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11/30/13 The Journal of Design Research
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The Journal of Design Research - 2003, Vol 3. Issue 2
Towards an Autochthonic Black Aesthetic for Graphic
Design Pedagogy
Audrey Bennett
Department of Language, Literature, and Communication
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
New York
USA
Email: bennett@rpi.edu
1. Introduction
2. Is math a source for the long sought after black aesthetic in graphic design?
3. A synopsis of the math in African and African-American culture
4. Ethnomathematics as a source of creative inspiration for black graphic designers
5. Testing the design potential of the
Cornrow Curves
and
Mangbetu
Software programs
6. Cultural Grids
7. Conclusion
References
Notes
1. Introduction
There is a continued need for an African-American graphic design tradition in American design pedagogy. In
response to the lack of one in American design history, African-American design strategist and educator
Sylvia Harris encourages African-American students entering the profession of graphic design to translate
Afri-Cobra and jazz rhythms, for instance, into graphic form (1998, p.126). She also strategically suggests
that these students seek creative inspiration from the work of Caucasian artists and designers whose work
shows the influence of African-American culture (Harris 1998, p.126). Since graphic design traditionally fits
within the fine arts, Harris encourages African-American design students to also look at the work of African-
American artists like Aaron Douglas—one of the leaders of the New Negro art movement of the 1920s—for
artistic techniques and strategies to translate into graphic language (1998, p.126). Though the
aforementioned resources seem to be relatively apt in providing creative inspiration to novice African-
American designers, the question then becomes is there an autochthonic aesthetic, defined by African-
American
graphic designers
, that uses the language of rhetorical graphics? In response to this question, this
paper proposes that the long sought after black aesthetic in American design is already rooted in the
mathematics of graphic design. That is, with the emergence of Eglash’s discovery of fractal geometry in
African settlement architecture, art, cornrows, and other indigenous cultural artifacts (1999) and the
emergence of ethnomathematics and cultural design as schools of thought, an untapped opportunity has
surfaced to pave a historical path from African art and design history to a cultural aesthetic for present
African-American graphic designers.
The collective development of a consistent African-American cultural aesthetic in graphic design would:
Increase the confidence of African-American graphic design students, and
Encourage more African-Americans to become graphic designers and thereby help to diversify the
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student population at design schools nationwide.
Broadly speaking, the inclusion of ethnomathematics as a source for creative inspiration during the graphic
design process promises to contribute new approaches that interdisciplinary design students can use to:
graphically structure information in ways that correspond more to a black audience’s cultural
preferences and tendencies, and
provide more memorable cultural experiences for diverse target audiences.
2. Is math a source for the long sought after black
aesthetic in graphic design?
Indeed, mathematics has always been an integral part of graphic design. For instance, according to Hurlburt
in “The Grid (1978)” and “Layout: The Design of the Printed Page (1977),” Elam’s “Geometry of Design
(2001),” and Muller-Brockmann’s “Grid Systems in Graphic Design (1981),” Le Corbusier’s modular system
and the golden section/rectangle are mathematical tools that have revolutionized page layout for graphic
designers and inspired the integration of the grid in newspaper, magazine, book, and even type design. For
many graphic designers, the design process begins with the construction of a mathematical grid. A grid
provides starting points for the layout of typographic and image-based elements within the composition.
Students of graphic design use a grid to determine the boundaries of a page and/or bring cohesiveness,
proportion, and harmony to its elements. When used skillfully, the grid enables asymmetrical and
symmetrical compositions that are organized, hierarchical, and unpredictable in the unlimiting ways in which
information can be organized. However, beyond just structuring the page, African-American graphic
designers collectively have not considered the mathematics of the grid to be a mechanism for creatively
communicating African-American culture, heritage, and values because:
Complex math principles and theories relevant to graphic design, as described in the discipline’s
literature—that includes Wolf’s provocative article “Beyond the Bauhaus: Fractal Geometry (1991)” —
do not credit indigenous Africa as an originator.
There may be a lack of knowledge by African-American graphic design students and their
predominantly Caucasian instructors about the true history of mathematics. In addition, the research
effort required to determine what is historically accurate as opposed to what is false may be
inordinately demanding and time consuming for a non-mathematics, graphic design major.
The expression of black culture in graphic design tends to be limited to the choice of images (e.g.
photographs of African-American people), typefaces, colors, and clichéd African symbols (e.g. kente
cloth patterns and mudcloth designs) determined by market research to be effective in
communicating to an African-American audience (Lipton 2002, p.67).
