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High Ability Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2003
Early Specialization in Youth Sport: a
requirement for adult expertise?
JOSEPH BAKER
The role of early specialization in the development of sport expertise is a point of contention
among researchers. While there is consistent evidence linking quantity of training with level
of proficiency attained, a focus on specialized training during early stages of development
has been linked with several negative consequences. Diversified involvement in a number of
sports during early stages of development has been presented as a possible alternative to early
specialization. Considering the consequences of advocating the early specialization ap-
proach and research suggesting the effectiveness of early diversification, coaches and sport
scientists should consider the early diversification approach as an alternative. Further
research is required to expand our understanding of the relative contributions of diversified
versus specialized training.
The acquisition of expertise in sport is the result of complex interactions among
biological, psychological, and sociological constraints (Singer & Janelle, 1999).
Successful negotiation of these constraints can lead to the highest levels of perform-
ance while unsuccessful negotiation can lead to burnout and/or dropout from sport
(Wiersma, 2000). One issue of contention among researchers examining expertise
from a developmental perspective (e.g. Baker, Coˆte´&Abernethy, 2003; Ericsson,
Krampe & Tesch-Ro¨mer, 1993) is whether aspiring expert athletes need to limit
their childhood sport participation to a single sport, with a deliberate focus on
training and development in that sport (i.e. early specialization—not to be confused
with recreational participation in a single sport). The opposite perspective (i.e. early
diversification) favours a focus on involvement in a number of different sports before
specializing in later stages of development (Wiersma, 2000). The purpose of this
review is to examine the evidence both for and against the early specialization
perspective and to present the early diversification approach as another path leading
to elite levels of performance. As well, directions for future research are presented in
order to further our understanding of the requirements of learners in the early stages
of expertise.
Author’s address: Joseph Baker, School of Physical and Health Education, Queen’s University,
Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.
ISSN 1359-8139 print; 1469-834X online/03/010085-10 2003 European Council for High Ability
DOI: 10.1080/13032000093526
86 J. Baker
Evidence Supporting Early Specialization
There is a wealth of evidence supporting the early specialization approach. In a
review of several decades of research on the effects of practice and training on
learning, Ericsson et al. (1993) speculated that early specialization in what they
termed “deliberate practice” (i.e. effortful practice that lacks inherent enjoyment
done with the sole purpose of improving current levels of performance) was essential
to the development of expertise in any domain. In their study of musicians, experts
began training around 5 years of age. Ericsson et al. posited that if training did not
begin early enough, late beginners would be unable to catch up to peers who began
specialized training earlier. Much of the empirical evidence to support the conclu-
sions presented by Ericsson et al. regarding early specialization centers around the
10-year rule (Simon & Chase, 1973) and the power law of practice (Newell &
Rosenbloom, 1981).
The 10-year Rule
In their classic study of chess expertise, Simon and Chase (1973) suggested that
inter-individual variation in performance can be explained by quantity and quality of
training. This hypothesis was based on findings indicating differences between the
expert level (grandmaster player) and lesser levels of skill (master and novice
players) was attributable to the ability to organize information in more meaningful
“chunks” rather than the possession of a superior memory capacity. Since then,
researchers (e.g. Starkes & Deakin, 1984) examining expert and novice differences
have found no reliable distinctions on static, physical capacities such as visual acuity,
reaction time, or memory (termed “hardware” by Starkes & Deakin, 1984) but
consistent differences for domain-specific information-processing strategies, such as
the ability to recognize structured offensive and defensive patterns (termed
“software” by Starkes & Deakin, 1984). Singer and Janelle (1999) summarized the
characteristics that distinguish the expert as follows:
(1) Experts have greater task-specific knowledge (McPherson, 1993; McPherson &
French, 1991).
(1) Experts interpret greater meaning from available information (Abernethy,
1987,1990, 1991).
(2) Experts store and access information more effectively (McPherson, 1993).
(3) Experts can better detect and recognize structured patterns of play (Allard &
Starkes, 1980; Simon & Chase, 1973).
(4) Experts use situational probability data better (Abernethy & Russell, 1984,
1987).
(5) Experts make decisions that are more rapid and more appropriate (Williams,
2000).
Research in sport expertise has been somewhat limited to perceptual or cognitive
sports; however, existing evidence suggests that in fields where the distinguishing
characteristics between experts and non-experts are domain-specific, information-
processing abilities, these differences are the result of training rather than innate
Early Specialization in Sport 87
abilities. While certain gross, general traits have been linked to genetic endowment
(e.g. intelligence: Bouchard, 1997), the refinement of these traits into domain-
specific abilities (e.g. pattern recognition, strategic thinking) is likely due to training.
