Buddhist Belief in Merit (Punña), Buddhist Religiousness and Life Satisfaction Among Thai Buddhists in Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

This study operationally defines Buddhist belief in merit (punna), Buddhist religiousness and examines their relationships with life satisfaction. Four hundred Buddhist merit makers at a temple in Bangkok participated in the study. LISREL models show that Buddhist belief in merit predicts Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction, and Buddhist belief in merit mediates the relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction. The different conceptualizations of Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction and their difference with reference to the future and the present are discussed. Buddhist religiousness-life satisfaction nexus is then examined against western religiousness-life satisfaction relationship.

Full text

This paper was published as:
Ariyabuddhiphongs, V. (2009). Buddhist belief in merit (pun n a), Buddhist religiousness
and life satisfaction among Thai Buddhists in Bangkok, Thailand. Archive for the Psychology
of Religion, 31, 191-213. DOI: 10.1163/157361209X424457.
Available from: http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/157361209x424457
Buddhist Belief in Merit (Punña), Buddhist Religiousness and Life Satisfaction
Among Thai Buddhists in Bangkok, Thailand
Abstract
This study operationally defines Buddhist belief in merit (punña), Buddhist religiousness and
examines their relationships with life satisfaction. Four hundred Buddhist merit makers at a temple in
Bangkok participated in the study. LISREL models show that Buddhist belief in merit predicts
Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction, and Buddhist belief in merit mediates the relationship
between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction. The different conceptualizations of Buddhist
religiousness and life satisfaction and their difference with reference to the future and the present are
discussed. Buddhist religiousness-life satisfaction nexus is then examined against western
religiousness-life satisfaction relationship.

2
Buddhist Belief in Merit (Punña), Buddhist Religiousness and Life Satisfaction
Among Thai Buddhists in Bangkok, Thailand
Social science scholars define religiousness to include the dual concepts of religion
and spirituality: religion refers to measures of social activities, such as frequency of
attendance at religious functions whereas spirituality measures private activities, such as
prayers or reading of religious texts (Hill & Pargarment, 2003). Perhaps because of the
example that the religious followers were saved from destruction and those who were not were
punished (Genesis 19), empirical research tends to focus on the positive effects of
religiousness, such as individual life satisfaction (Ellison, Gay & Glass, 1989; Peacock &
Paloma, 1999), and personal and social well-being (Kim, 2003), among Protestants as well as
Mormons and Jehovah’s Witnesses (Ellison, 1991). Although the relationship between
religiousness and life satisfaction has been extensively investigated (Hackney & Sanders,
2003), there appears to be no study on the relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life
satisfaction.
The following study operationally defines Buddhist belief in merit (punña), Buddhist
religiousness, and examines their relationships with life satisfaction. The results of the study are
expected to contribute to the literature on religiousness and life satisfaction, and to increase our
understanding of religiousness-life satisfaction relationship in general and the Buddhist religiousness-
life satisfaction relationship in particular.
Buddhist Religiousness
Because religiousness scales tend to be suitable for use among Protestant subjects
(Cohen et al, 2005) Buddhist religiousness has to be defined differently. All the Buddhas
prescribed three behavioral principles for Buddhists: to perform good deeds, to commit no

3
evil deeds, and to purify one’s mind (Digha-nikaya, 13/54/55; Note). Translated into
activities, Buddhist religiousness means: giving (dana), observance of the Five Precepts (sila),
and meditation (bhavana; Anguttara-nikaya, 37/126/484).
Giving (Dana)
In Thailand, giving usually means giving food to the monks in the morning, a daily routine
among Thai Buddhists; a cup of rice, a serving of curry and a portion of dessert are all mixed into the
monk’s begging bowl. Giving also means donating money and articles of necessity to the monks or
the temples on holy days. A third form of giving occurs once a year during a ceremony in which lay
individuals provide a robe to the monastic, known as kathin, at the temple.
Among Thai Buddhists, giving food to the monks in the morning ranks first among giving
activities, followed by giving money or articles of necessity to the monks. Donating money to the
temple at the annual robe-giving ceremony ranks third (Bangkok University Research Institute, 2005;
Kasikorn Thai Research Center, 2005).
Observance of the Five Precepts (Sila)
To commit no evil deeds requires a strict observance of the Five Precepts. The 1st to 4th
Precepts prohibit transgression against others: taking the lives of other living beings; taking what is
not given; sexual misconduct; and false and idle speeches. The 5th Precept forbids transgression
against oneself through consumption of alcohol and intoxicants, because the substances damage the
consumers’ health and cause negligence (Khantipalo Bhikku, 1989).
Thai Buddhists observe the Five Precepts to varying degrees. Only 13.8% of Thai
respondents indicate that they observe all Five Precepts; 43.1% violate the precept against false and
idle speeches; 30.6% violate the precept against consumption of alcohol and intoxicants; 25.4%

