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At Midlife, Intentionally Childfree Women and Their Experiences of Regret
Abstract
Based on the author’s exploratory qualitative study of the experiences at midlife of 15 intentionally childfree married or
partnered women, this paper focuses on one finding and related themes. A constructivist grounded theory methodology guided
data collection in many areas of midlife, including regret, menopause, and relationships. The data suggested that for most
in the study, menopause, perimenopause, and reaching midlife did not awaken feelings of regret over their decision to live
childfree. The author discusses implications for clinical work with childfree women at midlife.
... Nesta categoria estão reunidos os estudos que descrevem participantes que apresentam um processo de decisão que geralmente é dialogado e renegociado com parceiros amorosos (Hayfield; Terry; Clarke; Ellis, 2019); relaciona-se aos planejamentos pessoais e profissionais que as participantes realizaram (Reuter, 2019); e pode, inclusive, ser repensada em diferentes momentos de suas vidas (Delyser, 2012). Shaw (2011) enfatiza a complexidade das trajetórias de vida das participantes do estudo e os fatores que as levaram à escolha de não ter filhos. ...
... Assim, rejeitaram as definições tradicionais de família e relataram construir relacionamentos familiares de um modo diferente do que é esperado socialmente, com as práticas de "família de escolha". Ellis; Terry, 2018; Delyser, 2012;Peterson, 2015). ...
A relevância de investigar as experiências de mulheres que escolheram não ter filhos destaca-se pela permanência da expectativa social em torno da maternidade, apesar do aumento da opção de não ter filhos. Atesta-se a importância de compreender o que tem sido investigado nos cenários nacional e internacional para destacar os avanços na área e os aspectos que devem nortear as próximas investigações. Assim, este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar uma revisão sistemática da literatura nacional e internacional acerca da experiência de mulheres que escolheram não ter filhos. Foi utilizada a base de dados internacional PsycInfo, utilizando os descritores: “Childfree”, “Childless by choice”, “Voluntary childless”. E as bases de dados nacionais Lilacs, Scielo e Pepsic, utilizando o descritor: “não-maternidade”. Foram incluídos artigos empíricos, publicados entre 2010 e 2020, nos idiomas inglês, português e espanhol. Ao total foram selecionados 14 artigos para esta revisão. Trata-se de pesquisas qualitativas acerca da experiência destas mulheres, em que se foca nas motivações, no processo de decisão, na percepção de maternidade e nas repercussões desta escolha nos relacionamentos estabelecidos por estas mulheres. Os estudos internacionais tem demonstrado tendências teóricas e metodológicas que não são utilizadas no contexto nacional, como a descrição detalhada das participantes e a utilização de teorias de gênero e da sexualidade. Portanto, ressalta-se a importância de realização de mais estudos, sobretudo no contexto brasileiro, considerando a escassez da literatura nacional sobre esse fenômeno. Ressalta-se a importância de utilizar determinadas tendências propostas pelos estudos internacionais, pois representam uma complexificação dos estudos na área. Palavras-chave: Não-maternidade; Mulheres; Revisão de literatura
... Existing research uses many terms to describe childfree women: voluntary childless (Callan, 1983; Heaton et al., 1999; Kelly, 2009; Majumdar, 2004; Morell, 2000; Park, 2002), intentionally childless (Feldman, 1981; Morell, 1994), voluntarily childfree (Koropeckyj-Cox, Romano, & Moras, 2007), childless by choice (Park, 2005), and childless (McAllister & Clarke, 1998). We use childfree and childfreedom because childless connotes a loss of something (Bartlett, 1994; Clark, 2012; DeLyser, 2011; Gillespie, 2003; Ireland, 1993; Lisle, 1999; McEvoy et al., 1984; Tomczak, 2012; Vesper, 2008; Vinson, Mollen, & Smith, 2010). In this study, women focus on what their lives have gained as a result of choosing to be childfree. ...
... Instead, the women similarly articulated their understandings of what motherhood would mean for their lives, valuing their childfree lifestyle, framing motherhood as a sacrifice, and viewing motherhood as a risk if they did not live up to societal expectations of a " good " mother. We expected the decision to be childfree made in early adulthood might be different from a decision made toward the end of women's childbearing years (DeLyser, 2011; Gillespie, 1999; Ireland, 1993; Kelly, 2009; McAllister & Clarke, 1998). We suggest three reasons for how age shaped the women's pathways. ...
... dengan status mereka sebagai bukan ibu. Bahkan untuk Sebagian besar penelitian, monopause, primonopause, dan mencapai usia paruh baya tidak membangkitkan perasaan menyesal atas keputusan mereka karena hidup childfree (Delyser, 2012) Pada penelitian Childlessness in the United States (Frejka, 2017) memberikan pernyataan bahwa keputusan untuk Childfree meningkat 20% di tahun 2000-an. Peningkatan ini berlandaskan masalah keluarga dan pertimbangan pengasuhan anak di (Patnani et al., 2021) Mengenai masalah childfree yang diungkapkan oleh Gitasav, hal tersebut banyak memunculkan respon dari masyarakat. ...
This study aims to describe the public's response to the Childfree phenomenon which has recently become a trend due to influencer Gita Savitri's comments. Childfree itself is used for someone who does not want to have children. This lifestyle is inversely proportional to the pattern that occurs in Indonesia. Where religious and customary factors in Indonesia strongly recommend having children even if only one. This study used a qualitative approach with phenomenological type. The results obtained that the community provides responses in the form of cognitive, affective and behavioral which are divided into two perspectives, namely socio-cultural and religious perspectives. The response of society when viewed from a socio-cultural perspective that the status and existence of women in the past was seen from how many children she could bear children, and the pattern that occurred in Indonesia for married couples to have children even if only one. Then if viewed from a religious perspective that having offspring is a recommendation in Islam is not an obligation. So that childfree is not included in the category of prohibited acts, because every married couple has the right to plan and manage their home life including having children. Keywords: Phenomenon, childfree, Community response
... In the present study, it was evident that some of the doubts and questions about the choice to remain childfree were triggered by concerns over feeling regretful in the future, a risk that was constantly reminded to the participants by their families and friends. Although one study in Turkey showed a similar fear of being regretful in older age among childfree women (Parlak & Tekin, 2020), other studies showed that VC individuals do not express such concerns (Gillespie, 2000) and not report feeling regretful after menopause (DeLyser, 2011). Thus, the societal pressures seemed to get under their skin, particularly in the present context of Turkey where pronatalist norms are still very much strong and childfree lifestyles remain invisible. ...
