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Sex Differences in Parental Estimates of Their Children's Intelligence
Sex Roles
Abstract
A series of previous studies with studentparticipants has shown that females' self-IQ estimatesare significantly lower than those of males. In thisstudy, 184 mostly white British adults estimated their own IQ and that of their children. The resultswere in line with previous studies, in that males ratedtheir IQ higher than females (108 vs. 104). Both sexesrated their male children higher than their female children (109 vs. 102). Males tendedmore than females to believe there is a greaterdifference between the intelligence of female and malechildren, but this was not significant. Results wereconsidered in terms of the current sociobiological andsociocultural explanations for sex differences inability.
... A negative correlation (r = -.19) however has also been reported by Fumham et al. (1998) and by Roberts (2002), for a verbal intelligence test. As Revelle, Amaral and Turriff (1976) noted, the link between intelligence and Extraversion is dependent upon the test type and the test conditions, which could account for these controversial findings. ...
... The relationship between Extraversion and psychometric intelligence was also investigated, although no specific hypotheses were made due the fact that previous research had yielded contradictory findings (Lynn et al., 1982;Fumham, 1998). In the present study. ...
... Extraversion and Neuroticism were also both negative predictors of gf. These findings are in line with previous studies, which have investigated the relationship between the Big 5 factors and measures of intelligence (Lynn et al., 1982;Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Kyllonen, 1997;Fumham et al., 1998;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000). It has been proposed that both Neuroticism and Extraversion are actually related to intelligence test performance and not to intelligence per se. ...
This thesis concerns the interface of intelligence and personality. It contains six Chapters and eleven independent but related studies. Chapter 1 is a review of the literature in this area. This presents the major models of personality and intelligence, the findings on the interface of the two constructs, and the major findings on how both are related to occupational performance. Chapter 2 consists of two studies, investigating the empirical links between g and the Big 5 personality traits. Results indicate positive links of g with Openness, and negative links with Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Extraversion. Chapter 3 consists of three studies, which further investigate the major findings of Chapter 2, proposing explanations on how the observed relationships may have developed. Study 3 indicated that the relationship between Neuroticism and intelligence is mediated by state anxiety. Study 4 attested to a link between gf and Openness, indicating that it does not exclusively correlate with gc. Studies 4 and 5 revealed that Conscientiousness is more highly correlated with gf than with gc, which along with the sub-factor level analysis of Conscientiousness, indicated that gf may affect its development. Chapter 4 consists of three studies, investigating the relationship between intelligence and personality measures commonly used in occupational settings. Results indicated that similar patterns of results emerge irrespective of the inventories used, which can be linked to the Big 5 correlates of intelligence, thus attesting to the robustness of the relationship between intelligence and personality. Chapter 5 consists of three studies, investigating the relationship of intelligence and personality with job performance. Results revealed a link between intelligence and simulated and self-rated job performance, but not with salary or managerial level. Job performance was positively linked with measures of Conscientiousness, Extraversion and Agreeableness and negatively linked with measures of Neuroticism and Openness, though results were not consistent across measures of job performance. Chapter 6 presents a summary of the findings of the thesis, discussing their implications and their contribution to the current literature. This Chapter also considers the limitations of the conducted studies, suggesting ideas for future research.
... Over 30 studies that used the multiple, SEI model (Furnham, Clark, & Bailey, 1999;Furnham & Gasson, 1998;Furnham, 2000;Furnham & Bunclark, 2006;Rammstedt & Rammsayer, 2002) have found that gender differences were strongest on the mathematical-logical and spatial intelligences, followed by overall (g) and then verbal intelligences; with men significantly overestimating, and women significantly underestimating, their abilities relative to each other. This consistent gender difference has been referred to as the Hubris-Humility Effect (HHE; Storek & Furnham, 2012). ...
... Indeed, masculinity and femininity have been shown to correlate with gender role stereotypes (Biernat, 1991;Hirschy & Morris, 2002;Petrides, Furnham, & Martin, 2004;Rudman & Phelan, 2010) and personality traits (Marusic & Bratko, 1998). SEI studies did not include masculinity and femininity in the investigation of gender differences but Furnham and Gasson (1998) proposed that national masculinity scores, as defined by Hofstede (1998), could play role in the SEI gender discrepancy. Likewise, Petrides et al. reported that gender-role stereotypes play role in the way people perceive intelligence, with psychometric intelligence perceived as masculine and emotional intelligence as feminine. ...
... Domain-Masculine Intelligence Type. Based on the self-estimated measure (Furnham & Gasson, 1998) the Domain-Masculine Intelligence Type is a shortened version with exact same properties and layout, but containing only mathematical and spatial intelligences. The alpha for the Domain-Masculine Intelligence Type in this study was .71 and the interitem correlation (r) was .64. ...
In all 102 participants completed 2 intelligence tests, a self-estimated domain-masculine (DMIQ) intelligence rating (which is a composite of self-rated mathematical-logical and spatial intelligence), a measure of self-esteem, and of self-control. The aim was to confirm and extend previous findings about the role of general intelligence and gender identity in self-assessed intelligence. It aimed to examine further correlates of the Hubris-Humility Effect that shows men believe they are more intelligent than women. The DMIQ scores were correlated significantly with gender, psychometrically assessed IQ, and masculinity but not self-esteem or self-control. Stepwise regressions indicated that gender and gender role were the strongest predictors of DMIQ accounting for a third of the variance.
... On the other hand, to date the role of education as a determinant factor of self-estimated intelligence has not been systematically examined. Earlier studies investigating self-estimated intelligence of nonstudent samples provided some indirect evidence for the notion that self-estimates of intelligence may be positively related to level of education (Furnham & Gasson, 1998;Furnham et al., 1999a). It seems reasonable to assume that individuals estimate their intelligence in accordance with their actual intelligence. ...
... Thus, supposing that more highly educated persons possess higher intelligence than persons with a lower level of education, these actual intelligence differences should become evident in individual self-estimates with the result that more highly educated persons, such as students, estimate their abilities higher than less educated persons (cf. Furnham & Gasson, 1998). The outcome of the present study, however, clearly showed that the effect of education on self-estimated intelligence cannot be regarded as that simple. ...
A total of 121 male and 107 female students from various German universities and vocational colleges estimated their own intelligence scores and were tested by psychometric intelligence tests on each of Thurstone's (1938) seven primary mental abilities. The correlations between self-estimated and tested intelligence differed largely among the various intelligence domains. In accordance with former studies, gender differences in self-estimated mathematical and spatial intelligence, perceptual speed, and reasoning were found. When controlling for psychometric intelligence, only gender-related differences in self-estimated mathematical abilities could be markedly reduced. Besides gender, level of education was identified as another variable that significantly moderates self-estimates of specific aspects of intelligence. The theoretical implications of the results are discussed.
... Selon l'auteur, les femmes optent plus souvent pour des métiers ayant un intérêt social et conventionnel alors que les hommes ont des personnalités professionnelles réalistes et investigatrices. Ceci provient du fait que les femmes sont stéréotypées négativement dans trois grands domaines : compétences quantitatives (Frome et Eccles, 1998 ;Furnham et al., 2002), leadership (Schein, 2001 ;Atwater et al., 2004 ;Co man et al. 2021) et culture générale (Furnham et Gasson, 1998 ;Furnham et al., op. cit. ...