4
violate the precept against killing; 0.9% violate the precept against sexual misconduct and 0.1%
violate the precept against taking what is not given (Kasikorn Thai Research Center, 1997).
Meditation (Bhavana)
Gotama Buddha urged his disciples to purify their mind by watching the flow of their
breathing (Vinaya-pitaka Mahavibhanga, 2/178/257). There are 40 methods of meditation (P.A.
Payutto, 1991) but only two are most often practiced: breathing (anapanasati) and mindful-walk
(junggama). In breathing meditation, the practitioners sit still in a cross-legged half-lotus position,
close their eyes and watch the inflow and outflow of their own breathing. The mindful-walk
meditation requires the practitioners to walk slowly back and forth for 10-15 paces, paying attention to
every movement of their feet. The purpose of meditation is to train the practitioners to focus on their
own breathing or foot movements, so that they will become mindful of their own thoughts and be
aware of the influence of their own greed (lopha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha).
Studies on the effects of meditation practice have pointed to positive changes in self-concept,
ego defense mechanisms, and religiosity (Emavardhana & Tori, 1997), and positive outcomes in the
treatment of chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1982), anxiety disorder (Kabat-Zinn et al, 1992), stress
(Kaplan, Goldenberg & Galvin-Nadeau, 1993), and tension headache (Sharma et al, 1990). Mindful
meditation therapies seem to be effective in the treatment of depression, anxiety, psychosis, borderline
personality disorder and suicidal/self-harm behavior; mindfulness meditation itself is effective in
reducing substance use and recidivism rates in incarcerated populations (Ivanovski & Malhi, 2007).
This paper defines Buddhist religiousness as the extent to which Buddhists in
Thailand give food and other articles of necessity to the monks, observe the Five Precepts, and
practice meditation.

5
Buddhist Belief in Merit (Punña)
Gotama Buddha stated that giving, observance of the Five Precepts, and meditation were
Buddhist means to accumulate merit (punña; Anguttara-nikaya, 37/126/484). He also noted that his
disciples gave because they believed in the effect of giving (Anguttara-nikaya, 36/147/312). He
pointed out that the accumulated merit would result in the improved status of the merit makers in their
future lives. He said, “People who in this world make merit consisting of a fair amount of giving, a
fair amount of observance of the precepts and no amount of meditation will upon their death attain the
good part of humankind (Anguttara-nikaya, 37/126/484; author’s interpretation: will be reborn as
healthy human beings).
Reincarnation or the next life is a recurring theme in the Buddhist scripture (Tipitaka). Before
being borne Prince Siddhartha, Gotama Buddha had been through several reincarnations (Khuddaka-
nikaya jataka, Vol. 63, 64). Reincarnation cases have been documented in Thailand and in other
countries (Fuen Dokbua, 2000; Stevenson, 1993). A Thai man remembered that he had been born
twice to a family, and once to a second family, and in those three lives he had died in infancy. He was
then born for the fourth time to the first family, grew up to be an adult and went back to visit the
second family (Fuen Dokbua, 2000). Evidences suggestive of reincarnation have been recorded
systematically; birthmarks and deformities are used to indicate that physical characteristics may be
carried over from a past life to the present one (Stevenson, 1993). Adherents to Buddhist principles
such as merit, and reincarnation appear to have some recorded claims to support their beliefs.
To Buddhists, belief in the effect of merit and belief in the next life are two inseparable beliefs
that comprise Buddhist belief in merit.
Life Satisfaction