... These beliefs likely also reflect societal heteronormative gender roles that presume reproduction is a social and biological responsibility (Lorber, 2012;Prentice & Carranza, 2002). However, being childfree may have salience for well-being across the life span as childfree individuals find meaning through other roles, career endeavors, or caretaking in other ways (e.g., pets, niblings, friends; Allen & Wiles, 2013;DeLyser, 2012;Matthews & Desjardins, 2017;Stahnke et al., 2020). Our findings suggest that undergoing sterilization when desired offers childfree women and non-binary AFAB people advantages in sexual quality of life and psychological well-being compared to those denied the procedure. ...
As more women choose to forgo motherhood, childfree women and people assigned female at birth (AFAB) are important to study, particularly given pronatalist ideals that can make the choice not to have children difficult to exercise. Although temporary contraception prevents motherhood, physicians sometimes discourage or deny women access to more permanent options, including sterilization, due to their belief that childfree women and those AFAB will regret their decision. From a reproductive justice framework, we examined psychological outcomes of sterilization approval and denials among a sample of 154 childfree women and nonbinary people AFAB who sought and either obtained or were denied sterilization. Participants completed measures of psychological well-being, self-esteem, and sexual quality of life. Childfree participants who obtained sterilization reported higher self-esteem, better sexual quality, and higher well-being than childfree individuals who were denied the procedure. Neither age nor time since making the sterilization request accounted for the differences between the groups in terms of sexual quality of life and psychological well-being. Collectively, these findings offer the first empirical evidence of the potential outcomes among childfree women seeking sterilization.
... As escassas pesquisas nacionais (Leal & Zanello, 2019;Emídio & Gigek, 2019;Soares & Santos, 2020;Moraes & Féres-Carneiro, 2022), bem como a literatura internacional, têm apontado vários fatores que parecem estar envolvidos nessa decisão, tais como: (a) mudanças no papel e no entendimento sobre o que é ser mulher e como a maternidade impacta a vida das mulheres (Machado & Penna, 2016); (b) características populacionais que podem estar correlacionadas, tais como aumento do nível de escolaridade, aumento nos ganhos financeiros da mulher, menor envolvimento com religião ou mesmo participação em algum movimento emancipatório de mulheres (Leal & Zanello, 2019); (c) carreira profissional, a qual figura como um lugar de grande realização, gratificação emocional e financeira. Secundariamente, a maternidade foi citada como uma possível perda da liberdade (Smeha & Calvano, 2009); (d) bem-estar psicológico e ganhos em saúde mental (Delyser, 2012). De todos os motivos, destacam-se aqueles que colocam em xeque papéis de gênero historicamente construídos e naturalizados em relação às mulheres, sobretudo os relacionados à maternidade. ...
A não maternidade tem se tornado uma opção crescente no Brasil, onde atualmente 37% das mulheres encontram-se nesse grupo. Este artigo teve como objetivo levantar quais aspectos subjetivos estão envolvidos nessa opção. Tratou-se de pesquisa qualitativa, na qual foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com dez mulheres, convocadas a partir da técnica “Bola de Neve” (Snowball Sample), sendo cinco brancas e cinco negras, de diversas orientações sexuais e classes sociais, sem problemas de fertilidade e que escolheram não ter filhos. As entrevistas foram submetidas à Análise de Conteúdo (Bardin, 1977) e foram elencadas quatro categorias. Os resultados apontam que essas mulheres percebem a maternidade como um lugar de grande exigência social e forte renúncia dos projetos pessoais, para além de projetos profissionais. O não desejo de maternidade é ainda estigmatizado socialmente, e as maiores cobranças pela maternidade são feitas a mulheres heterossexuais. Novos estudos a partir da perspectiva de gênero são recomendados.
... Messages of regret or being told that they are missing out are the premise of the threats. Aside from the research on feelings of regret of individuals that choose not to have children that tends to support a majority of those that are childfree not experiencing regret (DeLyser, 2012), this would align with the research and instances where parents have admitted to regretting having children (Donath, 2015). It is possible that many more parents share this feeling of regret than are able to openly express, as Walters (2012) noted, the expression of parental regret is a taboo subject and parents are shamed if they do dare to honestly share their feelings of regret. ...
This study explored how individuals that are childfree by choice are impacted by pronatalist messages that they receive. By utilizing a grounded theory approach for this qualitative study, a deeper understanding was gained of the interpersonal experience of individuals that identify as childfree by choice. Pronatalist messages were found to have varying degrees of pressure and escalate as individuals continued to resist their pressure. The negative messages were primarily directed at women and were categorized as hostile. The men were found to receive mostly positive messages that were categorized as persuasive. The sources of the direct messages are through the relationships closest to the childfree individuals which suggest persistent and regular exposure to them. The impact was found to be one of two possible experiences: anxiety or gaslighting. Anxiety was observed through the participants attempting to resist impact by enacting a defensive or avoidant state. Gaslighting was evidenced by participants absorbing impact through internalizing the pronatalist messages and judgements, or by questioning themselves.