Depuis deux décennies, le marché du travail en France est caractérisé par l’augmentation de deux phénomènes : le déclassement et la mobilité professionnelle. Pourtant, près d’un tiers des diplômés du supérieur en situation d’emploi n’envisagent pas de mobilité tout en étant considérés comme déclassés d’un point de vue institutionnel. L’objectif de ce travail est d’analyser les éléments pouvant influencer ce type de choix de compromis et leur évolution depuis vingt ans. L’originalité de l’étude repose sur la construction d’un indicateur de compromis qui combine déclassement objectif et immobilité professionnelle. Ainsi, les femmes sont plus enclines à adopter ce comportement, et ce d’autant plus fréquemment que le nombre d’enfants augmente. Parallèlement, nous soulignons une certaine amélioration de la situation des femmes : prioriser la vie familiale et avoir une mère au foyer diplômée du supérieur diminuent la probabilité du choix de compromis des femmes.
... Furnham, Wytykowska and Petrides (2005) indicated that many studies have examined individual differences in estimating general intelligence or intelligence abilities for themselves or others. Gender differences in estimating intelligence in general have revealed a tendency that females provided lower selfestimates than males (Furnham, Fong, & Martin, 1999;Furnham & Gasson, 1998;Rammstedt & Rammsayer, 2002). Furnham (2001) in a review study of 20 previous research articles reached the same conclusion that support consistent gender differences indicating that males were rating themselves higher than females. ...
The current study aimed at exploring self and spouse estimates of general and multiple intelligences among a sample of married Jordanian Students. Two-hundred and ten participants, recruited from Yarmouk and Al-Balqaa Universities, Jordan, completed a brief questionnaire based on those used in previous research which included an estimation of general IQ and each of the multiple intelligence sub-types. Results of the study partially replicated the results from other multiple intelligence self-estimate studies showing sex differences on general and logical intelligences, and confirmed previous research results that estimated verbal (linguistic) intelligence followed by numerical (logical) intelligence are the best significant predictors of estimated general intelligence. These results were discussed in terms of sex and cultural differences and some recommendations were made
... On the other hand, there is evidence indicating that Chinese parents' beliefs about intelligence do not favor one gender over the other (e.g., Furnham, Rakow, & Mak, 2002;Furnham & Wu, 2014). Although parents from Western cultures generally perceive their sons as more intelligent than their daughters (e.g., Furnham & Gasson, 1998;Kirkcaldy et al., 2007), Chinese parents evaluate boys and girls as equally competent in intelligence (Furnham & Wu, 2014). Chinese parents in urban areas, in particular, hold relatively similar educational expectations for sons and daughters (Tsui & Rich, 2002). ...
In the United States, there is a common stereotype associating brilliance with men. This gender brilliance stereotype emerges early and may undermine women’s engagement in many prestigious careers. However, past research on its acquisition has focused almost exclusively on American children’s beliefs of White people’s intellectual talents. Therefore, less is known about how this stereotype develops in non-Western cultures and whether children consider other social identities such as race in forming this stereotype. To address these issues, the present research (a) provided the first cross-cultural test examining its development in 5- to 7-year-old Chinese and American children and (b) compared children’s gender brilliance stereotype of White people with that of Asian people. Studies 1 (N = 96; Chinese children) and 2 (N = 96; Chinese children) revealed that, similar to American children, Chinese children associated brilliance with White men (vs. White women) around the age of 6. In contrast, Studies 3 (N = 96; Chinese children) and 4 (N = 96; American children; 76.9% White) showed that 5- to 7-year-old children from both cultures associated brilliance with Asian women (vs. Asian men). The results suggest that the gender stereotype about brilliance has a racial component and may be culturally consistent. Overall, these findings add to our knowledge of children’s acquisition of the gender stereotype about brilliance in non-Western cultural contexts and highlight the importance of considering multiple social identities to understand the acquisition of stereotypes.
... B and C show the percentage of children and parents who got different marks respectively. There are differences in the intelligence of boys and girls due to the family environment [22]. Figure 3 demonstrates that 41 percent, 48 percent, and 11 percent of girls got on low, perfect, and extreme marks in CIQ tests, respectively. ...
A nation's most valuable resource is its children. In the future, a nation will be controlled in the same way that a kid will develop. The majority of parent's lack expertise about how to help their children develop a positive outlook. We concluded in our study by analyzing the association between parental excessive affection and the development of children's intelligence. Through the use of a questionnaire, information was gathered from 531 families. Whereas 43 percent of parents show excessive affection to their children, while 45 percent lavish proper affection. On the other hand, in our study, 48 percent of the children had an IQ score of less than 49. We have identified the alterations in their child's brain as a result of their parents' blind affection and have also identified remedies to the problem. We analyzed it so that the growth of children's intelligence is not hampered by their parents' excessive affection and that the parents and children enjoy a close relationship with their parents.
... Finally, we assessed the participants' self-rated intelligence with an item developed by Furnham (e.g., Furnham & Gasson, 1998). This item "has been used in 30 studies done in 20 different countries and appears to be easily understood by a wide variety of people" (Neto & Furnham, 2011, p. 103). ...
Negative stereotypes about intellectually gifted individuals prevail among teachers and in society although empirical research has debunked them. They are also dominant in mass media representations of gifted individuals such as newspaper reports. The present study investigated whether stereotypic representations in newspaper articles contribute to the stigmatization of gifted individuals and whether nonstereotypic, evidence-based representations might help destigmatize gifted individuals. Two randomized controlled studies with N = 431 and N = 432 university students, respectively, were conducted. In both experiments, the stereotypic representation caused more negative attitudes toward gifted individuals ( d = 0.86/0.81), whereas the evidence-based representation caused more positive attitudes ( d = −0.54/−0.58), compared with a control group. Quality of previous relationships with gifted persons moderated both effects to some extent; however, both effects were quite robust against potential moderators. Results indicate that the media should be aware of their influence on recipients’ attitudes. Giftedness researchers should more actively join in the public debate to counteract stigmatization of intellectually gifted individuals.
... intelligence and results showed the effect was also present here since both males and females rated their grandfathers' intelligence higher than their grandmothers'. In another study, Fumham and Gasson (1998) found that males' over-estimations were also present when participants were asked to estimate their children's intelligence. ...
This thesis concerns the relationship between personality traits and intellectual competence. It contains five chapters and ten independent but related empirical studies. Chapter one presents a review of the salient literature in the area. It is divided into three sub-sections: personality and psychometric intelligence, personality and academic performance (AP), and personality and subjectively-assessed intelligence (SAI). Chapter two (studies 1 to 4) examines the relationship between the Big Five personality traits with several psychometric intelligence tests, SAI, and gender. Results indicated that personality traits (notably Neuroticism and Agreeableness) are significantly related to SAI, but not to psychometric intelligence. Since SAI is also significantly related to psychometric intelligence, it is suggested that SAI may mediate the relationship between personality and psychometric intelligence. Chapter three (studies 5 to 8) examines the relationship between psychometric intelligence and personality (the Big Five and the Gigantic Three) with AP. Results indicate that personality traits (notably Conscientiousness and Psychoticism) are significant predictors of AP, accounting for unique variance in AP even when psychometric intelligence and academic behaviour are considered as predictors. Chapter four (studies 9 and 10) looks at the relationship between personality and psychometric intelligence with a measure of art judgement as well as several indicators of previous art experience. Results indicate that art judgement is related to both personality and intelligence, and may therefore be considered a mixed construct. Chapter five presents a brief summary of the results and conclusions.