6
Subjective well-being (SWB) includes happiness and life satisfaction (Diener et al, 1999).
Happiness is the excess of positive affect over negative affect whereas life satisfaction is primarily a
cognitive evaluation of the quality of one’s life experiences (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998). Life
satisfaction is defined to include global life satisfaction, and satisfaction with seven life domains—
satisfaction with work, family, leisure, health, finances, self and one’s group, and a global life
satisfaction (Diener et al, 1999).
Although a recent three-nation study questions the positive effect of religiousness (Snoep,
2008), other studies have found positive relationship between religiousness and life satisfaction:
religiosity has small but persistent positive relationships with life satisfaction (Ellison, Gay & Glass,
1989); individuals with strong religious belief and those who frequently participate in religious
activities are more satisfied with life than those with lower religious conviction and commitment
(Kim, 2003); and closeness to God, prayer experience, church membership, church attendance,
meditative prayer, ritual prayer and colloquial prayer show significant positive relationships with life
satisfaction (Peacock & Poloma, 1999).
Religious people are satisfied with their life: religious activities and meaning are related to life
satisfaction among physicians and older patients (Ayele et al, 1999), the elderly (Krause, 2003;
Steinitz, 1980), peoples of Canada (Gee & Veevers, 1990), Finland (Hintikka et al, 2001) and the
United States (Mookherjee, 1994; Winseman, 2004). The relationship between religiousness and life
satisfaction is also found among various groups of various demographic characteristics: an almost
exclusively Christian sample (Gauthier et al, 2006), three groups of African male samples (Dorahy et
al, 1998), a large sample of Muslim Kuwaiti adolescents (Abdel-Khalek, 2007), Israeli male
undergraduates (Francis et al, 2004), the young (Zulig, Ward & Horn, 2006), the elderly (Yoon, 2006;
Yoon & Lee, 2004), and across age, race, and gender groups (Fiori et al, 2006).
Mysticism is also related to life satisfaction. Mysticism is defined to consist of extrovertive
experience (the self reaching a unity with the multiplicity of objects in the universe), and introvertive

7
experience (the loss of self in the unitary consciousness where there remains only a void and empty
unity), and religious interpretation (Hood et al, 2001). Extrovertive mysticism is found to combine
with religious interpretation to predict satisfaction with life (Byrd, Lear, & Schwenka, 2000).
The Models
This study applies partially the social cognitive theory model that specifies triadic reciprocal
relationships among person, environment, and behavior variables (Bandura, 1986) to test the
relationships among belief in merit (person variable), Buddhist religiousness (behavior variable), and
life satisfaction. Model 1 (Figure 1) displays the effect of belief in merit on Buddhist religiousness
and life satisfaction. This model represents the hypothesis that belief in merit leads to Buddhist
religiousness and life satisfaction.
________________
Figure 1 about here.
________________
Model 2 (Figure 2) displays the reciprocal effect of Buddhist religiousness on belief in merit
and life satisfaction. The model represents the hypothesis that Buddhist religiousness leads to belief in
merit and life satisfaction, or belief in merit mediates the relationship between Buddhist religiousness
and life satisfaction.
________________
Figure 2 about here.
________________
Method
Participants

8
Data were collected at Wat Paknam Phasi-chareon in Bangkok because a large number of Thai
Buddhists go there on holy days and weekends to generate merit. The respondents come from
Bangkok and five adjoining provinces, where 10 million people live (National Statistical Office,
2006). A sampling of 400, recommended by Krejcie & Morgan (1970) for a survey of this type, was
adopted. The research assistant randomly approached the respondents while they were waiting to
offer food to the monks, or to make donations to the temple, explained the purpose of the study,
obtained their consent and waited for them to complete the questionnaire. About 10% of the merit
makers who were approached declined to take part in the study; most were elderly females. The
respondents’ demographic characteristics are shown in Table 1.
_______________
Table 1 about here.
________________
The majority of respondents are female (55%), married (57.7%), and under 40 years of age
(53.3%). The number of female merit makers is slightly more than the census of female population of
52% (National Statistical Office, 2003), in line with the common knowledge that Thai women make
merit more than do Thai men. The respondents consist of business owners (33.3%), university
students (24.5%) and salaried employees (24%). A little more than half (57.3%) is educated at lower
than bachelor’s degree level. Almost half of them (45%) reports a monthly income of Baht 10,000
(Thai currency equivalent of US$300) or less, somewhat low when compared with the average income
in Thailand of Baht 13,418 per month (National Statistical Office, 2003). The low reported income
may be due to the number of university students (24.5%) who do not normally earn high salary.
Development of the Scales