Thus, graphic design students who research African art and culture for creative inspiration may be
overlooking or disregarding the mathematics and borrowing only the semiotics and colors. The reason for
this may be due to the misconception of mathematics as a universal aesthetic as opposed to a cultural one.
3. A synopsis of the math in African and African-American
culture
In contrast to colonial myths of primitives who cannot count beyond three, various scholars have recently
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reported significant African mathematical practices (Eglash 1999; Zaslavsky 1973; Gerdes 1998). Eglash, for
instance, vividly illustrates how the African-American cultural practice of cornrow braiding and plaiting—an
African tradition that crossed the middle passage with slaves being transported to America from Africa (Byrd
and Tharps 2001)—are based on iterative geometric transformations of scaling, rotation, reflection, and
translation. Thus a cornrow—using natural hair without extensions—can be viewed as a scaling sequence or
“fractal” of y-shaped plaits (Eglash 1999) that change from large to small as the braid crosses the scalp (see
Figure 1). Introducing reflections or rotations into this sequence creates cornrow hairstyles of varying
complexity as in Figure 2.
Figure 1. Y-shaped plait (A computer graphic simulation of a plait that when iterated and translated at
various scales form the interconnected braids of cornrow hairstyles.)
Photo courtesy of Dr. Ron Eglash, as published at http://www.rpi.edu/~eglash/csdt.html
Figure 2. Computer graphic simulation of the braid of a cornrow hairstyle where the mathematical principles
of rotation, iteration, scaling are applied to the basic y-shaped plait as it translates spatially
Photo courtesy of Dr. Ron Eglash, as published at http://www.rpi.edu/~eglash/csdt.html.
Eglash also found other evidence of fractal geometry in african architecture and art. For instance, a “lukasa”
is an African art object that displays fractal scaling (Eglash 1999, p.166) and geometric designs (Roberts and
Roberts 1996, p.132). The lukasa—also known as a memory board—is a visual rendering of Luba history
from Zaire. On one level it may be appreciated simply for its aesthetics. It is art. On another level it is a
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Figure 4. Diagrammatic translation of the lukasa in Figure 3
Diagram by Chris DiMaggio, as published in Roberts and Roberts 1996, p.141.
In figures 2 and 3, the lukasa’s configuration of colored beads that vary in size serve as mnemonic tools
(Roberts and Roberts 1996, p.131). While the lukasa through its sculptural form provides a singular,
organized framework for the transport of Luba history from an encoder (one generation) to a decoder (the
next generation), it enables multiple memories or interpretations of history (Roberts and Roberts 1996,
p.134). Thus the audience of a lukasa is empowered with control over the interpretation of the lukasa for
meaning and value. In addition to being an art and a communication object, Eglash notes that the cultural
pattern of the lukasa depicts a mathematical self-organizing system that uses 1/F distributions of memory
(Roberts and Roberts 1996, p.166). That is, a lukasa uses single beads, multiple beads, and multiples of
multiple beads to represent individuals, groups, and generations, respectively (Roberts and Roberts 1996,
p.166). Quite appropriately, Roberts and Roberts describes the lukasa as a “geometry of ideas (1996,
p.137).” The grid of a lukasa provides a mathematical map for attaching these symbols in spatial patterns
that facilitate interpretation (Roberts and Roberts 1996, p.134).
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4. Ethnomathematics as a source of creative inspiration for
black graphic designers
Cultural artifacts and practices like the lukasa and cornrow braiding from African history that also reflect
mathematics principles are part of what is known today as ethnomathematics—a hybrid discipline that looks
at culture from a mathematical point of view
and
vice versa. The emergence of ethnomathematics is aimed
at changing specifically minority students’ perceptions of math (Olin 2003, p.23). Particularly for African-
American students who may be alienated from math, knowledge that geometry comes from their own
heritage may help to boost their confidence in mastering math through its relevance to their own identity
(Tucker and Herman 2002, p.762). Coincidentally, Harris observes that black students studying graphic
design tend to collectively display a low self-esteem and confidence in regard to their making a significant
contribution to American graphic design because they are unable to see what contributions their
predecessors have made to the discipline (1998, p.125). If students know that their own heritage can be
credited for the knowledge they are required to learn and master then, they are more confident in doing so.
Thus the inclusion/integration of ethnomathematics research into graphic design pedagogy and processes
may be able to change the way that African-American graphic designers collectively approach creativity as
well as encourage more African-American students to become graphic designers. When collectively used, an
innovative visual aesthetic may emerge that is specific to the African-American culture or heritage as rap
and hip-hop music are.