... Furnham & Rawles, 1995). Moreover, parents tend to rate their sons' IQ as being higher than that of their daughters (Furnham & Gasson, 1998;Furnham, Reeves, & Budhani, 2002). The current results suggest that this effect occurs relatively early and might already be observed among 16-year olds. ...
Self-assessed intelligence (SAI) and its correlates have been extensively studied in adults. However, our understanding of how younger people perceive intelligence is limited. The current study aimed to fill this gap by investigating how SAI is associated with objective intelligence, gender, personality traits, and well-being in a sample (N = 428) of high-school students. The results revealed that SAI was not correlated with objectively measured intelligence (Raven's test); however, it was associated with other constructs. First, there were gender differences, i.e. boys' self-estimates of their intelligence were higher than that of girls. Furthermore, SAI was strongly related to grandiose narcissism and moderately related to the personality trait intellect. Additionally, high SAI was associated with high levels of well-being. Finally, SAI accounted for the link between narcissism and well-being as well as that between intellect and well-being. The lack of correlation between SAI and IQ score is consistent with previous findings suggesting that the conception of intelligence in adolescence differs from academic definitions of cognitive ability. On the other hand, the strong association between SAI and narcissism suggests that the concept of intelligence might primarily be a manifestation of boldness and a narcissistic attitude in adolescence.
... Some creativity researchers have asked individuals to estimate their perceived overall creative ability on a bell curve, an adaptation of Furnham and Gasson (1998)'s self-report intelligence measure. To illustrate, individuals are presented with a depiction of a bell curve illustrating a normal distribution of creativity scores. ...
... During the last century, different explanations have been given to explain this phenomenon, e.g. genetic (Shields, 1982), educational (Furnham, 2001) or cultural effects (Furnham & Gasson, 1998) or as a methodological artifact (i.e. test biased; Abad, Colom, Rebollo, & Escorial, 2004). ...
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) has been used extensively to study intellectual abilities of special groups. Here, we report the results of an intellectually gifted group on the WAIS-IV. Gifted individuals are people who obtained scores equal to or greater than 2 standard deviations above the mean on an intelligence test. Hence, the current study aims first, to examine mean group performance data of gifted individuals on the WAIS-IV; second, to revalidate the pattern of performance identified in this special group in previous studies (i.e., verbal skills higher than all other abilities); third, to compare scatter measures across intellectual domains with a matched comparison group. A total of 130 gifted individuals (79 males) were administered the full battery and their performance was compared with a matched comparison group. Analyses revealed that gifted group displayed higher scores in all intellectual domains. Contrary to expectations, they showed the highest scores in perceptual reasoning tasks. A multivariate approach revealed that this ability was statistically different from all other domains within the gifted group. Moreover, gifted individuals showed higher discrepancies across intellectual domains than average-intelligence people. Findings have important practical implications to detect intellectual giftedness in adulthood.
... Halpern [15] suggested that cognitive abilities are correlated with self-estimates. Male high self-estimates can be found for instance, among British fathers, estimated their overall IQ and the logical and spatial components higher than the mothers and both parents rated their sons more intelligent than daughters [18,19] . In addition, Furnham [19] speculated that the mathematical and spatial intelligence of Gardner [5] lie at the heart of most people's conception of intelligence. ...
A sample of 648 Lebanese and 252 Indian students estimated their intelligences based on Gardner's 10 multiple intelligence. Males rated higher their body kinesthetic and religious dimension (spiritual) while females rated higher their verbal and intra-personal estimates of intelligence. Using the educational level of the parent, no significant correlation with self-estimates of intelligence for each of the national samples was reported. Differences appeared between Indian and Lebanese samples on the cognitive components of intelligences, namely, verbal, spatial and logical abilities. ANOVA results showed that a higher logical component higher than their female counterparts and Indian males and females.
... Furnham, Wytykowska and Petrides (2005) indicated that many studies have examined individual differences in estimating general intelligence or intelligence abilities for themselves or others. Gender differences in estimating intelligence in general have revealed a tendency that females provided lower selfestimates than males (Furnham, Fong, & Martin, 1999;Furnham & Gasson, 1998;Rammstedt & Rammsayer, 2002). Furnham (2001) in a review study of 20 previous research articles reached the same conclusion that support consistent gender differences indicating that males were rating themselves higher than females. ...
The current study aimed at exploring self and spouse estimates of general and multiple
intelligences among a sample of married Jordanian Students. Two-hundred and ten participants,
recruited from Yarmouk and Al-Balqaa Universities, Jordan, completed a brief questionnaire
based on those used in previous research which included an estimation of general IQ and
each of the multiple intelligence sub-types. Results of the study partially replicated the results
from other multiple intelligence self-estimate studies showing sex differences on general and
logical intelligences, and confirmed previous research results that estimated verbal (linguistic)
intelligence followed by numerical (logical) intelligence are the best significant predictors of estimated
general intelligence. These results were discussed in terms of sex and cultural differences
and some recommendations were made.
... Za muške studente vrijedi obratno -procjenjuju sebe inteligentnijima od svojih kolegica. Također, Furnham (1998) je našao da roditelji, osobito očevi, procjenjuju sinove inteligentnijima od kćeri. ...
... Self-Assessed Intelligence. All participants completed an adaptation of a scale developed by Furnham and Gasson (1998) and that has been shown to be culturally-sensitive (e.g., Furnham et al., 2002). A normal IQ distribution was shown (M = 100, SD = 15), and under each standard deviation, a typical IQ score was given plus a descriptor (e.g., '+1, 115 high average'). ...
The present study examined self-assessed intelligence (SAI) in Britain and mainland China. In total, 102 British and 111 Chinese undergraduates estimated their overall intelligence as well as 14 other multiple intelligences. Results showed that men had higher SAI on overall, linguistic, mathematical-logical, creative, and nonverbal-logical intelligences. In addition, Britons had higher SAI than Chinese on overall, linguistic, mathematical-logical, and nonverbal-logical intelligences. These results support a male hubris-female humility bias and a cultural modesty effect in self assessments of multiple intelligence.
... Scores are summed so that higher scores indicate greater political cynicism. The internal consistency of this scale in the present study was .76. (Furnham & Gasson, 1998). This scale presents participants with a normal intelligence quotient (IQ) distribution (M = 100, SD = 15). ...
ABSTRACT Previous studies have suggested that conspiracist ideation forms part of a monological belief system in which one conspiracist idea acts as evidence for new conspiracist ideas. Here, we examined this possibility in relation to an event lacking reliable or conclusive evidence, namely the disappearance of Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan. A total of 914 members of the British general public completed scales measuring their beliefs about the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan, belief in conspiracy theories, the Big Five personality factors, support for democratic principles, political cynicism, self-esteem, and self-assessed intelligence. Results showed that belief in conspiracy theories was associated with the endorsement of less plausible explanations for the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan. In addition, belief in less plausible explanations was also significantly associated with lower self-assessed intelligence, greater political cynicism, lower self-esteem, and higher Agreeableness scores. These results are discussed in relation to monological belief systems.
