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Unraveling Teachers' Beliefs About Grade Retention
Abstract
A multimethod approach was used to examine teachers' beliefs about retention in grades K-7. Questionnaire responses indicated that teachers at all grade levels believe retention is an acceptable school practice that prevents students from facing daily failure and motivates them to work harder. Factors including academic performance, maturity, ability, gender, and age influence retention decisions, but the importance of factors differs among teachers. Teachers agreed that retention was not harmful in grades K-3, but they disagreed about the impact on students in grades 4-7. Teachers of grades 4-7 were less likely to retain students and less likely to agree about which characteristics warrant retention. Interviews suggested that teachers' beliefs about their roles and responsibilities in student success were critical in retention decisions.
... The international literature states that some students' characteristics are more relevant than others when making retention decisions (Bonvin, 2003;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Among these characteristics, academic performance intervenes, but not only and not always as the main reason (Bonvin, 2003;Marcoux & Crahay, 2008). ...
... Among these characteristics, academic performance intervenes, but not only and not always as the main reason (Bonvin, 2003;Marcoux & Crahay, 2008). The aspects consistently considered to be the most important in decision-making for retaining students from preschool to second grade are academic performance, students' maturity, intellectual ability, students' effort, and self-esteem (Bonvin, 2003;Cannon & Lipscomb, 2011;Marcoux & Crahay, 2008;Range et al., 2012;Renaud, 2013;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Young & Range, 2014;Young et al., 2019). Teachers sometimes also consider students' family involvement and support (Renaud, 2013;Young et al., 2019). ...
... Teachers sometimes also consider students' family involvement and support (Renaud, 2013;Young et al., 2019). Students who are not at grade level in math, reading, or writing, who are immature, who show low self-esteem and motivation, or who do not get support at home are more considered for grade retention (Byrnes, 1989;Martinez-Hicks et al., 2015;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Young & Range, 2014;Young et al., 2019). Academic achievement, according to Marcoux and Crahay (2008), was only another factor supporting teachers' judgment during decision-making. ...
Grade retention decisions are high‐risk because this practice can significantly affect students' academic and professional path and their socioaffective development. This study aimed to contribute to a better understanding of second‐grade retention decision‐making by exploring the factors the professionals consider during the retention decision‐making, their beliefs about the effectiveness of grade retention, and their cognitive decision‐making style. The study sets in Portugal, where second‐grade retention is a common practice. One hundred ninety‐four teachers answered an online questionnaire developed for this purpose. Path analysis results suggested that teachers' beliefs and decision‐making styles served as a filter, defining what factors they consider relevant or not to make grade retention decisions. Intuitive experiences seem to inform teachers' grade‐retention decisions, especially when they believe retention is essential for students' success.
... Teacher attitudes also play an important role as determinant of grade retention, as teachers who are confident in the merit of the pedagogical practice are more likely to apply it on their students (Bonvin et al., 2008). This is noteworthy, as a majority of the teacher population shares positive attitudes on the effectiveness of grade retention (Bonvin et al., 2008;Tomchin and Impara, 1992). Teacher judgments of a student are also relevant, as Cadigan and colleagues (1988) have shown in their longitudinal study: reading achievement scores at the beginning of the school year as assessed by the teacher, still impacted the retention decision at the end of the year, even when reading achievement scores at the end of the year were accounted for. ...
... Teacher judgments of a student are also relevant, as Cadigan and colleagues (1988) have shown in their longitudinal study: reading achievement scores at the beginning of the school year as assessed by the teacher, still impacted the retention decision at the end of the year, even when reading achievement scores at the end of the year were accounted for. The judgment of teachers is not only relevant with regard to the perceived capacities of a student, the estimated levels of effort and maturity matter as well (Tomchin and Impara, 1992). Most countries do not have clear rules about the decision-making process with regard to being retained (Bonvin et al., 2008;Goos et al., 2013c). ...
... Based on the cognitive development theory, advocates hold that grade retention benefits the academic career of struggling students by improving academic performance in the long term (Lamote et al., 2014). Being retained would grant underachieving students more time to catch up with the curriculum, preventing later school failure (Cadigan et al., 1988;Eurydice, 2011;Range et al., 2012), while gaining maturity from the experience (Jimerson, 2001a;OECD, 2020;Smith and Shepard, 1988;Tomchin and Impara, 1992). This way, grade retention can be conceptualized as "a gift of time" that puts students back on track for regular educational growth (Graue and DiPrerna, 2000). ...