The idea that there is a gene that predisposes an athlete to superior information
processing that is only manifested in a single domain (e.g. a gene for processing
soccer-specific information) is not supported empirically.
The “10-year rule” stipulates that a 10-year commitment to high levels of training
is the minimum requirement to reach the expert level. This rule has been applied
successfully in many domains including music (Ericsson et al., 1993; Sosniak,
1985), mathematics (Gustin, 1985), swimming (Kalinowski, 1985), distance run-
ning (Wallingford, 1975), and tennis (Monsaas, 1985). Ericsson et al.’s (1993)
theory of deliberate practice extends Simon and Chase’s work by suggesting that it
was not simply training of any type, but the engagement in deliberate practice that
was necessary for the attainment of expertise. In the deliberate practice framework,
future experts perform training that develops required skills under continuously
evolving conditions where training stress and recovery are optimally balanced so that
maximal training adaptations occur and training plateaus are minimized.
The Power Law of Practice
Research examining the accumulated effects of prolonged practice and the rate of
learning has robustly indicated that performance increases monotonically according
to a power function. This finding, better known as the power law of practice (or the
log-log linear learning law), has been demonstrated consistently in numerous do-
mains (for a review see Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). The power law of practice
states that learning occurs at a rapid rate after the onset of practice but that this rate
of learning decreases over time as practice continues. Put more simply, the more
time an individual devotes to practice, they greater their level of achievement but the
more difficult it becomes to make further improvements. Based on these findings,
Ericsson et al. presented the monotonic benefits assumption suggesting a monotonic
relationship between the number of deliberate practice hours and performance level
achieved. Their research with musicians indicated that the difference between expert
and non-expert pianists and violinists was due to the amount of time spent practic-
ing alone (i.e. in deliberate practice). The best musicians had spent in excess of
10,000 hours practicing alone while their less successful counterparts had no more
than 7,000 hours.
The Ericsson et al. (1993) research further supports the notion that proficiency
is tied to time spent in practice or training; moreover, they argued that it was
not simply the accumulation of deliberate practice hours over a period of 10 years
that led to superior levels of performance. The accumulation of such hours must
coincide with crucial periods of biological and cognitive development. Early special-
ization became an important element in predisposing one to future success. Based
on these findings, Ericsson et al. concluded that the earlier one begins focused
training the greater chance they have of achieving exceptionality in their chosen
domain.
88 J. Baker
Consequences of Early Specialization
Although the empirical evidence supporting early specialization is sound, there are
negative consequences associated with this approach. Wiersma (2000) speculated
that the limited range of skills performed during early sport specialization has the
potential to limit overall motor skill development. This, in turn, may affect long-
term physical activity involvement (and therefore long-term health) by decreasing
the likelihood of participation in alternative physical activities.
Moreover, Wiersma (2000) suggested that early specialization could stifle socio-
logical and psychological development by reducing the number of opportunities for
growth in these areas. Sport is an excellent means of developing social skills such as
cooperation and socially acceptable behaviour; however, spending too much time
training may not provide enough time for social growth and can lead to “social
isolation” (Wiersma, 2000). Further, excessive training without adequate recovery
can lead to staleness and/or burnout (Henschen, 1998).
There are also physiological consequences to early specialization. In a review of
overuse injuries in adolescents, Dalton (1992) indicated that during crucial periods
of biological development excessive forms of training could have serious costs. An
example of this is often seen in the knees of developing athletes. Due to rapid bone
growth of the femur, tibia and/or fibula (such as occurs through a “growth spurt”)
tightness and inflexibility increase around the knee joint because muscles and
tendons have not increased in length at the same rate as the bones. This creates an
imbalance in the joint and under periods of physical training or activity increased
stress is applied to the knee and connective tissues. These imbalances increase a
youth’s susceptibility to knee injury from repetitive microtrauma and associated
conditions (e.g. Osgood-Schlatters’ disease or osteochondrosis).
Perhaps the most damaging evidence against advocating the early specialization
approach concerns sport dropout. Investigations of participants who drop out of
sport (e.g. Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996; Gould, 1987; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989) have
consistently indicated that lack of fun or enjoyment is a predominant motive for
discontinuing participation in a given sport. In a recent 10-year retrospective
investigation of drop out from competitive youth sport, Butcher, Lindner, and Johns
(2002) found that during early stages of involvement “lack of enjoyment” was the
most important reason for transfer to a different sport or withdrawal from sport
altogether. Recall that a defining characteristic of the deliberate practice activities
outlined by Ericsson et al.isthat they are not inherently enjoyable. The types of
training advocated by the early specialization approach may be at odds with the level
of enjoyment necessary for a long-term commitment to physical activity involve-
ment.