... This self-assessment of creativity, developed by Furnham and Gasson (1998), allows participants to compare their creativity in relation to a normally distributed sample of people. Participants are shown an example of a Bell Curve that illustrates a normal distribution of IQ scores. ...
The influence of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism on creativity was examined. Initially, six measures of creativity were administered, including creative self-perceptions, behavior, and performance measures. Adaptive perfectionism was weakly positively related to creativity, whereas maladaptive perfectionism was unrelated to creativity across five of the six measures. A follow-up study assessed whether initial findings could be generalized to an everyday problem-solving task. Results indicated that adaptive perfectionism was related to higher quality but not originality of solutions. Further, a curvilinear relationship in the shape of an inverted “U” occurred between adaptive perfectionism and four of eight creativity measures. Overall, adaptive perfectionism was consistently, albeit weakly, related to creativity across various types of measures, whereas maladaptive perfectionism was not related to creativity.
... However, performance differences cannot account for effects of self-estimation found for general intelligence in adults, as women and men do not vary considerably in their actual levels here ( Brody, 1992;Colom et al., 2000). Preceding studies have also investigated whether more highly educated persons ascribe themselves higher intelligence than persons with lower levels of education ( Furnham and Gasson, 1998). A study by Rammstedt and Rammsayer (2002b) revealed that self-estimates for most domains were not affected by level of education. ...
With reference to the extensively reported gender differences in estimated intelligence, we used a cross-cultural study to investigate whether employment status and education of mothers and fathers (at the time of data collection, in early childhood, and in later childhood) influenced the estimation of parents’ general intelligence. Data showed that mothers’ as well as fathers’ general intelligence was significantly predicted by their education and current employment status. We additionally found a similar relationship between women’s (men’s) and mothers’ (fathers’) intelligence compared with the relationship of intelligence ascribed to their fathers (mothers). Furthermore, women’s self-estimated intelligence was significantly predicted by their mothers’ current employment, whereas men’s self-estimated intelligence was predicted by their fathers’ education. We furthermore investigated how women’s and men’s estimations differ between Germany and Spain. Results indicate that the more pronounced gender segregation in Spain was not expressed in larger gender differences in self- or parents’ intelligence estimations.
Este estudio forma parte del proyecto de investigación Estimación de la Inteligencia Implícita relacionada con el Género, la Educación y la Cultura del Venezolano que se está desarrollando a nivel nacional, con la finalidad de analizar de manera comparativa la estimación que sobre su propia inteligencia, realizaron los habitantes de las ciudades de Valera-La Puerta, Maracaibo, Caracas y Puerto Ordaz-Caripe, pertenecientes tanto a la zona rural como urbana y de acuerdo con las teorías implícitas de la inteligencia, lo que las personas de diferente género y ubicación geográfica, estiman sobre su funcionamiento intelectual lingístico-verbal y lógico-matemático. A tal efecto se realizó una investigación de tipo descriptiva, empírica, de campo con una muestra accidental, intencional. Basado en las teorías implícitas de la inteligencia y las teorías de las inteligencias múltiples de Gardner, se tomaron en cuenta para efectos de la investigación las inteligencias lingística-verbal y lógico-matemática de los habitantes de estas ciudades. Los datos fueron obtenidos a través de la aplicación del cuestionario Estimación de la inteligencia realizado por Añez, González, González, Lauretti, y Sandoval (2011) dirigido a padres y madres. En esta investigación se utilizó el siguiente baremo: 1) Retrasado, 2) Inteligencia Muy Baja, 3) Inteligencia Baja, 4) Inteligencia Media, 5) Inteligencia Alta, 6) Inteligencia Muy Alta, 7) Superdotado. Los resultados obtenidos reflejaron que tanto hombres como mujeres se estimaron con capacidades lingísticas-verbales y lógico-matemáticas entre los niveles de inteligencia Alta y Media, en las poblaciones estudiadas.
Implicit theories of intelligence, or intelligence mindsets, refer to individuals’ basic beliefs regarding whether intelligence is a fixed trait or a malleable ability. Recently, these mindsets have been analyzed at the organizational level to characterize an environment’s endorsement of these beliefs. Environments embracing a fixed mindset believe postulated inherent brilliance rather than continuous dedication is the key to success. The present chapter begins by providing a selective review of implicit theories of intelligence at both the individual and the organizational levels, demonstrating the acquisition of these beliefs and their profound effects in shaping adults' and children's behaviors. Next, this chapter introduces another class of lay beliefs about intelligence, that is, stereotypes about intelligence based on gender or race. Finally, the chapter summarizes evidence showing how a fixed organizational mindset exerts detrimental impacts on members of negatively stereotyped groups, casting light on the deep causes of group-based inequality in the current society.
Educational experiences often influence self‐concept. Thus, readers with dyslexia can have low self‐esteem and self‐efficacy, and perceive themselves as less intelligent than their peers. They may develop creativity to succeed despite their difficulties but findings are inconsistent and rarely consider the effect of age of assessment on self‐perception. This study included 145 university students (Mage = 24.43 years), 72 with dyslexia; of these, 53% had been assessed in childhood (Mage = 11.89 years), 47% in adulthood (Mage = 27.38 years). A survey assessed self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, creativity and estimated intelligence. Students with dyslexia reported lower levels of self‐esteem, self‐efficacy and estimated intelligence. When assessment age was considered, those assessed early displayed lower self‐esteem and self‐efficacy but no difference in estimated intelligence. Those assessed late displayed lower estimated intelligence and self‐esteem but no difference in self‐efficacy. Findings highlight the importance of providing psychological support to students with dyslexia to enhance their self‐perceptions.
Проанализированы исследования представлений родителей о психологических характеристиках детей и об их будущем. Рассматриваются теоретически выделенные зарубежными исследователями характерные признаки понятия «представления родителей о детях». Обсуждаются результаты исследований родительских представлений, полученные в контексте изучения феноменов самосбывающегося пророчества, самооценки интеллекта, семейной системы, теорий каузальной атрибуции и мотивации достижения (модель «ожидание–ценности»). Описаны основные методы диагностики родительских представлений.
The goal of this study was to explore the raters' agreement and the effect of raters' and targets' gender on self- and parental intelligence assessments in the sample of Croatian twins. Twins were asked to assess their own and their parents' overall intelligence, as well as specific abilities from the Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Data was analysed to explore: i) twins' agreement in parental assessments and behavioural genetic analysis of the overall intelligence estimates; ii) gender differences in self- assessments; and iii) raters' and targets' gender effects on parental assessments. The twins' mean correlation in their assessments of overall parental intelligence was .60. The differences between monozygotic and dizygotic twin correlations were nonsignificant for all of the estimated abilities, and model fitting analysis indicates that hypothesis about genetic effect on parental assessment of intelligence should be rejected. The hypotheses about males' higher self-assessments for overall intelligence and for the masculine types of abilities - logical-mathematical, body-kinesthetic and spatial abilities - were confirmed. For the feminine types of abilities - verbal/linguistic, inter- and intra- personal intelligences - there were no significant gender effects. Both target and rater effect were found for the parental estimates of intelligence. Fathers were estimated higher on overall intelligence, logical-mathematical, body-kinesthetic and spatial abilities, while mothers were estimated higher on interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. The effect of the raters' gender was found for overall intelligence as well as for inter- and intra- personal intelligences, where males gave higher estimates of parental intelligences than females.