... Kedua, kenapa seseorang memilih childfree seperti alasan Pribadi, Psikologis dan Medis, Ekonomi, Filosofis, dan Lingkungan Hidup (Maie, 2007;Victoria Tunggono, 2021). Ketiga, survey kepuasan hidup para pelaku childfree, ditemukan bahwa Nursyamsiah Mingkase, Inayah Rohmaniyah para pelaku childfree melaporkan kepuasan hidup yang tinggi dan hidup tanpa penyesalan meskipun tanpa anak (DeLyser, 2012;Stahnke et al., 2020). Keempat, usaha untuk melawan argumen para pelaku childfree,bahwa pilihan untuk childfree dengan berbagai alasannya justru bermasalah dan perlu ditanggulangi (Ilina et al., 2019). ...
Women's roles and feminine identities have historically and traditionally been built around motherhood. However, in recent years there has been a growing trend of childfree (without children) educating people about not parenting as a legitimate life choice through qualitative methods with virtual ethnographic studies. Analyzing Twitter tweets using the social construction theory of Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann through a gender perspective, this paper aims to review gender construction in childfree problems where this choice is still considered taboo in the public sphere. Being Childfree allows having a positive identity oneself as an autonomous, rational, and responsible decision-maker. At the same time, rejecting that choice allows someone who cannot choose child-free (for various reasons) to have a flawless identity regarding deviations from the norm of parenthood. Although childfree is still only known in Indonesia as a whole or a broader context, childfree has been practiced by several people in a private space. However, this choice is against the culture of society where the family is considered an essential component in the life cycle; many do not feel the need or do not dare to speak up. Not only non-natural differences, gender construction that places women's nature at the biological level is also problematic. The nature of women who have a uterus is required to function correctly so that child-free decisions are considered deviant and abnormal.
... This suggests that perceivers exhibit an egocentric bias (Epley et al., 2004), projecting their own imagined regret onto the target individuals. Importantly, these projections are likely to be inaccurate, considering research showing that a majority of childfree people do not regret their choice (e.g., DeLyser, 2012;Jeffries & Konnert, 2002). ...
People who choose not to have children may face negative social judgment. Using a UK sample, Study 1 (N = 199) successfully replicated Ashburn-Nardo's (2017) finding that childfree targets are perceived as less psychologically fulfilled than targets with children. The effect, however, appeared limited to expected decision regret rather than general fulfilment, which was later confirmed in Study 2 (N = 329). In contrast to Ashburn-Nardo, our results did not indicate that moral outrage mediates the effect (Study 1), but exploratory findings suggested that perceivers who intend to have children of their own perceive the childfree as morally inferior and less likeable (Study 2). Participants' endorsement of conservative values was not consistently related to negative perceptions of childfree targets.
... Examining the lifestyles and features of voluntary childfree people, it is found that they like adult life and its freedom (Hird, & Abshoff, 2000;Moulden, 1991;Seccombe 1991). The study also revealed that voluntarily childfree women are well-educated; they have nice jobs and they are good at social communication (DeLyser, 2012). According to Rosemary's (1991) research, the advantages of being childfree are expressed as having more freedom, flexibility, less anxiety, greater mobility, greater independence, less responsibility, better relationships with spouse, and professional and financial advantages. ...
... W niniejszym projekcie niepodejmowanie zadań rodzicielskich będzie rozumiane jako odraczanie rodzicielstwa w określonej lub nieokreślonej perspektywie czasowej przez małżonków w okresie wczesnej dorosłości. Na podstawie analizy literatury przedmiotu można uznać, że niewiele jest badań, w których poszukuje się rodzinnych uwarunkowań zjawiska niepodejmowania zadań rodzicielskich (Delyser, 2012). Większość badaczy koncentruje swoją uwagę na socjologicznych i psychologicznych uwarunkowaniach indywidualnych decyzji prokreacyjnych, nie zaś na obrazie relacji między osobami w związkach, które nie podejmują zadań rodzicielskich, czy na obrazie rodzin pochodzenia (gillespie, 2000Hara, 2008;letherby, 1994, 2002Mynarska i in., 2014, Rich i in. ...
... Notons enfin que la vaste majorité des études sur la non-maternité s'adressent à des échantillons de femmes qui n'ont pas encore atteint l'âge de la ménopause ce qui, sur le plan épistémologique, pose problème pour toutes les raisons qui viennent d'être évoquées.En ce sens, il peut donc être utile de comprendre le choix de la non-maternité sur un continuum(Berrington, 2016a). D'un côté se situent les femmes qui disent avoir fait un choix conscient et tôt dans leur vie de ne pas avoir d'enfant(« early articulators »[Veveers, 1973]; « knew early »[DeLyser 2012]). Celles-ci rapportent généralement n'avoir aucune affinité avec le rôle maternité ou avec l'expérience de la grossesse ou157 de l'accouchement. ...
La non-maternité est rarement le résultat d’un choix personnel affirmé. Elle résulte le plus souvent de l’interaction de plusieurs facteurs individuels et sociaux. À travers l’analyse qualitative de dix-neuf récits de non-mères québécoises âgées de soixante à soixante-dix ans, l’auteure élargit la compréhension de la non-maternité en tenant compte de la complexité de l’autonomie reproductive des femmes. Les trois dimensions identifiées par la philosophe Catriona Mackenzie (autodétermination, capacité réflexive et auto-autorisation) servent à mettre en relief la diversité des enjeux déterminant les marges d’autonomie des femmes en matière de reproduction, plus spécifiquement pour celles qui n’ont pas eu d’enfant.
... Notons enfin que la vaste majorité des études sur la non-maternité s'adressent à des échantillons de femmes qui n'ont pas encore atteint l'âge de la ménopause ce qui, sur le plan épistémologique, pose problème pour toutes les raisons qui viennent d'être évoquées.En ce sens, il peut donc être utile de comprendre le choix de la non-maternité sur un continuum(Berrington, 2016a). D'un côté se situent les femmes qui disent avoir fait un choix conscient et tôt dans leur vie de ne pas avoir d'enfant(« early articulators »[Veveers, 1973]; « knew early »[DeLyser 2012]). Celles-ci rapportent généralement n'avoir aucune affinité avec le rôle maternité ou avec l'expérience de la grossesse ou157 de l'accouchement. ...