... While empirical studies have confirmed that retained students had much lower teacher-assigned grades than their classmates (Ehmke, Drechsel, & Carstensen, 2008), there is also some evidence suggesting that boys and students with lower socioeconomic status (SES) have a substantially higher risk of being retained than both girls and students with higher SES (Entwisle, Alexander, & Olson, 2007;Klapproth & Schaltz, 2015). In addition, surveys have shown that teachers consider not only their students' achievement in class, but also other non-achievement factors, such as their students' effort and motivation in class, as criteria on which they base their decision to retain or promote a student (Bless, Schüpbach, & Bonvin, 2004;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer, Hoffman, & Nottis, 2004). Students' Big Five personality traits-i.e., automatic thoughts, feelings and behaviors that are relatively stable across time (Damian, Spengler, Sutu, & Roberts, 2018) and have previously been linked to students' academic success (e.g., Spengler, Lüdtke, Martin, & Brunner, 2013)-may also be associated with a student's risk of being retained. ...
... In addition to this, teachers report that they also take characteristics other than achievement into account, for instance the student's effort, motivation and classroom behavior (Bless et al., 2004;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer et al., 2004), when they decide on a student's retention. In the qualitative study of Tomchin and Impara (1992), teachers explained why they took such factors into account in their retention decisions. ...
... In addition to this, teachers report that they also take characteristics other than achievement into account, for instance the student's effort, motivation and classroom behavior (Bless et al., 2004;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer et al., 2004), when they decide on a student's retention. In the qualitative study of Tomchin and Impara (1992), teachers explained why they took such factors into account in their retention decisions. Some teachers thought that students who did not show enough effort in class, were lazy, unmotivated or poorly organized should be punished, and viewed retention as a means of accomplishing this. ...
Previous research has identified students' personality traits, especially conscientiousness, as highly relevantpredictors of academic success. Less is known about the role of Big Five personality traits in students when itcomes to teachers' decisions about students' educational trajectories and whether personality traits differentiallyaffect these decisions by teachers in different grade levels. This study examines to what extent students' Big Fivepersonality traits affect teacher decisions on grade retention, looking at two cohorts of 12,146 ninth-grade and6002 seventh-grade students from the German National Educational Panel Study. In both grade levels, multilevellogistic mediation models show that students' conscientiousness indirectly predicts grade retention through theassignment of grades by teachers. In the ninth-grade sample, students' conscientiousness was additionally adirect predictor of retention, distinct from teacher-assigned grades. We discuss potential underlying mechanismsand explore whether teachers base their decisions on different indicators when retaining seventh-grade studentsor ninth-grade students.
... Multiple literature reviews indicate that retention is not beneficial as a method for academic intervention (e.g., Aldridge & Goldman, 2007). While research indicates that retention is not an effective form of intervention for students' sustained academic growth and development and has negative side effects on their socio-emotional wellbeing and graduation (Jimerson, 2001;Jimerson et al., 2002;Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007), educators still perceive retention to be an effective intervention method for academic growth (Pettay, 2010;Range, Pijanowski, Holt, & Young, 2012;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer, Hoffman, & Nottis, 2004). Educators most often make decisions about individual students based on their own belief systems, which were formed through their own experiences from their professional careers (Tomchin & Impara, 1992) and often rely more heavily on these lived experiences and practical knowledge than on research findings (Kagan, 1992). ...
... While research indicates that retention is not an effective form of intervention for students' sustained academic growth and development and has negative side effects on their socio-emotional wellbeing and graduation (Jimerson, 2001;Jimerson et al., 2002;Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007), educators still perceive retention to be an effective intervention method for academic growth (Pettay, 2010;Range, Pijanowski, Holt, & Young, 2012;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer, Hoffman, & Nottis, 2004). Educators most often make decisions about individual students based on their own belief systems, which were formed through their own experiences from their professional careers (Tomchin & Impara, 1992) and often rely more heavily on these lived experiences and practical knowledge than on research findings (Kagan, 1992). In a study by B.L. Pettay (2010), 31 elementary educators were surveyed before and after a professional development session that outlined the long-term ineffectiveness of student retention in the elementary grades. ...