We present a theoretical model in which agents have imperfect self-knowledge about their abilities and have to self-select into either a high-paying or a low-paying tournament. The model shows that negative (positive) stereotypes generate underrepresentation (overrepresentation) of stereotyped agents in the high-paying tournament even when the stereotype is false. This is because stereotypes affect self-assessment and consequently subsequent behavior. We call this mechanism self-stereotyping. We run a lab experiment in which we use subjects’ beliefs about the gender bias of a real-effort task to test the predictions of the theoretical model. The results of the experiment are in line with the predictions of the model for men but not for women, which partially validates the model and the self-stereotyping mechanism.
Spanish-speaking Colombian ( n = 50) and English-speaking British ( N = 52) adults completed a self-assessed intelligence measure that yielded a score on domain-masculine intelligence (DMIQ), a composite of mathematical/logical and spatial intelligences. They also completed a Sex Role inventory in order to establish their masculinity and femininity. Males in both countries gave significantly higher self-estimates (Colombia: Males 110.36, Females 100.75, d = .94; England: Males 114.37, Females 105.75, d = .86; both p < .01) than females but sex role was note related to DMIQ. However there was a positive relationship between masculinity and DMIQ ( r = .45, r = .39, p < .01), but only for males. Cultural issues in self-assessed intelligence and limitations, particularly sample size of this exploratory study are considered.
This paper reports on two studies, each concerned with sex differences in the estimates of Gardner's 'seven basic types of intelligence'. In the first study, 180 British adults were asked to estimate their own intelligence on the seven intelligence factors. Only one (mathematical/logical) showed a significant sex difference, with males believing they had higher scores than females. Factor analysis of these seven scales yielded three interpretable higher-order factors. There was a similar sex difference on only one factor (mathematical/spatial intelligence), which showed males rating themselves higher than females. In the second study, 80 student participants completed the same seven estimates of intelligence,plus a standard sex-role inventory, in order to separate sex and sex role in the self-estimation of intelligence. A series of sex x sex-role ANOVAs showed some effects, particularly for mathematical, musical, and spatial intelligence, bur nearly always for sex and not sex role. Results suggest that previous studies which found consistent sex differences in self-estimates of overall intelligence ('g') may have over-exaggerated the issue as the difference is clearly confined to a limited number of factors of intelligence. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study examined the estimations of multiple intelligences for self, partner and parents. One hundred and fifty two students (males = 81, females = 68, and 3 have not indicated their sex; mean age = 24.02, SD = 3.08) from Guinea Bissau estimated their own, their partners', and their parents' IQ scores on each of Gardner's ten multiple intelligences: verbal (linguistic), logical (mathematical), spatial, musical, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential, spiritual and naturalistic. In contrast to previous results (A. Furnham, 2001) sex differences in self-estimates did not occur in this Guinean sample. Participants rated overall intelligence of their father higher than that of their mother. An existing data set on estimates of intelligence in a Portuguese sample was used for a cross-cultural comparison between Portuguese and Guinean participants. There were consistent and clear culture differences. Guinean gave higher self, partner and family ratings than Portuguese. Results are discussed in terms of the growing literature in the self-estimates of intelligence, as well as limitations of that approach.
The aim of this investigation is to verify if the results are the same that the experts have achieved in other studies with adults and in what degree or they are different from them. The participants have been 191 students of secondary education. them, 86 were women, and 105 men. His socioeconomic level was average. The students were asked to estimate their own and their family intelligence. The results confirm that the women give lower estimates of their intelligence than men, es 477 pecially in the mathematical and spatial intelligence. The findings are in line of actual research and are interpreted in terms of social and familial influences.
Two studies that focussed on sex differences in self-rated management competencies are reported. In the firststudy 197 working adults (125 female, 72 male) rated themselves on the nine competencies listed by Boyaztis(1982). There were overall few significant sex differences. The ratings of the nine competencies factored in twocoherent factors. There were various individual difference predictors of the total competency rating and the twofactor scores. Older participants with higher Openness-to-Experience trait gave higher overall self-estimates. Inthe second study 173 adults (108 female, 65 male) rated themselves on the 12 independent “super-competencies”specified by Dulewicz (1999). Again there were few significant sex differences. Factor analysis revealed tworecognisable factors. Extraverts tended to give higher self-estimates than introverts. The results are discussed interms of the literature on self-assessed abilities and business competencies.
This study set out to examine whether Chinese parents, more than people from other nations, over-estimate the intelligence of their son (little emperor) compared to their daughter. In this study, 155 pairs of married couples from mainland China estimated their own, their partner’s and their only child’s overall intelligence and 13 “multiple intelligences.” They also completed a short measure of the Big Five personality traits. Replicating previous studies, fathers rated themselves higher than mothers for almost all types of intelligence. Results revealed, however, no parental sex differences in the estimates of children’s multiple intelligences. Both parents attributed higher overall, verbal, and musical intelligence, but lower existential intelligence to their child than to themselves. Multiple regressions indicated that estimates of verbal, logical–mathematical, spatial and intrapersonal intelligence were the best predictors of estimates of overall intelligence. Participants’ openness and neuroticism were significant predictors of self-rated intelligence. The results were interpreted in relation to specific Chinese social and cultural influences, though there seemed to be no “little emperor” effect.
Self-estimates of intelligence (SEI), which influence to what extent people engage in and how well they perform at a task, are subject to distortion. Here, the distortion effects of individual differences in intelligence (IQ), gender, and proximal (with reference to test performance) and distal (with reference to IQ score distributions) assessments of SEI were tested in a sample of 200 British adults. The results showed that (1) people with lower IQ misestimated their SEI to a greater extent than people with high IQ; (2) this effect was more pronounced in distal than proximal measures of SEI; (3) SEI means did not differ significantly across gender but the IQ-related level of SEI distortion did; (4) this effect was greater for distal than proximal measurement; and (5) proximal SEI were on average less distorted than distal SEI scores and also correlated more closely with IQ. Overall, the findings suggest that the distal SEI assessment method resulted in greater gender- and IQ-related distortions of SEI.
Two-hundred-and-fourteen Zulus rated their own and their children's overall and multiple intelligences. Parents gave similar ratings: highest for verbal, intra- and inter-personal intelligence and lowest for musical and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence. Female first-born children received higher ratings than male first-born children. The strongest predictor of the children's overall estimated IQ was the parents overall estimated IQ and the age of the child. Results are compared to other similar studies in the area.
South African parents of both African and Indian origin estimated their own intelligence (on seven factors) and that of their first three children. Parents of Indian origin gave higher self-estimates than isiZulu-speaking parents, and fathers gave higher self-estimates than mothers. The results indicated that parents of Indian origin showed a greater gender difference discrepancy than isiZulu-speaking parents on spatial, musical and bodily kinaesthetic intelligence. Estimates of the intelligence of all the first-, second- and third-born children showed a similar pattern. While there were few sex differences in the estimations, parents of Indian origin tended to give higher estimates than isiZulu-speaking parents. The results obtained are discussed in terms of the educational and political history of South Africa.