Cadre de recherche : La non-maternité est le plus souvent comprise en recherche comme la résultante soit d’un choix personnel délibéré, soit de circonstances involontaires de la vie des femmes.
Objectifs : L’étude s’attarde à déconstruire cette dichotomisation pour plutôt comprendre l’expérience complexe de la non-maternité à travers les dynamiques relationnelles et sociales du désir d’enfant.
Méthodologie : Se positionnant dans une perspective des parcours de vie, l’analyse porte sur dix-neuf entretiens auprès des baby-boomers québécoises, nées entre 1947 et 1956, qui n’ont pas donné naissance ni adopté un enfant au cours de leur vie.
Résultats : Les récits dégagent une diversité d’expressions et d’expériences du désir d’enfant à travers le temps. Certaines répondantes n’ont jamais ressenti de désir d’enfant et cette absence de désir a pu être vécue sans véritable contrainte dans un contexte social favorisant l’autodétermination des femmes. Le désir plus ou moins intense d’enfant chez d’autres n’a pas pris la forme d’un projet concret de grossesse en raison d’une variété de facteurs individuels, conjugaux ou professionnels.
Conclusions : Le contexte social et culturel pendant la vie féconde des baby-boomers québécoises (1970-90) a pu garantir une marge importante d’autodétermination chez elles en leur donnant accès à de multiples options sur les plans scolaire, professionnel, conjugal et contraceptif. Ce même contexte d’ouverture a toutefois contribué en partie à limiter les possibilités de celles qui ont ressenti un désir d’enfant à un moment de leur parcours.
Contribution : Pour comprendre la non-maternité, l’étude démontre la nécessité de s’éloigner de la simple question du « choix individuel » afin de mettre l’accent sur l’importance des processus réflexifs et la complexité des contingences interrelationnelles qui en sont à son origine.
... Notons enfin que la vaste majorité des études sur la non-maternité s'adressent à des échantillons de femmes qui n'ont pas encore atteint l'âge de la ménopause ce qui, sur le plan épistémologique, pose problème pour toutes les raisons qui viennent d'être évoquées.En ce sens, il peut donc être utile de comprendre le choix de la non-maternité sur un continuum(Berrington, 2016a). D'un côté se situent les femmes qui disent avoir fait un choix conscient et tôt dans leur vie de ne pas avoir d'enfant(« early articulators »[Veveers, 1973]; « knew early »[DeLyser 2012]). Celles-ci rapportent généralement n'avoir aucune affinité avec le rôle maternité ou avec l'expérience de la grossesse ou157 de l'accouchement. ...
Près du quart des femmes québécoises nées pendant le baby-boom (1947-1956) n'ont pas donné naissance ni adopté un enfant au cours de leur vie. Ceci fait figure d'exception en Occident. Malgré le fait que les pourcentages de femmes sans enfant aient augmenté dans presque tous les pays industrialisés depuis la fin de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, la province du Québec présente en effet la croissance la plus accélérée parmi toutes ces nations. L'époque prospère de l'après-guerre a permis d'amorcer des transformations sociales considérables, symbolisées au Québec par la Révolution tranquille. La laïcisation de l'État et de ses services, la démocratisation de l'éducation ainsi que la valorisation par les institutions de l'égalité entre les individus ont été des facteurs centraux de changements pour les couples, les familles et surtout les femmes. Celles-ci ont vu leurs choix de vie potentiels se multiplier. Elles ont massivement investi les universités et le marché du travail. Elles ont légalement eu accès à des moyens contraceptifs efficaces. Elles ont accédé à leur autonomie légale et financière et revendiqué leur égalité à travers le mouvement de luttes féministes. De nouvelles contraintes ont toutefois accompagné cette multiplication de possibilités dans leurs vies. La maternité est devenue un projet à concilier avec d'autres sphères très prenantes de la vie comme la conjugalité, les études, le travail ou les loisirs. Cette thèse comporte trois articles qui explorent l'influence des contextes socioculturels et politiques de l'après-Révolution tranquille au Québec sur l'expérience subjective et les parcours de vie des femmes sans enfant. Elle emploie un devis de recherche mixte séquentiel de type quantitatif-qualitatif qui exploite l'analyse des séquences des données du cycle 25 de l'Enquête sociale générale de Statistique Canada, ainsi que l'analyse d'entretiens semi-directifs auprès de dix-neuf non-mères québécoises nées entre 1947 et 1956. Le premier article, intitulé « Mobiliser les méthodes mixtes pour mieux comprendre les parcours de vie des femmes sans enfant », démontre l'apport d'une méthodologie mixte pour explorer la multidimensionnalité des parcours de vie des femmes sans enfant. L'analyse intégrée des résultats quantitatifs et qualitatifs élabore une typologie compréhensive de quatre différents parcours de vie (les « libertaires », la « vie de couple sans enfant », le « marathon de vie » et les « parcours vulnérables »), représentant chacun une imbrication particulière des trajectoires scolaires, conjugales et professionnelles. Le deuxième article, intitulé « Comprendre la non-maternité à travers le désir d'enfant : une cartographie des possibles », exploite les données qualitatives issues des entretiens pour comprendre les processus réflexifs et la complexité des contingences interrelationnelles qui sont à l'origine du désir ou non d'enfant. Les récits dégagent une diversité d'expressions et d'expériences du désir d'enfant à travers le temps. Certaines répondantes n'ont jamais ressenti de désir d'enfant et cette absence de désir a pu être vécue sans véritable contrainte dans un contexte social favorisant l'autodétermination des femmes. Le désir plus ou moins intense d'enfant chez d'autres n'a pas pris la forme d'un projet concret de grossesse en raison d'une variété de facteurs individuels, conjugaux ou professionnels. Le contexte social et culturel pendant la vie féconde des baby-boomers québécoises (1970-90) a pu garantir une marge importante d'autodétermination chez elles en leur donnant accès à de multiples options sur les plans scolaire, professionnel, conjugal et contraceptif. Ce même contexte d'ouverture a toutefois contribué en partie à limiter les possibilités de celles qui ont ressenti un désir d'enfant à un moment de leur parcours. À partir de l'analyse qualitative des entretiens, le troisième article, intitulé « La non-maternité des baby-boomers québécoises sous le prisme de l'autonomie », élargit la compréhension de la non-maternité en tenant compte de la complexité de l'autonomie reproductive des femmes. Les trois dimensions identifiées par la philosophe Catriona Mackenzie (autodétermination, capacité réflexive et auto-autorisation) servent à mettre en relief la diversité des enjeux déterminant les marges d'autonomie des femmes en matière de reproduction, plus spécifiquement pour celles qui n'ont pas eu d'enfant.