Support for Early Diversification
The early specialization approach is based on the assumption that in early stages of
development, deliberate practice is superior to other forms of training. Researchers
examining the early stages of development in elite athletes (e.g. Coˆte´, 1999; Hill,
Early Specialization in Sport 89
1993) have indicated that early sport specialization as a child does not seem to be
an essential ingredient for exceptional sport performance as an adult. Hill (1993)
indicated that performing a range of activities during youth was the norm for
professional baseball players while Ward, Hodges, Starkes, and Williams (2002)
found that elite soccer players did not specialize until after age 16. Furthermore,
Coˆte´ and colleagues found a variable sport involvement during early stages of
development in elite rowing and tennis (Coˆte´, 1999) as well as in field hockey,
netball, and basketball players (Baker et al., 2003; Coˆte´, Baker & Abernethy,
2003).
In the developmental models of sport expertise presented to date, early involve-
ment in sport comes in the form of diversified, play-like participation with little
emphasis on skill development and competition (Bloom, 1985; Coˆte´, 1999; Coˆte´ et
al., 2003). Coˆte´ and colleagues (Coˆte´, 1999; Coˆte´&Hay, 2002; Coˆte´ et al., 2003)
indicated that expert athletes “sampled” a wide range of sporting activities before
gradually whittling down the number of activities and “investing” in one activity
during mid to late adolescence. They argued that play-like involvement in a number
of sports is beneficial for developing the intrinsic motivation required during later
stages of development when training becomes more structured and effortful.
There is also evidence that athletes who had a diversified sport background were
not at a disadvantage compared to athletes who specialized early. In a recent study
of expert decision makers from the sports of basketball, netball, and field hockey,
Baker et al. (2003) indicated that participation in other relevant activities (e.g. other
sports where dynamic decision-making is necessary) during early phases of develop-
ment augmented the physical and cognitive skills necessary in their primary sport.
An examination of elite field hockey, rugby and water polo players by Stevenson
(1990) also suggests that those who have a diversified early involvement are not
disadvantaged. More interestingly, Barynina and Vaitsekhovskii’s (1992) study of
elite swimmers indicated that athletes who specialized early spent less time on the
national team and ended their sports careers earlier than athletes who specialized
later.
Our understanding of the mechanisms by which diversification influences skill
development is limited; however, it is likely linked to research examining transfer of
learning and the effects of cross-training. Thorndike (1914) suggested that
“identical elements” between tasks were transferable. More recently, Schmidt and
Wrisberg (2000) categorized transferable elements into movement, perceptual, and
conceptual elements. Movement elements refer to the biomechanical and anatomi-
cal actions required to perform a task. For example, throwing a baseball overhand
and an overhand serve in tennis share movement elements. Perceptual elements
refer to environmental information that individuals interpret to make performance-
related decisions. For instance, field hockey and soccer both require participants to
accurately interpret the actions of their opponents in order to be successful; there-
fore, these sports share this perceptual element. Lastly, conceptual elements refer to
strategies, guidelines, and rules regarding performance. Gymnastics and diving share
conceptual elements (e.g. similar rules), as do basketball and netball (e.g. similar
strategies).
90 J. Baker
There is evidence that a “physical conditioning” category should be added to this
list of transferable performance elements. Researchers examining the physiological
effects of “cross-training” have provided support for the notion that general cardio-
vascular effects can be transferred (e.g. Loy, Hoffmann & Holland, 1995). Over the
past two decades, exercise physiologists have spent considerable time examining the
transfer of cardiovascular and peripheral training effects across similar and dissimilar
modes. Typically, researchers have found that cross-training effects are more likely
to occur between sports that share similar modes of activity than between dissimilar
modes of activity. For example, short-term interventions of combined run–cycle
training, which share similar muscle groups (i.e. similar modes), have been found to
be as effective as running alone in increasing physiological parameters such as
aerobic capacity (Flynn, Carroll, Hall, Bushman, Brolinson & Weideman, 1998;
Mutton, Loy, Perry, Holland, Vincent & Heng, 1993) while combined run–swim
training was not as effective as running alone (Foster, Hector, Welsh, Schrager,
Green & Snyder, 1994). In a recent examination of transfer of training in triathletes,
Millet, Candau, Barbier, Busso, Rouillon and Chatard (2002) found that cross-
training effects occurred between cycling and running but not for swimming (i.e. a
dissimilar mode of activity).