9
The scales used in this study were written in Thai; the English version is a literal translation of
the Thai scales.
Buddhist Religiousness
Giving
The four-item Giving Scale measures the extent of Thai Buddhists’ giving of food, robe, and
necessary articles to the monks. Sample items ask: Do you give food to the monks? Do you
participate in the robe-giving ceremony? The respondents indicate how often they engage in each type
of giving on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1. never to 4. regularly. Alpha = .80.
Observance of the Five Precepts
Observance of the Five Precepts was measured by a five-item Tendency to Violate the Five
Precepts Scale (Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2007). The scale asks the respondents if they will, for one
million Baht (Thai currency equivalent to US$30,000), violate any one of the Five Precepts, such as
working as chicken slaughterer for a year, or having sex with a stranger once. Strict observance of the
Five Precepts allows only responses of Yes or No. A Maybe response was however added to
accommodate indecision. Responses are (1) yes, (2) maybe and (3) no. Alpha = .80. High scores
indicate an inclination to observe the Five Precepts.
Meditation
The four-item Meditation Scale measures the extent of Thai Buddhists’ meditation practice.
Sample items include: Do you meditate? Do you pray? The respondents indicate how often they
engage in each practice on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1. never to 4. regularly. Alpha = .79.

10
Belief in Effect of Merit
The Belief in Effect of Merit Scale is a six-item scale written to reflect various stories in the
Buddhist scripture that demonstrated the effect of merit. Sample statements include: Merit making
makes you feel delightful; merit made today yields its benefits in the next lifetime. The respondents
indicate the extent of their belief in the statements on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1. least to 5.
very much. Alpha = .88.
Belief in Next Life
The six-item Belief in Next Life Scale reflects various stories in the Buddhist scripture that
demonstrate the cycle of birth and death. Sample statements include: Before being born in this
lifetime, we were born and died several times; the good or bad deeds will yield results, if not in this
life time then in the next life. The respondents indicate the extent of their belief in the statements on a
5-point Likert scale ranging from 1. least to 5. very much. Alpha = .91.
Life Satisfaction
Life satisfaction scale contains nine items, to measure all seven domains of life satisfaction,
i.e. satisfactions with work, family, leisure, health, finances, self and one’s group, and global life
satisfaction (Diener et al, 1999). Sample statements read: My health is good; there is no crisis in my
family. The two global life satisfaction items state: I have no worry in life; I am satisfied with my
life. The respondents indicate the extent to which the statements reflect their life conditions on a 5-
point Likert scale ranging from 1. the least to 5. the most. Alpha = .78.
Results

11
To present a general picture of Buddhist religiousness among Buddhists in Bangkok, the
respondents were grouped along their demographic characteristics and their scores of three merit
making activities (Giving, Precepts and Meditation) were combined. Table 2 presents the groups’
demographic characteristics and their merit making scores.
________________
Table 2 about here.
________________
The results confirm the common knowledge in Thailand that women and elderly people make
merit more than do men or young people. Thai Buddhist women and respondents who are older than
40 years give food, money and articles of necessity to the monks, observe the Five Precepts, and
meditate more frequently than do Thai men and respondents who are less than 40 years old.
Respondents in high income bracket (earning Baht 10,001 and over per month) observe the Five
Precepts more frequently than those in low income bracket (earning less than Baht 10,000 per month).
Respondents in the two income groups do not differ significantly in their giving and meditation
practice. Also, the level of education attainment does not differentiate the respondents’ levels of merit
making activities.
To test the relationship hypotheses, correlations of the variables (Giving, Meditation, Five
Precepts, Belief in the Effect of Merit, Belief in Next Life, Domain Satisfaction, and Global Life
Satisfaction) were used to construct a structural equation model using LISREL 8 program (Joreskog
and Sorbom, 1993). Means, standard deviations and correlations among the variables are presented in
Table 3.
________________
Table 3 about here.
________________