... Higher dependence of childless men and women on private, restricted networks associated with little potential local support provides some evidence for this view (Wenger et al. 2007). Contrary to the rather bleak image presented by the aforementioned findings, other studies have found that the childfree create positive and meaningful relationships with second-degree kin and do not regret having made the decision to remain childless (DeLyser 2012;McQuillan et al. 2012). Any consequences of remaining childless are also highly context dependent, especially in terms of health outcomes and community support. ...
Family scholars studying voluntary childlessness have increasingly focused on how to define the empirical boundaries of the childfree, attitudes toward voluntary childlessness, reasons behind remaining childless, and consequences of childlessness at older age. The available evidence suggests an increasing prevalence of voluntary childlessness with somewhat greater societal acceptance in the United States than in previous eras. Certain demographic characteristics (being a man, highly educated, and white) are consistently associated with higher likelihood of remaining voluntarily childless. A considerable number of studies have used the life course perspective as a theoretical tool in explaining childlessness. The dearth of empirical studies indicates a growing need to incorporate men's experiences into this line of research.
... Early research on pathways to voluntary childlessness distinguished between 'perpetual postponers', women who arrive at voluntary childlessness through a series of postponements, and 'early articulators', women who express an intention to remain childless early in life (Houseknecht, 1987). More recent, particularly qualitative, research, has problematised this distinction, finding that many women, even those who might be classed as early articulators, don't view the choice to be childfree as a one-off, decontextualised decision: rather the decision is made and remade across the life-course and in relation to changing circumstances (DeLyser, 2012). Furthermore, the authors of a recent discursive study (Morison et al., 2015) have argued that the fact that some women (and men) position themselves as 'naturally childfree' -through describing their childlessness as innate and immutable, fixed at birth (born that way) -can be understood as a strategy for managing the stigma of voluntary childlessness, through disavowing choice and minimising their responsibility for their child-freedom. ...
The article examines the phenomenon of women choosing voluntary childlessness in the context of Kazakh society. The article employs both empirical and theoretical evidence, the article examines how vulnerable the choice of voluntary childlessness is to social stigma in Kazakh society, where "motherhood" is considered mandatory, and how this affects women's daily lives. The study is based on a targeted quota sample of 15 women from Kazakhstan aged 20 to 55 who consider themselves voluntarily childless. The “snowbal” method was used to form the sample. The practical significance of the research results is based on women's decisions regarding the factors contributing to childlessness: the advantages of voluntary childlessness, the reasons for choosing childlessness were considered. At the same time, the study showed the variability of women's decisions to be childless depending on their age, marital status, health, level of education, and professional activity. A deep understanding of the phenomenon of voluntary childlessness ("childfree") in Kazakhstani society gives grounds to assume that it is possible to change life scenarios based on childlessness, and in the process of development as a person, childlessness is replaced by the parameter of forming a traditional family and rethinking the image of the world.
Childfreeness remains a largely unexplored subject in Poland. We provide insights into the scale of childlessness by choice and the motivations and characteristics of childfree people in the country. We conducted a quantitative study (national stratified random sample, n = 665, age 18–50 (M = 34.14, SD = 9.22), October 2021) and a qualitative exploration (n = 461, age 18–58 (M = 29.07, SD = 7.01), May 2020–January 2021). The quantitative analyses revealed that 14.89% of adult Poles of reproductive age did not have children and were not planning to have them. The decision not to have children was significantly predicted by lower age and left-wing political and liberal social beliefs. The qualitative analyses showed that the most common reasons for being childfree were lack of parental instinct (I do not feel the maternal instinct), not liking children (I cannot stand children) and desire for autonomy (I want to be independent). The results suggest that the Polish childfree population is substantial and diverse in their reasons for not wanting to have children.
Almost one-fifth of women living in Ireland remain childless. While this trend reflects changing views towards mothering and womanhood, inquiry to date has predominantly concerned itself with the “why” of choosing to be childless, leading to a dearth of research on the lived experience of this phenomenon. The aim of this research study was to address this imbalance and to explore the lived experience of women living in Ireland who choose to be childless. To do this, a hermeneutic phenomenological research approach was taken. The evocative lived experiences of 15 voluntarily childless women living in Ireland were borrowed. Data analysis identified the common yet divergent human experiences of being fearful, being decisive, being judged, and being free. The original findings of this study consider fear as a positive factor in influencing the decision-making process around procreation for the participants of this study. While voluntarily childless women are often portrayed as wishing to avoid responsibility, the participants in this study experienced a sense of moral responsibility as well as freedom and self-expansion in choosing to forego motherhood. Consideration is also given to how best to respond psychotherapeutically to women who choose to be childless.
The population of adults who neither have nor want children is large and growing. However, it remains poorly understood because its members can be difficult to identify in traditional demographic surveys, and existing research on the population uses a range of methods and terms. In this paper, we review current practices, then to bring a level of consistency and comparability to this literature, we propose a common framework for studying this population. First, we recommend that researchers use the term “childfree” to describe adults who neither have nor want children, because the term is short, widely used, and preferred by members of this population. Second, we recommend that researchers define childfree adults by neither having nor wanting biological or nonbiological children, recognizing that one’s childfree status may change over time. Third, we recommend that researchers identify childfree adults in surveys using “want” questions (e.g., do you want children?), in combination with other questions.