In all, 212 British and 154 Iranian students estimated their own, their parents’, and their siblings’scores on the Gardner (1983) seven multiple intelligences. Men tended to rate their own mathematical and spatial intelligence higher than did women. Iranian students thought they themselves had lower mathematical but higher spatial, musical, and intrapersonal intelligence compared with British students The Iranians rated their fathers’ mathematical and spatial IQs lower but their interpersonal and intrapersonal IQs higher than did British students. The Iranians rated their mothers’ IQs significantly lower than did the British on six of the seven scales. Results for siblings showed far fewer gender and interaction effects but many effects of culture, particularly for first brothers. Iranians rated the intelligence of their first brothers higher than did the British on six of the seven scales. Iranians tended to be more in favor of tests and more willing to acknowledge race and gender differences.
Over 120 participants completed three timed intelligence tests, a self-estimated Domain Masculine (DMIQ) Intelligence scale, and a mindset “beliefs about intelligence” measure (Dweck, 2012) to examine correlates of the Hubris-Humility Effect (HHE) which shows males believe they are more intelligent than females. As predicted males gave higher DMIQ estimates than females. Males also scored higher than females on two of the three intelligence tests. Mindset beliefs (entity vs incremental theories) were not significantly related to gender or DMIQ scores. DMIQ estimates were only weakly related to two of the three intelligence tests. Gender and general intelligence test scores (Wonderlic Personnel Test, Inc., 1992) were the best predictors of DMIQ. Limitations are discussed.
In all 278 members of British Mensa completed three questionnaires concerned with self-estimated intelligence (SEI), Beliefs about Intelligence and its measurement and a gender role inventory. Males rated their domain masculine intelligence (a combination of mathematical, spatial and verbal intelligence) almost three (143.9) and females more than two (134.3) standard deviations above the mean and this difference was highly significant (Cohen’s d = .70). The Beliefs about Intelligence factored into seven interpretable dimensions and there were no gender differences between them. Masculinity was positively correlated with SEI. Regressing SEI on gender, gender role and Beliefs about Intelligence showed gender was the only significant predictor. Despite the high self-estimates which maybe expected with this group the results confirm nearly all studies in this area.
In this study, Spanish mothers and fathers (N=108) estimated their own general and multiple intelligences, as well as those of their children and of their own parents. The mothers' self-estimates of their verbal, logical–mathematical, spatial, and corporal intelligence were lower than the fathers'. The mothers made lower estimates of their daughters' spatial intelligence than of their sons'. Both parents made lower estimates of the verbal, logical–mathematical, and spatial intelligence of the grandmothers than of the grandfathers. Children and parents were both more intelligent than the grandparents. The results are in line with the research of many other studies that confirm the gender effect and the generational effect.
Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine the magnitude of sex differences in self-estimates of general, mathematical/logical, spatial and verbal abilities. For all but verbal ability males gave significantly higher self-estimates than did females. The weighted mean effect size d for general intelligence was .37, for mathematical .44, for spatial .43 and for verbal .07. As these were significantly heterogeneous, homogeneity analysis was performed to identify moderating factors. These included age, instruction type, country and dominating author's gender. The outcomes were discussed in terms of possible causes of this phenomenon and some concerns about the interpretation of the results were raised.
This study set out to explore the relationship between beliefs about intelligence (BAI) (Dweck, 1999), estimates of self- and other- (specifically mother's, father's, and closest friend's) intelligence (Furnham, 2001), and confidence in the acquisition of skills (CAS), in a sample of 266 British college students (194 females). As in previous studies, there were significant gender differences in self-assessed intelligence (SAI), such that males estimated their ability higher than did females. There was also a significant correlation between BAI and CAS, such that individuals who believed that intelligence may increase over time (incremental theorists) were generally more confident with regard to the acquisition of novel skills. Results are discussed in light of the potential theoretical links between perceived abilities and the development of future skills.
Previous research has shown that for self-estimates of overall IQ, males rate their scores higher than do females (Beloff, 1992). More recent investigations have found that for estimates of specific intelligences, there are fewer gender differences (Furnham, Clark, & Bailey, 1999). This paper aimed to investigate the nature of estimates and gender effects in overall IQ and estimates on the 13 tasks from the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), using a sample of secondary school pupils and grades 10 to 12. Results showed higher male self-estimates for eight of these tasks, including arithmetic and comprehension. There were far fewer sex differences when estimating parental scores on the WISC scales or overall intelligences. The self-estimated WISC scores factored "correctly" into verbal and performance tasks. Regressions showed object assembly and arithmetic important predictors of the overall IQ estimate of self and parents. Results are discussed in terms of the salient literature in the field as well as the implications in educational settings.
Following J. Reilly and G. Mulhern (1995), the authors examined the relationship between self-estimated and psychometrically measured IQs in men and women. In this study, 53 male and 140 female British undergraduates estimated their overall IQs. About 4 months later, they completed a spatial-intelligence (mental-rotation) test. The men estimated their scores significantly higher (120) than the women did (116) and also obtained significantly higher test scores (6.94) than the women did (4.43). There was a very modest but significant correlation between self-estimated IQ and actual IQ score (r = .16). The correlation was significant for the men (r = .27, n = 53) but not for the women (r = .09, n = 140). Removal of a small number of outliers had no significant effect on the results.
British adults ( N = 239) provided estimates of their own and their children's general, emotional, analytic, creative, and practical intelligence. Men (fathers) rated their own levels of analytic and practical intelligence significantly higher than women (mothers) rated theirs. In contrast, women rated their emotional intelligence significantly higher than men. Two-way ANOVAs (gender of parent by gender of child) on the estimates of the five types of intelligence showed that fathers tended to give higher estimates than mothers for their first child's general, analytic, and creative intelligence. There were no significant effects for second-born children. The ANOVAs indicated that parents rated their third-born female children higher than their third-born male children on emotional, analytic, and practical intelligence. Explanations for these findings are discussed.
This paper reports on two studies, each concerned with sex differences in the estimates of Gardner's ‘seven basic types of intelligence’. In the first study, 180 British adults were asked to estimate their own intelligence on the seven intelligence factors. Only one (mathematical/logical) showed a significant sex difference, with males believing they had higher scores than females. Factor analysis of these seven scales yielded three interpretable higher-order factors. There was a similar sex difference on only one factor (mathematical/spatial intelligence), which showed males rating themselves higher than females. In the second study, 80 student participants completed the same seven estimates of intelligence, plus a standard sex-role inventory, in order to separate sex and sex role in the self-estimation of intelligence. A series of sex×sex-role ANOVAs showed some effects, particularly for mathematical, musical, and spatial intelligence, but nearly always for sex and not sex role. Results suggest that previous studies which found consistent sex differences in self-estimates of overall intelligence (‘g’) may have over-exaggerated the issue as the difference is clearly confined to a limited number of factors of intelligence. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study looked for evidence of cultural stereotypes regarding the different intellectual abilities of men and women. The effects of participants' gender, gender role and the target's sex on the perception of an intelligent person and attitudes towards disclosing high IQ were investigated. Some 121 participants wrote a story following a verbal lead about a highly intelligent male or female. They then answered three questions about IQ disclosure and filled out a Bem Sex Role Inventory. Content analysis showed most differences emerged in participants' views about consequences of high intelligence for one's intimate interpersonal relationships. More negative consequences were predicted for female than male targets. This bias was especially strong for females and feminine participants.