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Measurement Models
Figure 3 displays parameter estimates (λ, γ & β) of the model. Lambda-x indices of the Belief
in the Effect of Merit, and the Belief in Next Life and lambda-y indices of Giving, Meditation, Five
Precepts, and Domain Satisfaction, and Global Life Satisfaction are highly significant, confirming the
factors underlying the variables.
________________
Figure 3 about here.
________________
Tests of Hypotheses
Figure 3 displays Model 1showing the effect of belief in merit on Buddhist religiousness and
life satisfaction. Gamma index (Table 4, Model 1) shows a positive relationship between belief in
merit and Buddhist religiousness (γ = 0.68, p < .001), and beta index shows a positive, but rather
weak, relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction (β = 0.18, p < .05). Goodness-
of-fit indices (χ2 = 67.44, χ2/df = 5.62, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.11, RMR = 0.06) show a poor fit to the
data (Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000).
________________
Table 4 about here.
________________
To confirm the mediation effect of Buddhist religiousness on the relationship between belief
in merit and life satisfaction, the belief in merit-life satisfaction relationship was added to Model 1
(Figure 4). If the added relationship is non-significant, there is a mediation effect (Holmbeck, 1997).
The added relationship (γ = 0.23, p < .05; Table 4, Model 1a) is significant, and fit indices ((χ2 = 58.54,

13
χ2/df = 5.32, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.10, RMR = 0.05) indicate an acceptable fit. Buddhist
religiousness thus does not mediate the relationship between belief in merit and life satisfaction. In
this model, Buddhist religious and life satisfaction are not related. Belief in merit does not lead to
Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction; it influences Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction
separately.
________________
Figure 4 about here.
_______________
Figure 5 displays Model 2 showing the reciprocal effect of Buddhist religiousness on belief in
merit and life satisfaction. Gamma index (Table 4, Model 2) shows a positive relationship between
Buddhist religiousness and belief in merit (γ = 0.68, p < .001), and beta index shows a positive
relationship between belief in merit and life satisfaction (β = 0.23, p < .01). Goodness-of-fit indices of
the hypothesized model show an acceptable fit to the data (χ2 = 58.55, χ2/df = 4.88, CFI = 0.96,
RMSEA = 0.10, RMR = 0.05).
________________
Figure 5 about here.
________________
To confirm the mediation effect of belief in merit, the Buddhist religiousness-life satisfaction
relationship was added to Model 2. If the added relationship is non-significant, there is a mediation
effect (Holmbeck, 1997). Figure 6 displays Model 2a showing the added Buddhist religiousness-life
satisfaction relationship; the relationship is non-significant. Goodness-of-fit indices of Model 2a
show an acceptable fit to the data (χ2 = 58.54, χ2/df = 5.32, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.10, RMR = 0.05).
Belief in merit mediates the relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction.
________________
Figure 6 about here.
________________