... This research adds to the limited studies regarding teacher and administrator perceptions and knowledge concerning retention. Past research claims educators are unaware of empirical evidence concerning the long-term effects of retention, therein contributing to their perceptions of retention (Range et al., 2012;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer et al., 2004). The latest study on knowledge and perception (i.e., Range et al., 2012) is limited to one district. ...
South Carolina’s Read to Succeed Law (RTS) is different than the other 15 states’ literacy-based third grade retention laws. It mandates literacy intervention training for in-service and pre-service teachers. Research indicates academic gains from retention are short-lived, diminishing over time and increasing drop-out rates. Through a statewide survey, this study identifies educators’ perceptions and knowledge of retention and the RTS policy, and examines the relationship between knowledge and perceptions. Educators were not familiar with retention research or RTS specifics, but favored retention. Implications include the need for more teacher training regarding new state policies and the efficacy of their foundations. This study provides evidence that policymakers should consider the means of implementation and shoulder accountability for a structured and equitable support system.
... Research has shown teachers, especially primary grade teachers, believe retention is a viable option for students who are struggling (Roberts, 2007;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer, Hoffman, & Nottis, 2004) because primary grade teachers, "have limited knowledge of the longterm student trajectories after retention" (Xia & Glennie, 2005c, p. 3). These beliefs are important to understand because the majority or retention recommendations are initiated by classroom teachers (Bonvin, Bless, & Schuepbach, 2008;Cannon & Lipscomb, 2011). ...
... This is especially true because teacher beliefs concerning child development have been linked to views of grade retention (Gredler, 1992). Although all teachers have been found to exhibit positive views concerning retention (Johnson & Howell, 2009;Range, 2009;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer, et al., 2004), this attitude is much more prevalent in the primary grades (Biegler, 2000;Silberglitt, Jimerson, Burns, & Appleton, 2006;Xia & Glennie, 2005c). ...
... The instrument used in the collection of data was a revised version of the Teacher Perceptions about Retention Survey (TPARS) developed by Tomchin (1989). The TPARS has been used in other retention studies (Haynes, 2007;Pouliot, 1999;Quarterman, 2004;Range, 2009;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer et al., 2004). In sum, section one of the survey included 14 Likert scaled statements (scale ranged from 1=strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree) which included: (a) two statements written to measure support or non-support of grade retention, one focusing on overall grade retention and the on other grade retention in the primary grades and, (b) 12 statements concerning reasons why retention should be used. ...
This study attempts to measure the perceptions of preservice teachers concerning the use of grade retention. Findings suggested preservice teachers had an overall positive view of grade retention because they believed it prevented future failure, helped maintain standards, and assisted students who struggled with language arts. This was especially true for preservice teachers acquiring early childhood certification. Respondents perceived grade retention as necessary for students who are struggling academically, had low ability, and were immature. Preservice teachers viewed parental involvement as the most effective intervention in deterring the use of grade retention. The crux of reports such as A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) and legislation like the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB, 2002) and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA, 2009) point to a primary concern of the public. Namely, not all students are learning at high levels. Reacting to this pressure, policy makers expect the achievement gap to narrow despite the fact that all classrooms have substantial ranges in student abilities (Abbott et al., 2010; Martin, 2010). In response to the public"s concerns over stalled progress, some states and school districts have adopted strict promotion policies, many of which result in grade retention for under-achieving students (Burkam, LoGerfo, Ready, & Lee, 2007; Xia & Glennie, 2005b).
... Teachers often view retention as a way to prevent academic failure before it occurs or as a remedy once it has taken place. In a study conducted in a rural, southeastern state, K-7 th grade teachers consistently viewed retention as a means of building a solid foundation in basic skills thereby insuring future academic success (Tomchin and Impara, 1992). Some teachers in this study based retention decisions solely on student's academic performance. ...
... Teachers also believed that some children require more than one year to meet the standards set forth for their present grade level (Tomchin and Impara, 1992). Others viewed retention as a means of insuring that children eventually become more selfconfident students, experience less stress in their school life and emerge as class leaders (Shepard and Smith, 1989). ...