Increases in aerobic capacity are the result of central and peripheral adaptations
to training stress (Tanaka, 1994). Central adaptations include increases in blood
volume, stroke volume and maximal cardiac output while peripheral adaptations
include increases in capillary density, mitocondrial density and volume, and oxida-
tive enzyme activity. Previous research (Rowell, 1986; Saltin, Nazar, Costill, Stein
& Jannson, 1976) suggests that during early stages of training changes in aerobic
capacity are the result of the equal contribution of central and peripheral adaptation.
In highly trained individuals, these changes are accounted for almost entirely by
central adaptations leading to increased maximal stroke volume and cardiac output
(Rowell, 1986). However, while these reflect central training adaptations, they are
likely the result of specific peripheral adaptations such as the redirection of blood
flow away from non-exercising tissues (see Sutton, 1992 for a review).
Research also suggests that the effects of cross-training and/or transfer of
“identical elements” are most pronounced during early stages of involvement (Loy
et al., 1995; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000). For instance, any form of aerobic exercise
can cause the gross central adaptations that occur at the onset of any physical
training program; however, the more trained an athlete becomes, the smaller the
relative improvement from cross-training.
Researchers examining the differences in amounts of training between experts and
non-experts have indicated that significant differences do not typically occur until
around 10 years into their sporting career. In their study of expert field hockey and
soccer players, Helsen, Starkes, and Hodges (1998) suggested that at around 9 years
of involvement future expert athletes make the decision to invest significantly more
time and effort into training in order to reach the international level. Similarly, Baker
et al. (in press) found that the amount of time that experts and non-experts spent in
training was not significantly different until after 18 years of age. After this age,
experts dramatically increased their commitment to training.
Early Specialization in Sport 91
Future Research Directions
Collectively, these findings suggest that in certain sports early diversification may be
equally useful to early specialization in the acquisition of physical skill. While this
research provides evidence for the role of early diversification, our understanding is
far from complete. In particular, further research is required to address shortcom-
ings in two main areas, corroboration of previous research and laboratory-based
investigations of transferable elements.
Corroboration of Previous Research
When attempting to provide an alternative to something as empirically sound as
early specialization, corroboration of research findings are particularly important.
Studies to date supporting the role of early diversification have typically examined
team sports in decision-making environments (e.g. basketball, netball, and field
hockey players in Baker et al., 2003; baseball players in Hill, 1993). Future
investigations should examine the role of specialized versus diversified training in
other sports. Specifically, researchers need to examine whether early diversification
is applicable across all forms of sport or if it is restricted to a single category of sports
utilizing specific performance elements (e.g. team decision-making sports or aerobi-
cally driven sports). Moreover, Starkes, Deakin, Allard, Hodges, and Hayes (1996)
indicated that elite figure skaters began training as early as 5 years of age while
wrestlers began training at 13 years. It may be that in sports where peak performance
occurs at a younger age (e.g. figure skating, gymnastics) early specialization is a
requirement for expert-level performance. Research is required to demonstrate how
applicable an early diversification approach is to sport in general.
Laboratory-based Investigations.
Experimental methods are essential to uncovering the mechanisms that influence
training adaptations through diversified training. Our understanding of the perform-
ance elements that are transferable across domains and the time-span to which they
are limited is not known. The addition of strictly controlled environments and
manipulations of individual variables would provide required information in this
area. Further, the tracking of individual performance longitudinally, although time
consuming, may be necessary to understand the nature of the effects of early-di-
versified training. Studies are needed that examine transfer effects over longer
periods than typically studied in order to identify the effects of diversified forms of
training.
Future studies should also examine training structure across periods of develop-
ment to better ascertain the essential components of training during early, middle
and later stages. As indicated by Helsen et al. (1998), the period around 9 years of
involvement represents a watershed in the development of sport expertise; however,
more research is required to determine what needs to occur before, during, and after
this period.
92 J. Baker
Conclusions
The role of this article has not been to present early diversification as a superior
method of training for reaching expertise. However, diversified training in the early
stages of development has been presented as an additional route leading to high
levels of performance but with the following qualifications. First, the other forms of
training must have similar underlying performance elements in order to be useful.
Second, the effect of diversified training decreases as the level of expertise increases.
While it is clear that empirical research supporting the early diversification approach
is limited, research from the fields of physiology and motor learning support its
validity. Considering the consequences of advocating an early specialization ap-
proach, coaches and sport scientists should consider the early diversification ap-
proach as an alternative.
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