14
Fit indices of Model 1a, and Model 2a are identical, indicating equivalent models, and support
of a particular model is based on theoretical or substantive arguments (MacCallum et al, 1993).
Because Model 2a supports the mediation effect of belief in merit on the Buddhist religiousness-life
satisfaction relationship, it may be said that while belief in merit influences Buddhist religiousness as
well as life satisfaction, Buddhist religiousness influences the level of belief in merit that in turn
influences life satisfaction.
Discussion
This study hypothesizes that belief in merit influences Buddhist religiousness and life
satisfaction, and employs social cognitive theory’s concept of reciprocal relationship to test the effect
of Buddhist religiousness on belief in merit and life satisfaction. The results find that among Thai
Buddhists belief in the effect of merit and belief in the next life constitute the belief in merit, and that
Buddhist religiousness consists of giving, observance of the Five Precepts, and meditation. LISREL
model shows that while the belief in merit influences Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction
separately, Buddhist religiousness influences life satisfaction through the mediation effect of belief in
merit.
The strength of the relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction in this
study (Model 1; β = 0.18) is slightly higher than the mean effect of the relationships between western
religiousness and life satisfaction (0.12; Hackney & Sanders, 2003). However, there is a need to point
out the differences between the conceptualizations of western religiousness and Buddhist
religiousness, and between the operational definition of life satisfaction in this study and that in other
studies.
The two components of western religiousness (religion and spirituality) refer to relationships
with outside agents. Religion refers to the relationship with fellow believers through participation in

15
religious activities; spirituality refers to the relationship with an all powerful supreme being through
prayers and reading of religious texts. In western religiousness, believers are dependent upon outside
sources for support and comfort. Buddhist religiousness on the other hand is defined as the believers’
own deeds. Being religious in Buddhism means sharing what one has with others (giving), refraining
from harming oneself and fellow human beings (observance of the Five Precepts), and ridding one’s
own thoughts of greed, anger and delusion (meditation). In Buddhist religiousness, merit is accrued
from one’s own deeds.
Life satisfaction in this study is defined differently from life satisfaction in other studies.
Whereas other studies operationally defined life satisfaction as response to a single question (e.g.
Peacock & Poloma, 1999), this study’s life satisfaction is a linear combination of satisfactions with
seven life domains, and global life satisfaction. Different levels of satisfaction with different life
domains may have resulted in a regression toward the mean, thereby weakening the relationship
between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction.
Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction also serve two different purposes. Being religious
in Buddhism means reducing one’s possessiveness as well as clearing one’s thought of acquisition
(lopha). Life satisfaction on the other hand predicates upon accumulation of material and non-material
possessions, i.e. having good health, good friends and important possessions. Buddhist religiousness
and life satisfaction also differs in their references to time. Buddhist religiousness refers to the
accumulation of merit for use in the future lives whereas life satisfaction describes conditions in the
present life. The difference in reference to the future and the present could have led to the weak
relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction.
Buddhist religiousness and western religiousness however are similar in their implication for
the present life and the future life. Buddhist religiousness means reducing one’s selfishness, living
with others harmoniously, and freeing one’s mind from negative thoughts; strict adherence to the
prescription will result in generosity, kindness and peace of mind for the merit makers and those

16
around them in the present life. In the future life, the merit makers can expect to enjoy improved
status and conditions as predicted by Gotama Buddha (Anguttara-nikaya, 37/126/484). As for western
religiousness, the religion aspect enables the believers to identify with a group of fellow believers and
find social support; the spirituality aspect helps them to relate to the divine others (Peacock & Poloma,
1999), to cope with stressful life event (Tix & Frazier, 1998) and to find meaning in the present life,
and to be in greater contact with sacred supreme being (Steger & Frazier, 2005). The believers can
also expect to ascend into heaven following death (Juola Exline, 2003).
A fundamental difference between rebirth in heaven and Buddhist reincarnation however
remains. Whereas rebirth in heaven is believed to be eternal, Buddhist idea of reincarnation views
rebirth in heaven, or any rebirth, as being subject to the cycle of life and death. To escape this cycle,
Buddhists have to accumulate merit by practicing the three activities of Buddhist religiousness—
giving (dana), observing the Five Precepts (sila) and meditation (samadhi), to attain wisdom (pana).
According to Gotama Buddha, observance of the Five Precepts (sila) is one the three cornerstones of
Ti-sikha that includes precepts (sila), meditation (samadhi) and wisdom (panña; Anguttara-nikaya,
34/529/465).
Limitation and Conclusions
This study was conducted in Thailand on the basis of a review of Thai language version of the
Tipitaka and the questionnaire was written in Thai. The results are presented in English. To validate
concepts in this paper, replications in western countries are necessary. Opportunities for replication in
western nations should be plentiful; there are Buddhist communities in North America (Cadge, 2004;
Wuthnow & Cadge, 2004) and in several European countries.
Another limitation of this study is its Theravada origin. Giving, observance of the Five
Precepts and meditation are Thai practices based on the teaching of Pali Tipitaka. These practices
may not apply to other Mahayana Buddhist traditions, such as Zen or Pure Land Buddhism, where