... Issues such as poor work habits and poor school attendance also enter into teacher's beliefs about retention. Some teachers believed that even if students with poor work habits were not motivated to try harder the second time around, the more impressionable students would notice that failure to work hard caused retention (Tomchin and Impara, 1992). In the event of poor attendance, some teachers saw retention as an opportunity for students to be exposed to material that they missed the first time. ...
... Retention may actually explain why younger students catch up. If in a cohort of students, a disproportionate number of the younger and poorer performing students are retained, survivorship bias results and the average achievement scores of the total number of students who proceed to the next grade artificially increase due to the lower performers' exiting the sample (Huang, Invernizzi, & Drake, 2012;Taleb, 2005). In other words, young children with higher achievement scores are more likely to proceed to the next grade (they "survived") compared to young children with lower achievement scores (are held back). ...
... In addition, factors related with age such as socioemotional skills (e.g., externalizing/internalizing behaviors, self-control) and physical characteristics linked to relative maturity (e.g., height and fine motor skills), may be associated with the likelihood of early retention Winsler et al., 2012). While a teacher's assessment of a child's relative maturity, or the maturity of the child in relation to classroom peers, has been associated with higher attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) identification rates in young-for-grade students (Elder, 2010), such diagnoses may also operate in a similar manner to influence higher retention rates of younger children as a number of retention decisions are initiated by teachers (Penfield, 2010;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). The associations of relative age and socioemotional skills in relation to kindergarten retention have not been explored in more detail on a national level. ...
... Statewide datasets have also reported similar findings (e.g., Graue & DiPerna, 2000;Huang & Invernizzi, 2013) and experimental data have also shown that younger students, while controlling for academic achievement, were also more likely to be retained (Cascio & Schanzenbach, 2007). Retention decisions are possibly affected by other nonacademic factors such as relative maturity (Byrd & Weitzman, 1994;Jimerson et al., 1997;Tomchin & Impara, 1992), inappropriate behaviors (Burkam et al., 2007), and even a child's height (Jackson, 1975;Wake, Coghlan, & Hesketh, 2000). ...
Young-for-grade kindergarteners experience a disproportionate risk of retention compared to their old-for-grade peers. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten cohort dataset, this study investigated whether socioemotional skills mediated the association of age with kindergarten retention. Multilevel logistic regression models tested whether certain positive (e.g., interpersonal skills, approaches to learning) and negative (e.g., externalizing behavior) socioemotional skills were related to the likelihood of grade repetition, while controlling for academic abilities and student demographic variables. Findings showed that the relatively youngest kindergarteners were approximately five times more likely to be retained compared to the oldest student and that a child's approach to learning (e.g., attentiveness, task persistence) contributed as much as a child's academic abilities in relation to the likelihood of repeating a grade.
... Shepard (1995) pleads for a more careful consideration of the respective attitudes of teachers in future research. A majority of teachers seem to share positive attitudes towards the effectiveness of retention (e.g., Paul, 1996;Pini, 1991;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Among others, Tomchin and Impara (1992) deal with the criteria on which the teachers base their retention decisions. ...
... A majority of teachers seem to share positive attitudes towards the effectiveness of retention (e.g., Paul, 1996;Pini, 1991;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Among others, Tomchin and Impara (1992) deal with the criteria on which the teachers base their retention decisions. The most frequent criteria are poor academic performance, low ability, lack of maturity, and lack of effort, but no clear, shared rule emerges: Teachers apply grade retention for reasons that vary from one teacher to another. ...
... Evaluation of teacher attitude towards the efficiency of retention was also presented along a 4-level Likert scale (not at all efficient to very efficient). Items presented in the ''criteria for retention'' and ''causes of failure'' lists were chosen according to literature specific to retention (e.g., Tomchin & Impara, 1992), to teacher-attribution literature (e.g., Georgiou, Christou, Stavrinides, & Panaoura, 2002), psycho-educational decision-making literature (e.g., Andrews, Wisniewski, & Mulick, 1997), and general literature about the factors of success in school (including structural factors; e.g., Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993; for details, see Bonvin, 2005). Questionnaires were pretested and factor analysed. ...
... An obvious reason for teachers to apply grade retention is that they believe it is effective. This belief is indeed true for the majority of teachers in most studies, although answers show high variability (Miller et al, 1980;Byrnes & Yamamoto, 1986;Pini, 1991;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). The most important criteria for retention mentioned by teachers in Tomchin & Impara's (1992) study are low achievement, low ability, immaturity and lack of effort (see also Pini, 1991). ...