Despite social expectations of parenthood, the proportion of people in the Western world who wish to have children is declining, and the proportion who do not want children is growing. We explored the effect of being “childfree by choice” on women's subjective well-being (SWB) by examining their level of differentiation of self, based on Bowen's family system theory. Fifty-one voluntarily child-free women and 62 mothers (control group) completed a demographic information questionnaire, the Personal Wellbeing Index – Adult (PWI-A), and the Differentiation of Self-Inventory – Revised (DSI-R). No differences were found between child-free women and mothers for four components of differentiation of self and life satisfaction and well-being. Women who chose to remain childfree for internal reasons expressed higher levels of satisfaction with life and SWB, and lower levels of emotional reactivity than those who remained childfree for external reasons. Self-differentiation (I-position) and emotional disengagement (emotional cutoff) significantly contributed to child-free women's well-being. Our results show the importance of emphasizing self-differentiation and emotional disengagement in the context of personal and marital therapy sessions and in therapeutic work with young women facing major life decisions on motherhood/voluntary childlessness.
Voluntary childlessness is rarely explored in human development theories. However, it is becoming a common phenomenon in XXI century and it is important to determine how do voluntary childless (childfree) people fit into standards set for people who want to have children. Past research showed, that childfree people have different values, temperamental and personality features and differ in childhood experiences.
In analyzed literature there is a vacuum in the subject of psychosocial development of childfree people. Past studies are also imprecise in determining whether childfree people experienced more situations of violence and neglect during childhood.
The research goal of the study presented in this paper was to determine whether people who are childfree differ from people who want children in terms of features which are the effects of psychosocial development. The second research goal was to determine whether childfree people had more negative experiences in childhood.
Sample analyzed in this study consisted of 383 people (73,60% women) in age 20-29 years (M = 23,53, SD = 2,60). Voluntary childlessness was declared by 179 people (46,73% of the sample). The hypotheses were tested using U Mann-Whitney test, Yule’s Phi test and Bayeses U Mann-Whitney test.
Analysis showed that childfree people have lower intensity of some of the psychosocial development features (e.g. basic trust, intimacy) and that they experienced more negative situations in childhood (e.g. mental abuse, emotional neglect, negative experiences with one’s peers). Differences, although statistically significant, had a low effect size. In the end, possible explanations of presented differences and the direction of future research are discussed.
The choice of childlessness is a socially constructed process that evolves across a lifetime. Grounded in a literature review, this article proposes an existential‐feminist conceptual framework for counselors working with intentionally childless women. Tenets of existential therapy and feminist therapy are reviewed and applied to experiences of intentionally childless women.
One-fifth of women in Britain reach 45 without having children, yet much of the literature around this age group views women as primarily mothers and biological specimens whose psychological health is affected by the menopause. This chapter is based upon qualitative research that asked how the decade between 45 and 55 is experienced by women who have chosen to remain childless. The concepts of choice, freedom, maternal instinct, temporality, selflessness and selfishness are deconstructed and explored from an existential perspective in order to shed new light on the often misunderstood phenomenon of being childfree.
In developed countries, the years from Age 30 to 45 are, for many, the most intense, demanding, and rewarding years of adult life. During this period of the life span most adults must negotiate the intersecting demands of progressing in a chosen career, maintaining an intimate partnership, and caring for children. Successes or difficulties in meeting these simultaneous demands have the potential to profoundly influence the direction of a person's adult life. As such, we believe that it is of critical importance to better understand this developmental period that we call established adulthood. This article provides a new theoretical conceptualization of established adulthood, outlining its distinctiveness from emerging adulthood and midlife in terms of physical health, well-being, cognitive development, and the career-and-care-crunch of competing work and family responsibilities. We also consider variations in the timing and experience of established adulthood, including variations by gender and social class, and provide suggestions for future research. As economic and social arrangements continue to evolve, so too will this developmental period, providing fertile ground for developmental theory and research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
This article is in response to Katie Gentile’s and Hillary Grill’s discussions of my paper “Childless.” Picking up on themes both authors articulate in their commentaries, I advocate for the expansion of space in which a woman can reflect on and locate her voice, desire, and choice in regard to motherhood, childlessness, and reproduction. Incorporating research and anecdotal evidence, I describe how, regardless of whether or not a woman has children, this space can collapse under the weight of personal, historical, and societal pressures.
In this article, the author blends research, queer theory, clinical material, and anecdotal evidence to explore the topic of voluntary childlessness—particularly for women—and the stigma associated with it. Her aim is fourfold: (a) to shine a brighter light on those who are childfree by choice—a population that, to date, has received inadequate attention in psychoanalysis; (b) to expose the stigmatization of a group that falls outside the margins of normativity in a society that is pronatalist (one that encourages increasing birthrates); (c) to propose a move away from rigid categories and, instead, consider childlessness within a queer context; and (d) to raise awareness among psychoanalysts and help bridge a gap in the literature.
Existing reviews of research on voluntary childlessness generally take the form of narrative summaries, focusing on main topics investigated over time. In this chapter, the authors extend previous literature reviews to conduct a systematic review and content analysis of socio-historical and geopolitical aspects of knowledge production about voluntary childlessness. The dataset comprised 195 peer-reviewed articles that were coded and analysed to explore, inter alia: the main topic under investigation; country location of authors; sample characteristics; theoretical framework and methodology. The findings are discussed in relation to the socio-historical contexts of knowledge production, drawing on theoretical insights concerned with the politics of location, representation and research practice. The shifts in the topics of research from the 1970s, when substantial research first emerged, uphold the view of voluntary childlessness as non-normative. With some regional variation, knowledge is dominated by quantitative, hard science methodologies and mostly generated about privileged, married women living in the global North. The implications of this for future research concerned with reproductive freedom are outlined.