5. Testing the design potential of the
Cornrow Curves
and
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Mangbetu
Software programs
In 2002, working with anthropologist, Ron Eglash, on a NSF-funded grant project, we set out to determine
how a target audience of secondary students and teachers would respond to information technology that
allows them to explore the mathematics of their own heritage culture and vernacular culture [1]. I focused
on the design potential of the patterns they generated from this information technology: two software
programs titled
Cornrow Curves
and
Mangbetu Design
that Eglash designed with a programmer. Working
primarily with black youth from low income families, we introduced them to a range of mathematical
concepts through the use of these software programs. We began by having them simulate traditional
cornrow hairstyles and Mangbetu designs, and later allowed them to experiment with designs of their own
choosing.
Visual analysis of data generated from Cornrow Curves software program
Figure 5. Graphic art generated by 8th grade, African-American, male student using the Cornrow Curve
software as a creative tool rather than for simulation
Photo courtesy of Dr. Ron Eglash, as published at http://www.rpi.edu/~eglash/csdt.html.
Figure 6. Graphic art generated by 8th grade, Latino, male student using The Cornrow Curve software as a
creative tool rather than for simulation
Photo courtesy of Dr. Ron Eglash, as published at http://www.rpi.edu/~eglash/csdt.html.
Figures 5 and 6 show two examples of designs generated by two 8
th
grade minority students using the
Cornrow Curves
software program with the basic shape shown in Figure 1. Figure 5 resembles a bat or bird.
Thus, it could be viewed through Dondis’ theory of representation (1973, p.68) through use of the visual
techniques that include unity (1973, p.114), opacity (1973, p.121), economy (1973, p.115), stasis (1973,
p.118), and singularity (1973, p.124). Whereas, Figure 6 might better fit what Dondis theorizes as
abstraction toward symbolism (1973, p. 72) through the use of the visual techniques that include balance
(1973, p.111), symmetry (1973, p.112), regularity (1973, p.113), intricacy (1973, p.115), neutrality (1973,
p.120), and consistency (1973, p.121).
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Visual analysis of data generated by Mangbetu Design software program
Figure 7. Graphic art generated by 8th grade minority students using the Mangbetu software as a creative
tool rather than for simulation
Photo courtesy of Dr. Ron Eglash, as published at http://www.rpi.edu/~eglash/csdt.html.
Figure 7 show four examples of designs generated by the
Mangbetu Design
software program using one or
more of the three basic shapes shown within each graphic. They could be interpreted through Dondis’ theory
of abstraction (1973, p.74) through the use of visual techniques such as balance (1973, p.111), symmetry
(1973, p.112), regularity (1973, p.113), complexity (1973, p.113), fragmentation (1973, p.114), activeness
(1973, p.118), and variation (1973, p.121).
The graphic art forms generated by these two software programs adequately show the potential of
mathematically generated graphics to have aesthetic appeal, communicative potential, and cultural
relevance. With these software programs black design students can create mathematical visual patterns that
are influenced by simple shapes from their own cultural heritage. The patterns that they generate can then
become the underlying infrastructure for the grids they construct to compose text and image-based
information into graphic designs that communicate to a diverse audience.
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6. Cultural Grids
If there is math in culture, then there is culture in math. For the graphic design student, this means that
there can be a visual communication of culture and heritage in a grid and the placement of visual elements
within a grid-formatted composition. For example, a graphic designer can communicate African-American
social or behavioral patterns, attitudes, and beliefs through the mathematical representation or organization
of information in a given composition to reflect visual patterns borrowed from African architecture and
cultural artifacts. The question then becomes: how does a graphic designer graphically translate
mathematical systems like fractal geometry that may include principles like translation, rotation, and scaling
into design objects that communicate cultural ethos? The answer to this question may be in part self-
evident. That is, within graphic design mathematical terminology like translation equates to s[pace] and
graphic designers already use space to create a variety of visual effects that include making elements look
related (Siebert and Ballard 1992, p.19). Rotation equates to angle, direction, or orientation in graphic
design. These techniques can evoke emotions from the viewer (Siebert and Ballard 1992, p.13). Scaling
equates to contrast in size in graphic design. Change in size brings attention to particular elements in a given
composition (Siebert and Ballard 1992, p.21). Repetition is also used frequently by graphic designers to unify
a composition and make it less predictable (Siebert and Ballard 1992, p.32). The application of these math
principles to the architecture of information within a composition is limitless and vast for a creative person.