This study investigated the relationship among sex, attitude toward intelligence, and self‐estimation of multiple intelligences for self and parents among Portuguese adolescents in secondary schools. Two hundred and forty‐two adolescents estimated their own and their parents' IQ scores on each of Gardner's 10 multiple intelligences: verbal (linguistic), logical (mathematical), spatial, musical, body‐kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential, spiritual, and naturalistic. They also answered six simple questions concerning intelligence and intelligence tests. There were various sex differences in self‐estimated IQ: males rated themselves higher on overall, mathematical, spatial, intrapersonal, spiritual, and naturalistic IQ compared with females. Multiple regressions indicated that verbal, logical, and intrapersonal intelligence were significant predictors for self and parents overall IQ estimations. Factor analysis of the 10, the 8, and the 7 self‐estimates scores did not confirm Gardner's classification of multiple intelligences. Males were more likely to believe in sex differences in intelligence than females. Results are discussed in terms of the growing literature in the self‐estimates of intelligence, as well as limitations of that approach.
One hundred and ninety-three Hong Kong parents (mean age 42.2 years) were given a structured interview/questionnaire concerning their own and their children's self-estimated overall and multiple intelligence. Previous research suggested that males tend to give higher overall "g" estimates to their children and themselves than do females, as well as higher scores on mathematical and spatial intelligence (Furnham, 2001). Further, studies in the West suggest that parents think their children are significantly brighter than they are and that their sons are brighter than their daughters. Estimates were lower than those found in Western populations but, even so, males rated their own mathematical and spatial intelligence higher than did females. Hong Kong Chinese parents did not think their sons were brighter than their daughters. The seven multiple intelligences factored into three clear factors for self and children, and regressions indicated that it was "academic" intelligence (verbal, mathematical, spatial) that was most "g" loaded. The child's age and the self-rated overall IQ of both the parents were the best predictors of the child's overall estimated IQ. Less than a third of the parents had taken an IQ test or believed they measured IQ very well. Those who were more likely to be better educated, had taken an IQ test, and believed intelligence was inherited were more likely to award themselves higher overall IQ scores. Results are compared with the British studies in the same area.
In this study, 140 Belgian, 227 British, and 177 Slovakian students estimated their own multiple IQ scores as well as that of their parents (mother and father) and siblings (first and second brother and sister). Various factor analyses yielded a clear three-factor structure replicating previous studies. A sex × culture ANOVA on self-ratings of three factors that underline the seven intelligences (verbal, numerical, cultural) showed culture and sex effects as well as interactions. As predicted, males rated their own overall IQ, though not that of their parents or siblings, higher than females did. Males also rated their numerical IQ, but not their verbal or cultural IQ, higher than females did. There were few culture differences but many interactions, nearly all caused by Slovakian females, who rated aspects of their own and their fathers’ IQ higher than Slovakian males, while the pattern for the Belgians was precisely the opposite. Participants believed their verbal IQ was higher than their numerical IQ and their cultural IQ. Males believed their verbal and numerical IQ score to be fairly similar, though much higher than their cultural IQ, while females believed their verbal IQ the highest, followed by numerical and cultural IQ. Females also believed they were more intelligent than both parents. Overall results showed consistency in the sex differences in ratings across cultures but differences in level of estimated IQ possibly as a result of cultural demands for modesty.
This study examined the accuracy of self‐ and other‐estimated intelligence in relation to tested cognitive ability and gender. Three groups of raters were examined: 187 (102 male, 85 female; mean age 14.33 years, SD = .32) pupils of single‐sex comprehensive schools, 109 (55 mothers and 54 fathers) parents, and six teachers of the pupils. Pupils estimated their own overall IQ, while their parents and teachers estimated the pupils’ overall, mathematical, spatial, and verbal abilities. Self‐ and other‐estimates were compared to each other, and to the child’s psychometric test scores in verbal, quantitative, and figural/non‐verbal reasoning ability. Results suggested that participants were reasonably accurate at estimating pupils’ intelligence – teachers significantly more so than parents, and pupils significantly more so than fathers. Although both parents significantly overestimated their child’s IQ, this overestimation was more pronounced in fathers.
Three experiments investigated experts' and laypersons' conceptions of intelligence. In Exp I, 61 persons studying in a college library, 63 entering a supermarket, and 62 waiting for trains in a railroad station were asked to list behaviors characteristic of either "intelligence," "academic intelligence," "everyday intelligence," or "unintelligence," and to rate themselves on each. In Exp II, 140 experts and 122 laypersons (excluding students) were asked to rate various properties of the behaviors listed in Exp I; the laypersons also rated themselves on the 3 kinds of intelligence and took the Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Abilities. In Exp III, 65 laypersons received written descriptions of behaviors characterizing fictitious people and were asked to rate these people's intelligence. Results show that well-formed prototypes corresponding to the various kinds of intelligence, that these prototypes were quite similar for experts and laypersons, were closely related to certain psychological theories of intelligence, and were used in the evaluation of one's own and other's intelligence. Moreover, proximity of one's behavioral self-characterizations to an ideal prototype was strongly related to intelligence. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Female subjects responded to three short verbal cues in which either a male or female character succeeded or failed in an examination qualifying the male (or female) for entry into an occupation. Three occupations were involved varying in masculine dominance (medicine, teaching, and nursing). In responding to each cue, subjects first rated the character in the cue on semantic differential scales to provide impressions of personality, then rated the importance of different possible causes of the outcome (causal attribution), and finally rated the likelihood that each of a set of possible consequences might follow the outcome. Results indicated a fairly pervasive tendency for the female subjects to upgrade successful males in relation to unsuccessful males but to downgrade successful females in relation to unsuccessful females. Results were discussed in relation to sex roles in society as they relate to permissible achievements for males and females.
Based on the tenets of parental investment theory, the authors postulate that there was greater pressure to inhibit potentially maladaptive emotional, social, and sexual responses on prehistoric women than men in some contexts, resulting in enhanced inhibitory abilities in women in some domains. They reviewed studies whose researchers examined gender differences on social, behavioral, and cognitive tasks involving inhibition and found gender differences favoring female humans most consistent for social tasks (e.g., control of emotions), somewhat less pronounced for behavioral tasks (e.g., delay of gratification), and weak and inconsistent for cognitive tasks (e.g., conceptual tempo). This pattern was interrupted as being consistent with the position that gender differences in inhibition are relatively domain specific in nature, with women demonstrating greater abilities on tasks related to reproduction and childrearing, which is consistent with parental investment theory.
Sex differences in the Scottish standardisation sample of the WISC-R are analysed and compared with those in the American standardisation sample. The two data sets showed virtually identical sex differences. Boys obtained higher means on the Full Scale IQ and the Verbal and Visuospatial factors, while girls obtained a higher mean on the Memory factor. The sex differences were not greater in older children as compared with younger. Boys tended to show greater variabilities.
Two studies are reported concerning implicit theories of intelligence. The first study replicated procedures employed by Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, and Bernstein (1981). Factor analysis of importance ratings of intelligent and unintelligent behaviors suggested a simpler model of implicit theories than suggested by Sternberg et al. However, the use of importance ratings for examining implicit theories was challenged because the results proved ambiguous. The second study used a sorting procedure to produce similarity data. Multidimensional and tree scaling solutions indicated that the primary distinction in implicit theories was between intelligent and unintelligent behaviors and that important distinctions were not made among intelligent behaviors. In general, the data suggested that implicit theories of intelligence are much simpler than most formal theories used in psychology.