How does the decision to become a parent unfold for heterosexual men? Is becoming a father a 'decision' at all, or a series of events? These questions are the starting point for this critical book, in which the authors unravel the social and interpersonal processes, shaped by deeply entrenched socio-cultural norms that come to bear on parenthood decision-making in a South African context. Drawing on the narratives of White Afrikaans women and men, the book uses an innovative discursive method to illuminate the role masculinity, Whiteness, class, and heteronormativity plays in these accounts. Choosing to become a parent addresses an under-researched topic in gender studies, namely that of men and reproductive decision-making and will be an important resource for scholars in gender studies, sexualities, and reproductive health, as well as those interested in innovative approaches to discursive research.
Traditional mothering continues to receive social sanctioning while women who choose not to have children are oftentimes ignored or criticized. Voluntarily childfree women participated in a qualitative investigation in which semi-structured interviews, journals, and a focus group were utilized to capture their experience of stigmatization. Data source triangulation, member checks, and consultation with a peer debriefer contributed to the authenticity of the results. Two broad themes capturing reasons for the choice not to have children and five categories of stigmatization were delineated from the participants' narratives. Considerations for mental health counselors who work with women who do not want children are offered.
This article reports an ethnographic study of drag queens who perform in Miami Beach. Drag queens are marginalized, both economically and socially. However, drag enables some gay men to emphasize and manipulate aspects of femininity for the means of earning attention and income and garnering situational power. Grounding their empirical findings in symbolic interaction, identity, and performance theories, the authors argue that drag queens employ nuanced strategies to negotiate their contradictory status of admired yet alienated performers. The authors use observational and in-depth interview data to explore how participants experience, cope with, and challenge their social marginality. The authors then detail the rewards of drag, focusing on the allure of the transformation, situational power, and income. A subjective understanding of drag reveals that although marginalization is a serious issue, the rewards of drag can be empowering. The authors argue that identity work emerges as a link between marginalization and rewards.
Discusses the developmental regulation in midlife, particularly the way adults in midlife adapt to the challenges of developmental growth and are resilient to developmental losses. The chapter starts by identifying on conceptual and empirical grounds the specific developmental challenges of midlife adults. Subsequently, the major external and internal resources available to adults in midlife are discussed in terms of their effectiveness to attain adaptive developmental outcomes, and to be resilient with regard to the impact of major losses on psychological functioning. In this context, the author pinpoints a set of key phenomena that are selectively characteristic of midlife and then investigates the available empirical evidence about midlife adaptation and resilience with regard to these phenomena. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In understanding the latter such patients and devising a treatment approach appropriate to their “self” issues, Goldstein adopts a broadly self-psychological frame of reference. It is a matter, she finds again and again, of understanding how current stressors frustrate healthy self needs and trigger narcissistic vulnerabilities. Self-psychologically informed treatment, which, in Goldstein’s pragmatic purview, embraces modalities that are, to varying degrees, supportive, psychodynamic, and psychoanalytic, reworks and strengthens self structures in helping patients find new ways of affirming their sense of self. Her substantive case studies, which accompany the reader through all the chapters in her study, draw on personal and supervisory experiences to illustrate crucial foci of the treatment process with a range of midlife patients in psychotherapy.
The cultural narrative provided for women at midlife is either medical and menopause oriented—hot flashes, osteoporosis, heart
disease, the estrogen replacement therapy decision—or socially devaluing—“empty nest,” a fertility has-been, abandoned for
a younger woman, depressed. Without alternative images these demoralizing cultural stereotypes can become a self-fulfilling
prophecy. The study discussed in this article investigated midlife experiences of a group of white women in the New York City
area and identified factors associated with successful negotiation of midlife transformation. Although midlife was a challenging
stage of life, 72.5 percent of the women studied described themselves as happy or very happy. Factors predicting well-being
at midlife included an annual family income above $30,000, a confidante or a group of women friends, good health, high self-esteem,
lack of self-denigration, high self-effectance, a benign superego, goals for the future, a positive life narrative, the belief
that one has a right to a life, positive midlife role models, and positive feelings about one's appearance.
Using a narrative, social constructivist perspective, qualitative findings from a research project on women's midlife experience are reported and the culturally dominant discourse of a woman's midlife experience is discussed. The research indicates that the self-narratives of women who are satisfied with their lives at midlife deviate significantly from the culturally dominant narrative of midlife. The alternative, more individuated self-narratives of five women who reported the highest degree of midlife satisfaction for seventeen major areas of their lives are presented. A clinical case is then discussed which examines therapy with a midlife client which was guided, in part, by the research findings.
Individuals who choose not to be parents are viewed in terms of negative stereotypes and experience social pressures to alter or justify their status. Data were collected from in-depth interviews with twenty-four voluntarily childless women and men and a focus group that included seven of the interviewed individuals. Inductive analysis discovered the techniques that individuals used, in self-interaction and social interactions with various audiences, to manage stigmatized identity and preserve a good self. Strategies included passing, identity substitution, condemning the condemnors, asserting a right to self-fulfillment, claiming biological deficiency, and redefining the situation. Primarily defensive, reactive techniques accepted pronatalist norms, intermediate techniques challenged conventional ideologies, and proactive techniques redefined childlessness as a socially valuable lifestyle. Use of these strategies was part of the "identity work" that individuals engaged in to reject discreditable identities as voluntarily childless individuals.
Surveys show little evidence of psychosocial disadvantage among childless middle-aged and older adults, but less is known about the diverse experiences that influence subjective well-being among parents and childless adults. In this article, the author uses the National Survey of Families and Households to test a parental-status typology on the basis of attitudes among childless adults and parent-child relationship quality and the connection of these factors with loneliness and depression. Poorer parent-child relationships are linked to worse outcomes for both mothers and fathers, net of other factors. For childless adults, negative attitudes about childlessness are associated with greater distress for women than for men.
Contrasts the naturalistic research paradigm with the scientific model, noting that the naturalistic paradigm assumes multiple reality, subject-object interrelatedness, and contextuality. Skills required for the pursuit of naturalistic inquiry are described. (JEG)
In its evolution, psychoanalysis has increasingly recognized that human behavior is as motivated by the search for a coherent sense of self as it is impelled by drives and defenses. In this comprehensive study of development, [the authors] examine how across the course of life—infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle age, senescence—humans primarily structure their experience by creating meaning from their relations with other people.