17
monks do not make rounds in the morning to accept alms, and the giving of articles of necessity to the
monks is replaced by monetary donations. However, giving, observance of the Five Precepts and
meditation are ethical and meditational practices that would lead to compassion and happiness
(Thurman, 2005), and represent a return to the unadulterated form of Buddhism that was practiced at
the time of the Buddha (Lopez, 2002).
This study hypothesizes that the belief in merit consists of belief in the effect of merit and
belief in the next life, and that Buddhist religiousness consists of giving food to the monks, observing
the Five Precepts and meditation; the study then examines the relationships among belief in merit,
Buddhist religiousness, and life satisfaction. The study finds that while belief in merit influences
Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction separately, belief in merit mediates the relationship
between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction. The study also explores the relationship between
the belief in the next life and Buddhist religiousness, and suggests a possible avenue for future studies
on religion that deal with life in the future. After all, whether we pray to an all powerful supreme
being or observe the Five Precepts and meditate we all look forward to a future life that is better than
the present one.

18
Note
Because this study is conducted in Thailand, a Theravada Buddhist country, Buddhist
concepts in the study are drawn from the Thai version of Pali Tipitaka. References are made to the
Thai language version of the Tipitaka scripture published by Mahamakut Royal College in
commemoration of the 200 years of the Royal Chakri Dynasty, Rattanakosin, B.E. 2525. Numbers
refer to volume/paragraph/page numbers.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by a grant from Bangkok University Research Fund. An earlier
version of this article was presented at the 2006 Conference of the International Association for the
Psychology of Religion, Leuven, Belgium. The author wishes to thank Ralph W. Hood, Jr., Raymond
F. Paloutzian, Rhys H. Williams, Thomas J. Knutson, Paul T.J. James, and the anonymous reviewers
for their valuable comments on the earlier draft of this paper.

19
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27
Figure 1. Model 1 hypothesizes the effects of belief in merit (puna) on Buddhist
religiousness and life satisfaction.
Belief in
Merit (Punña)
Buddhist
Religiousness
Life
Satisfaction

28
Figure 2. Model 2 hypothesizes the effects of Buddhist religiousness on belief in merit
(puna) and life satisfaction.
Belief in
Merit (Punña)
Buddhist
Religiousness
Life
Satisfaction

29
* p < .05, *** p < .001
Figure 3. Fitting of Model 1 showing the effect of belief in merit (punña) on Buddhist
religiousness and life satisfaction
Belief in
Effect of
Merit
Belief in
Next Life
Belief in
Merit
(Punña)
Buddhist
Religiousness
Life
Satisfaction
Giving
Merit
Meditation
Merit
Five Precepts
Merit
Domain
Satisfaction
Global
Satisfaction
0.83***
0.93**
0.66
0.52***
0.82***
0.77
0.18*
0.87***
0.68***

30
* p < .05, *** p < .001
Figure 4. Fitting of Model 1a testing the mediation effect of Buddhist religiousness on the
relationship between belief in merit (punña) and life satisfaction.
Belief in
Merit (Punña)
Buddhist
Religiousness
Life
Satisfaction
0.00
0.68***
0.23*

31
** p < .01, *** p < .001
Figure 5. Model 2 showing the effect of Buddhist religiousness on belief in merit (punña)
and life satisfaction.
Belief in
Merit (Punña)
Buddhist
Religiousness
Life
Satisfaction
0.23**
0.68***

32
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001
Figure 6. Fitting of Model 2a testing the mediation effect of belief in merit (punña) on the
relationship between Buddhist religiousness and life satisfaction.
Belief in
Merit (Punña)
Buddhist
Religiousness
Life
Satisfaction
0.18*
0.68***
0.00