Examined sex differences in the attribution of IQ scores. 161 female and 84 male (21–34 yrs old) psychology students completed a questionnaire and were asked to estimate their own, their parents', their grandparents', and 15 occupational groups' average IQs. Results show that males rated their IQs higher than females and both sexes rated their fathers' IQs as higher than their mothers'. Grandfathers received higher IQ estimates than grandmothers. There was a wide distribution of IQ scores among occupational groups from cleaner, bricklayer and hairdresser, to lawyer, doctor and professor. Thus, despite the fact that psychology attaches no significant gender differences to general intelligence, psychology students appeared to believe in the superiority of males. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This textbook presents introductory concepts in social psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Findings from six qualitative research projects were combined to construct an evaluation of gender and equality of opportunity in public sector organizations in Northern Ireland. Through interviews and focus groups, these projects targeted equal opportunities officers, chief executives, general staff and trade unionists. In addition, a computer database containing all documentation relating to equal opportunities was developed. The evaluation addressed four primary areas, namely policy development and implementation; resources, channels of communication and organizational structures; where women figure and barriers to progress; and practical steps and positive action. The research found large differences in organizational responses to equal opportunities, with related activities often on the periphery of day-to-day management of the organization. Perceptions of the organizations' commitment to equality also varied considerably, with managers describing the proximity between the organization's value system and equal opportunities but employees and trade unionists being more sceptical of these claims. The implications for policy, structures and training needs are discussed in the light of these findings.
575 adults drawn from both rural and urban areas completed a questionnaire designed and used originally by Flugel in 1947 to see how far lay opinions on intelligence reflect views held by professional psychologists and how far lay responses now differ from those reported by Flugel. Generally, lay and professional views have moved closer to question a one-factor view; men and women are seen to be equally intelligent; environmental influence on test scores is noted; a complete validity in intelligence tests is queried, as is a high correlation between tests and occupational performance.
In two studies, undergraduates filled out questionnaires containing various attitude and belief items, and their parents then provided both their own responses to the same items and their best guesses as to how their children had responded. As predicted, stepfathers were significantly less accurate then genetic fathers, and maternal accuracy increased as a function of the mother's age when her child was born. On average, mothers and fathers did not differ in accuracy, nor was offspring sex a significant predictor of parental accuracy. However, mothers were most accurate in guessing the views of firstborn sons, whereas fathers tended to be more accurate about daughters' views. These results suggest that parents' ability to guess their children's views may provide a useful index of parental interest and/or of parent-child closeness.
This study sought to examine differences between estimated intelligence and measured IQ among males and females. Forty-six male and 80 female participants were asked to estimate their own IQ and to complete the Digit Symbol and Vocabulary tests from the WAIS. Analysis of group data revealed a significant gender difference in self-estimated IQ, with male self-estimates higher on average than those of females. Moreover, male self-estimates were found to be significantly higher overall than their measured IQs and female self-estimates were lower than measured IQ, although not significantly. Consideration of these results at individual level, however, indicated that, for the majority of subjects, the overall pattern of results for males and females was strikingly similar and that statistically significant group differences were due to a few ‘outliers’ who displayed large discrepancies between estimated and measured IQ. It was concluded that speculation about the causality of inaccurate self-estimates of IQ should not be based on the assumption that gender differences at group level represent a generalized tendency on the part of either sex to either over-confidence or lack of confidence with regard to their own intelligence.
The thesis that among adults males have a higher mean IQ than females and perform better at university is examined for Ireland. Evidence is presented from the Irish standardisation sample of the Differential Aptitude Test that among 17–18 yr olds males have a higher mean IQ by 2.60 IQ points. Performance at Irish universities is also examined for approximately 7000 graduates over the years 1991–1993 and it was found that males obtained a significantly greater proportion of first class degrees. It is proposed that the sex difference in mean IQ explains the difference in examination performance.
Bias in IQ perception
- M Byrd
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Culture's consequences
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Hofstede ‚ E. (1984). Culture's consequences. Beverly Hills‚ CA: Sage. Kremer‚ J.‚ Hallmark‚ A.‚ Cleland‚ J.‚ Ross‚ V.‚ Duncan‚ J.‚ Lindsay‚ B.‚ & Berwick‚ S. (1996).
Pe ople's conception of intel-ligence
- R Sternbe
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Sternbe rg‚ R.‚ Conway‚ B.‚ Ketron‚ J.‚ & Be rnstein‚ M. (1981). Pe ople's conception of intel-ligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology‚ 41‚ 37-55.
How do people think about intelligence? Multivariate Be-havioural Research
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Fitzgerald‚ J.‚ & Me llor‚ S. (1988). How do people think about intelligence? Multivariate Be-havioural Research ‚ 23‚ 143-157.
Lay theories Sex differe nce s in the e stimation of intelligence
- A Furnham‚
Furnham‚ A. (1996). Lay theories. London: Whurr. Furnham‚ A.‚ & Rawle s‚ R. (1995). Sex differe nce s in the e stimation of intelligence. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality‚ 10‚ 741-745.
Mother‚ father and me: Our IQ . The Psychologist‚ 5‚ 309-311 Me n's and women's self-estimate s of intelligence
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Beloff‚ H. (1992). Mother‚ father and me: Our IQ. The Psychologist‚ 5‚ 309-311. Benne tt‚ M. (1996). Me n's and women's self-estimate s of intelligence. Journal of Social Psy-chology‚ 136‚ 411-412.
Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A thirty nation study
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Williams‚ J.‚ & Be st‚ D. (1982). Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A thirty nation study. Beverly Hills‚ CA: Sage.
Sex differences in estimates of multiple intelligence. Unpublished manuscript IQ se lf-estimates of males and females
- A Furnham‚
- K Clark‚
Furnham‚ A.‚ Clark‚ K.‚ & Bailey‚ K. (1997). Sex differences in estimates of multiple intelligence. Unpublished manuscript. Hogan‚ H. (1978). IQ se lf-estimates of males and females. Journal of Social Psychology‚ 106‚ 137-138.
Introduction to Social Psychology A comparison of sex difference on the Scottish and American standardization samples of the WISC-R. Personality and Individual Differences‚
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Lippa‚ R. (1994). Introduction to Social Psychology. Pacific Grove ‚ CA: Brooks/Cole. Lynn‚ R.‚ & Mulhern‚ G. (1991). A comparison of sex difference on the Scottish and American standardization samples of the WISC-R. Personality and Individual Differences‚ 12‚ 1179-1182.
Differe nce s betwe en males and females in mean IQ and university exami-nation pe rformance in Ire land. Personality and Individual Differences‚ 20‚ 649-652 Ne ver a dull mome nt
- R Lynn‚
Lynn‚ R. (1996). Differe nce s betwe en males and females in mean IQ and university exami-nation pe rformance in Ire land. Personality and Individual Differences‚ 20‚ 649-652. Ne isser‚ U. (1997). Ne ver a dull mome nt. American Psychologist‚ 52‚ 79-81.
Gender prejudice and IQ. The Psychologist
- J Campion
Mother, father and me: Our IQ. The Psychologist
- H Beloff