Drawing on resources from diverse fields, including psychoanalysis, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and literature, this book clarifies the mass of thinking and research findings in human development. Plentiful and precise examples illuminate the principles and empirical findings discussed. The author's multifaceted approach to understanding development allows them to examine how smaller developmental pathways—such as the growth of interpersonal skills, the awakening of the sexual self, the search for integrity—contribute throughout life to the search for solace, support, and meaning in the context of essential others.
This . . . description of the growth of the self will be an invaluable reference for both practitioners and researchers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines the nature of personality and the self in midlife from multiple perspectives, first providing a historical overview of theoretical approaches and then presenting empirical findings. An overview of key concepts and issues in personality and the self that are relevant to midlife is offered. The authors also examine trait approaches to personality, less in terms of whether there is stability or change, but more in terms of how individual differences in personality shape the midlife experience. Contextual models of personality, which represent the complexities of person–environment fit, are also illustrated. Key findings about subjective personality change are discussed and specific constructs, such as identity, self-concept, multiple selves, sense of control, and well-being, are examined. Finally, the authors provide an assessment of the field and suggest directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The hypothesis is advanced that the early 50s is women's prime of life, an androgynous time of good health combined with autonomy and relational security. In a sample of 700 college alumnae, aged 26–80, who were studied in 1983, women in their early 50s most often described their lives as “first-rate.” In a longitudinal sample from the same institution in 1989, women in their early 50s also rated their quality of life as high. Conditions distinguishing the early 50s from earlier and/or later periods of the middle years included more “empty nests,” better health, higher income, and more concern for parents. All but the last of these conditions were related to quality of life within each sample of “prime” women. In both samples, “prime” women showed confidence, involvement, security, and breadth of personality. Prime of life is offered as a useful concept in adult development.
In the last 2 decades, the United States has seen an increase in childlessness and first births at older ages. Using the National Survey of Family Growth, we focus on women aged 35 – 44 who are voluntarily childless (expect no children and are fecund or contraceptively sterile). We compare these women to those who are involuntarily childless (fecundity impaired) and to those who are temporarily childless (expect children). Voluntary childlessness grew from 1982 (5%) to 1988 (8%), was stable up to 1995 (9%), and fell slightly in 2002 (7%). Voluntarily childless women have the highest income, prior work experience, and lowest religiosity compared to other women. This has been true since 1982, the earliest time point examined.
Chairperson: Spielman, Eda, Psy. D. Methodology: Qualitative research. Thesis (Psy. D.)--Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology, 1998. Includes bibliographical references (p. 172-179) and abstract.
The focus of this paper is on the normal, intrapsychic, subjective experience of time in a developmental context. Time sense in middle age is determined less by the chronological age markers of forty or sixty and more by powerful, complex dynamic factors. Issues such as physical aging and illness, relationship to spouse and children, death of parents, and retirement will be explored in terms of how time is experienced.
This study examines regret and psychological well-being among 72 middle-aged and older women who are either voluntarily childless, involuntarily childless, or mothers. Group comparisons indicate that, when compared to involuntarily childless women, voluntarily childless women show higher levels of overall well-being, rate themselves as more autonomous with greater environmental mastery, and are less likely to have a child-related regret. An unexpected finding is that about one-third of women categorized by researchers as involuntarily childless indicate that they are "childless by choice." These women report making an active decision to accept the childless lifestyle and focus on the future, in essence exerting control over their situations. Results from this small and selective sample should be interpreted cautiously. However, they do suggest that researchers' definitions of childlessness may not map directly onto those of participants, and they emphasize the importance of ascertaining respondents' perceptions of control over their situations.
This study contrasts different types of voluntary childlessness. Women who decided to remain childless relatively early in life, before marriage (early articulators) were compared with women who did not decide until after they had married and developed a preferred life style that did not include children (postponers). The comparison centered on a previously formulated model that explained the decision to remain childless in terms of family background factors, autonomy and achievement orientation in adulthood, and reference group support. The major difference disclosed by this research was with respect to family background factors. In addition to the early versus later decision to remain childless, socialization patterns in the family of orientation differentiate the two types of voluntarily childless women.
Experiences at midlife of intentionally childfree women. Doctoral dissertation. Available from ProQuest Disser-tations and Theses database
- G Delyser
DeLyser, G. (2007). Experiences at midlife of intentionally childfree women. Doctoral dissertation. Available from ProQuest Disser-tations and Theses database (UMI No. AAT 3264617).
Childlessness among older women in the United States: Trends and profiles Secret paths: Women in the new midlife Parenthood as a developmental phase: A contribution to the libido theory
- J C Abma
- G M Martinez
Abma, J. C., & Martinez, G. M. (2006). Childlessness among older women in the United States: Trends and profiles. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(4), 1045–1056. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00312.x. Apter, T. E. (1995). Secret paths: Women in the new midlife. New York: Norton. Benedek, T. (1959). Parenthood as a developmental phase: A contribution to the libido theory. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 7(3), 389–417. doi:10.1177/0003 06515900700301.
The childless revolution: What it means to be childless today
- M Cain
Secret paths: Women in the new midlife
- T E Apter
- TE Apter
Reconceiving women: Separating motherhood from female identity
- M S Ireland
- MS Ireland
Parenthood and the transformation of narcissism
- M Elson
Childlessness up among all women: Down among women with advanced degrees. Social & Demographic Trends
- D V Cohn
- G Livingston
How does analysis cure?
- H Kohut
Heinz Kohut and the psychology of the self
- A M Siegel
- AM Siegel
Generativity in intentionally childless women: An examination of the McAdams and de St
- S L Spurling
Number, timing, and duration of marriages and divorces
- R M Kreider
- RM Kreider
Current population survey