... This belief is indeed true for the majority of teachers in most studies, although answers show high variability (Miller et al, 1980;Byrnes & Yamamoto, 1986;Pini, 1991;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). The most important criteria for retention mentioned by teachers in Tomchin & Impara's (1992) study are low achievement, low ability, immaturity and lack of effort (see also Pini, 1991). Here too, high variability is to be found (teachers opt for retention for different reasons). ...
... Items presented in the 'criteria for retention' and 'causes of failure' lists were chosen according to literature specific to retention (e.g. Tomchin & Impara, 1992), to teacher-attribution literature (e.g. Georgiou et al, 2002), psycho-educational decision-making literature (e.g. ...
... Another characteristic that can be attributed to EL students is that they are retained in grade more often than English-proficient peers (USDE 2016;Tillman et al., 2006;Tingle et al., 2012;Willson & Hughes, 2006;Winsler et al., 2012). Though the reasons for this overidentification are unclear, teachers and administrators cite academics most often as a reason for retaining students (Bowman, 2005;Range et al., 2012;Tomchin & Impara, 1992), especially since language is an asset for both learning and demonstrating knowledge in school. Legally, students cannot be identified for retention based upon their EL status. ...
... Preventing grade retention for English learners is a systematic change and cannot happen without planning and education at various levels. Teachers make grade retention decisions based on intuition more often than scholarly findings (Silberglitt et al., 2006b;Bartels, 2003;Tomchin & Impara, 1992); one study indicated that only 9% of teachers making retention decisions attributed their choices to research (Witmer et al., 2004). At the same time, retention decisions are most often made in hopes of improving academic performance (Range et al., 2012;Rafoth & Carey, 1991). ...
Grade retention, the practice of holding a student back in the same grade, has been a controversial topic in the United States for decades. English learners, a growing population in US schools, are consistently identified for grade retention more often than their English-only counterparts. The purpose of this study is to test the impact of grade retention on a set of language learning outcomes (reading, listening,
and writing) for English language learners over a seven-year period. The data was collected in a large urban school district in the south-central region that serves predominantly Spanish speaking natives. Retained students were matched with non-retained students for a quasi-experimental control group using Propensity Score
Matching (PSM) techniques. Multilevel growth models, with time (level 1) nested within students (level 2), were applied to these two groups to estimate the effect of grade retention on their longitudinal trajectory for each language learning outcome. We found that after 7 years, matched-promoted students had higher levels of English proficiency than retained peers in all three domains: listening, reading, and
writing.
... Several studies have tried to describe and understand teachers' beliefs about grade retention (Bonvin, 2003;Crahay et al., 2013Crahay et al., , 2014Range et al., 2011Range et al., , 2012Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Walton, 2018;Young et al., 2019). At the same time, theoretical and empirical studies have recognised that teachers' beliefs are part of a complex multidimensional system where several beliefs are interconnected (Buehl & Beck, 2015;Fives & Buehl, 2012;Rokeach, 1968). ...
... Beliefs differ from knowledge in that they are not consensual and depend more on evaluative and affective components, including a great deal of episodic material from personal experiences or the individual's culture (Skott, 2015). Studies about grade retention beliefs have identified that many teachers, particularly those who teach in the first years of schooling, believe that repeating a grade brings several benefits to students in terms of learning and competence development, having positive beliefs about their effectiveness (Bonvin, 2003;Crahay et al., 2013Crahay et al., , 2014Range et al., 2012;Ribeiro et al., 2018;Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer et al., 2004). Likewise, studies developed by Rodrigues et al. (2017), Santana (2019), and Santos and Monteiro (2021) observed that most Portuguese teachers consider that grade retention has more advantages than disadvantages. ...
Teachers have a complex and multidimensional system of socially constructed beliefs that influence their professional practice. Based on self-reported beliefs of 449 Portuguese primary teachers we explored the connectivity between grade retention beliefs and other psycho-pedagogical beliefs using a structural equation model. We also studied the psychological centrality of grade retention beliefs using a latent profile analysis. The results indicated that teachers’ grade retention beliefs are maintained within their beliefs system with a high degree of connectivity and centrality, especially when shared by their community. These findings may have implications to the educational policies that aim to reduce retention rates.