33
Table 1
Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics
Respondents’ Characteristics
Number
Percent
Gender:
Male
180
45.0
Female
220
55.0
Marital Status:
Single
152
38.0
Married or Separated
248
62.0
Age:
11-40 years
213
53.3
40 years and above
187
46.7
Income:
0-10,000 Baht per month
180
45.0
10,001 and over Baht per month
220
55.0
Education:
Lower than Bachelor’s Degree
229
57.3
Bachelor’s Degree and above
171
42.7
Professions:
Students
98
24.5
Housewives
46
11.5
Business owners
133
33.3
Civil servants/State enterprise employees/
Private company employees
96
24.0
Laborers/Farm workers
13
3.3
Retirees
14
3.4

Table 2
Respondents’ Characteristics and Their Merit Making Scores
Respondents’ Characteristics
Giving (Dana)
Precepts (Sila)
Meditation (Samadhi)
Gender:
Male
M = 8.78, SD = 1.89
M = 13.18, SD = 2.29
M = 8.23, SD = 2.03
Female
M = 10.23, SD = 2.08
M = 14.57, SD = 1.22
M = 9.69, SD = 2.42
t = -7.22***
t = -7.76***
t = -6.41***
Age:
10-40 years
M = 8.98, SD = 1.90
M = 13.31, SD = 2.31
M = 8.21, SD = 2.09
40 years and above
M = 10.26, SD = 2.16
M = 14.68, SD = 0.83
M = 9.97, SD = 2.32
t = -6.26***
t = -7.69***
t = -7.97***
Income:
0-10,000 Baht per month
M = 9.41, SD = 2.07
M =13.73, SD = 2.18
M = 8.94, SD = 2.59
10,001 and over Baht per month
M = 9.72, SD = 2.16
M = 14.12, SD = 1.64
M = 9.11, SD = 2.17
t = -1.44 ns
t = -2.04*
t = -.72 ns
Education:
Lower than Bachelor’s Degree
M = 9.53, SD = 1.93
M = 14.06, SD = 1.86
M = 9.12, SD = 2.23
Bachelor’s Degree and above
M = 9.65, SD = 2.36
M = 13.80, SD = 1.96
M = 8.91, SD = 2.54
t = -.56 ns
t = 1.33 ns
t = .84 ns
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001, df = 398

Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations among Variables
Variables
M
SD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1. Giving
9.58
2.12
1
2. Meditation
9.03
2.37
0.65
1
3. Five Precepts
13.95
1.01
0.37
0.38
1
4. Belief in Merit
22.81
4.43
0.39
0.46
0.41
1
5. Belief in Next Life
21.56
5.15
0.42
0.49
0.42
0.72
1
6. Domain Satisfaction
22.81
3.75
0.13
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.12
1
7. Global Life Satisfaction
6.34
1.61
0.13
0.07
0.22
0.23
0.14
0.62
1

Table 4
Parameter Estimates and Goodness-of-Fit Indices of Hypothesized Model
Models
Index
Value
χ2
df
χ2/df
CFI
RMSEA
RMR
Model 1:
Belief in Merit (Punña)-
Buddhist Religiousness
γ
0.68***
67.44
12
5.62
0.95
0.11
0.06
Buddhist Religiousness-
Life Satisfaction
β
0.18*
Model 1a:
Belief in Merit (Punña)-
Buddhist Religiousness
γ
0.68***
58.54
11
5.32
0.96
0.10
0.05
Buddhist Religiousness-
Life Satisfaction
β
0.00
Belief in Merit (Punña)-
Life Satisfaction
γ
0.23*
Model 2:
Buddhist Religiousness-
Belief in Merit (Punña)
γ
0.68***
58.55
12
4.88
0.96
0.10
0.05
Belief in Merit (Punña)-
Life Satisfaction
β
0.23**
Model 2a:
Buddhist Religiousness-
Belief in Merit (Punña)
γ
0.68***
58.54
11
5.32
0.96
0.10
0.05
Belief in Merit (Punña)-
Life Satisfaction
β
0.23*
Buddhist Religiousness-
Life Satisfaction
γ
0.00
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < 0.001