However, the use of these mathematical principles to convey cultural visual patterns has not been explored
collectively by African-American designers. The integration of African fractal patterns—like those generated
in figures 5-7—in the construction of mathematical grids and the positioning and treatment of elements
within a composition can be the thread that weaves a cultural aesthetic that communicates African-American
heritage and culture. The journey to a black cultural aesthetic begins with design students being at least
encouraged (if not required) to conduct thorough research on cultural artifacts from Africa that exhibit fractal
geometry in its design. They also should be encouraged to experiment with mathematically-generated visual
patterns that are based on basic shapes from their own cultural reservoir. The curricula for graphic design
schools that advertise as recruiting or possessing diverse populations of students also need to include
required readings in ethnomathematics. Students may also need opportunities (e.g. math courses tailored to
arts students) to learn how to properly analyze cultural artifacts’ mathematics in order to extract fractal
patterns and scaling ratios to apply to their own work.
7. Conclusion
Part of what makes ethnomathematics an appropriate choice for black cultural aesthetic is that it is timeless;
while kente patterns and color schemes tend to become overused and clichéd in the short-run. Mathematics
is also well-rooted in the history of graphic design through the legacy of the Bauhaus’s tradition of geometric
structure. However, using mathematical frameworks borrowed from cultural artifacts instead can debunk the
tenet of mathematics as a universal, cultureless aesthetic. The influence of cultural mathematics can make a
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profound difference in the education of a diverse student body and its contributions to the discipline of
design. If the graphic design profession embraces ethnomathematics as knowledge required to become a
professional designer, then it might see contributions from African-American designers that extend far
beyond just the regurgitation of negative stereotypes of black culture fossilized into American history. At a
micro level, the way that graphic elements are “ethnomathematically” structured on the page can
innovatively communicate African-American values and ideals as well as engage African-American audiences
during participatory design processes. Perhaps the future drawing board need not start as a blank white
canvas. Instead, it may need to be a cyan-colored graph with x-, y-, and z-axes.
References
BYRD, A. AND THARPS, L. L., 2001.
Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Hair in Black America.
New York:
St. Martin’s Press.
DONDIS, D. A., 1973.
A Primer of Visual Literacy
. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
EGLASH, R., 1999.
African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design
. New Brunswick: Rutgers
University Press.
ELAM, K., 2001.
Geometry of Design: Studies in Proportion and Composition
. New York: Princeton
Architectural Press.
GERDES, P., 1999.
Geometry from Africa: Mathematical and Educational Explorations.
Washington D.C.: The
Mathematical Association of America.
HARRIS, S., 1998. Searching For a Black Aesthetic in American Graphic Design.
In:
Steve Heller, ed.
The
Education of a Graphic Designer
. New York: Allworth Press, 125-129.
HURLBURT, A., 1977.
Layout: The Design of the Printed Page
. New York: Watson-Guptill.
HURLBURT, A., 1978.
The Grid: A Modular System for the Design and Production of Newspapers,
Magazines, and Books.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
LIPTON, R., 2002.
Designing Across Cultures: How to Create Effective Graphics for Diverse Ethnic Groups
.
Cincinnati: How Design Books.
MÜLLER-BROCKMANN, J., 1981.
Grid Systems in Graphic Design
. Switzerland: Arthur Niggli Ltd.
OLIN, D., 2003. Ethnomathematics.
New Yorker,
23 Feb. 2003, pp. 23-24.
ROBERTS, M. N. AND ROBERTS, A. F., 1996.
Memory: Luba Art and the Making of History
. New York: The
Museum for African Art.
SIEBERT, L. AND BALLARD, L., 1992.
Making a Good Layout
. Cincinnati: North Light Books.
TUCKER, C. M. AND HERMAN, K. C., 2002. Using Culturally Sensitive Theories and Research to meet the
Academic Needs of Low-Income African American Children.
American Pyschologist
, 57 (10), 762-773.
WOLF, A., 1991. Beyond the Bauhaus: Fractal Geometry. In: E. Lupton and J. A. Miller, eds.
The ABCs of
Bauhaus: The Bauhaus and Design Theory
. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, Inc.
ZASLAVSKY, C., 1999.
Africa Counts: Number and Pattern in African Culture
. Chicago: Lawrence Hill & Co.
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Notes
1. Cornrows are both heritage culture (in the sense that they originate in Africa) as well as vernacular
culture (part of the lived cultural experience of African-Americans).
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