoms. These measures were taken at 2 time periods, 2 weeks apart. In the first session, subjects who tended dispositionally to link lower-order goals to higher order ones were more likely than were those who did not make this link to ruminate, experience depression, and complain of physical symptoms. At Session 2, linkers who had experienced a high number of hassles in Session 1 reported higher depression and more bother from physical symptoms than did any of the other groups. These results are consistent with the growing body of evidence indicating a relation between rumination and depression and suggest that one factor that determines rumination is the extent to which people link the attainment of lower-order goals to the attainment of higher-order goals.
The hypothesis is tested that mere ownership of an object is a sufficient condition to enhance its likelihood to become one of the most attractive items of the entire set of similar objects. Evidence is presented that isolated visual letter stimuli belonging to one's own name are more often ranked among the six most preferred letters of the entire alphabet than identical not-own name letters. Across 12 different European languages, an (own) name letter effect was found for (initial and/or not-initial) letters belonging to own first and/or family name. The fundamental theoretical relevance of the effect is outlined as well as its heuristic value for research on individual versus collective ownership and on affective asymmetry. A cross-lingual analysis of the six least preferred letters-while also confirming the mere ownership hypothesis-calls for a critical reformulation of Zajonc's mere exposure theory.
Based on an integration of sociometer theory and information-processing models, the present study investigated the predictive validity of three self-esteem measures: self-report, an implicit association test, and an affective priming task. In a first session, self-esteem measures were obtained from 93 participants. After an interval of four weeks, interpersonal perception ratings were collected in small round-robin groups. Participants were requested to briefly introduce themselves to the group before evaluating one another and indicating how they expected to be evaluated by the others (metaperceptions). As hypothesized, all three self-esteem measures independently predicted the perception of being valued (PBV) in a real-life situation. In sum, the present study supports the idea that three independent faces of self-esteem can fruitfully be distinguished.
The authors argue that self-image maintenance processes play an important role in stereotyping and prejudice. Three studies demonstrated that when individuals evaluated a member of a stereotyped group, they were less likely to evaluate that person negatively if their self-images had been bolstered through a self-affirmation procedure, and they were more likely to evaluate that person stereotypically if their self-images had been threatened by negative feedback.' Moreover, among those individuals whose self-image had been threatened, derogating a stereotyped target mediated an increase in their self-esteem. The authors suggest that stereotyping and prejudice may be a common means to maintain one's self-image, and they discuss the role of self-image-maintenance processes in the context of motivational, sociocultural, and cognitive approaches to stereotyping and prejudice. A most striking testament to the social nature of the human psyche is the extent to which the self-concept—that which is the very essence of one's individuality—is integrally linked with interpersonal dynamics. Since the earliest days of the for-mal discipline of psychology, the significant influences of a number of social factors on the self-concept have been recog-nized. A central focus of sociocultural and social-cognitive approaches to psychology has concerned the ways in which individuals' self-concepts are defined and refined by the people around them. This is evident in early discussions of the social nature of individuals' self-concepts (Cooley, 1902; Mead, 1934) and of social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), and it contin-ues to be evident in more recent work, such as that concerning self-fulfilling prophecies (e.g. The converse focus—the self-concept's influence on percep-tions of and reactions toward others—has been recognized more fully within the last two decades, through, for example, research on self-schemas (H.