... Também são salientadas as relações entre retenção, evasão e os desdobramentos das trajetórias escolares (PETERSON; DEGRACIE; AYABEGRISSOM;SHEPARD, 1989;KACZALA, 1991;MORRIS, 1993;DAUBER;ALEXANDER; ENTEWISLE, 1993;HATTIE, 2012). Mencionamse, ainda, as atitudes de professores, gestores escolares e familiares acerca das expectativas e probabilidades de sucesso ou fracasso escolar, que são largamente conhecidas, há várias décadas(BYRNES, 1989;TOMCHIN;IMPARA, 1992). De tais estudos, emergiu a clareza acerca da diferenciação dos perfis dos retidos e evadidos (trajetórias irregulares) e os não retidos (trajetórias regulares), bem como a maior compreensão da relação entre retenção e evasão (MEISELS; LIAW, 1993; DAUBER; ALEXANDER; ENTWISLE, 1993; LIDDELL; RAE, 2001; STEARNS et al., 2007). ...
... Também são salientadas as relações entre retenção, evasão e os desdobramentos das trajetórias escolares (PETERSON; DEGRACIE; AYABEGRISSOM;SHEPARD, 1989;KACZALA, 1991;MORRIS, 1993;DAUBER;ALEXANDER; ENTEWISLE, 1993;HATTIE, 2012). Mencionamse, ainda, as atitudes de professores, gestores escolares e familiares acerca das expectativas e probabilidades de sucesso ou fracasso escolar, que são largamente conhecidas, há várias décadas(BYRNES, 1989;TOMCHIN;IMPARA, 1992). De tais estudos, emergiu a clareza acerca da diferenciação dos perfis dos retidos e evadidos (trajetórias irregulares) e os não retidos (trajetórias regulares), bem como a maior compreensão da relação entre retenção e evasão (MEISELS; LIAW, 1993; DAUBER; ALEXANDER; ENTWISLE, 1993; LIDDELL; RAE, 2001; STEARNS et al., 2007). ...
Este trabalho investigou o transcorrer de um conjunto de trajetórias escolares mediante a antecipação da idade de ingresso no ensino fundamental e a ampliação do tempo de permanência nesta etapa de ensino, instituídos respectivamente pelas Leis n.º 11.114/2005 e n.º 11.274/2006. Assim, foram analisadas trajetórias percorridas de 2006 a 2014, as quais integraram a primeira coorte de alunos de uma determinada escola pública municipal, totalmente submetida às referidas leis. Buscou-se examinar o fluxo dos alunos ao longo desta etapa de escolarização básica, considerando que, no horizonte dessas leis, estão a redução das desigualdades educacionais, especialmente aquelas que se manifestam por meio da reprovação escolar. As trajetórias foram acompanhadas através de diários de classe e atas de resultado final. Concluiu-se que, apesar dos estímulos legais, o fluxo das trajetórias escolares, sobretudo percorridas em contexto social desfavorável, demonstrou-se severamente comprometido pelas reprovações.
... Shavelson and Stern 1981). Tomchin and Impara (1992) examined the factors that teachers consider when making retention decisions both by explicitly asking them and by asking them to decide whether to retain or promote hypothetical students based on written vignette descriptions. Both studies revealed that academic achievement was the most important factor, followed by student maturity and student ability. ...
... Bonvin (2003) showed that teachers holding a positive attitude towards retention were more likely to retain students than teachers with a negative attitude. Teachers' attitudes were also assessed by Tomchin and Impara (1992). They found that almost 98 % of the teachers in their survey disagreed with the statement that children should never be retained and about 82 % indicated that retention can be seen as a positive step as it would prevent students from facing daily failure in the next higher grade. ...
Based on a large longitudinal sample (N=9031) of Luxemburgish secondary school
students, this study examined whether variables reflecting the sociodemographic background
of the students (gender, nationality and socioeconomic status) as well as the school track
proved to be predictors of grade retention. These possible predictors of grade retention were
tested against the effect of students’ achievements, represented by their grade point average
(GPA). By using Cox regression analysis, we could show that even when the effects of
sociodemographic variables were qualified by students’ achievement, male students, immigrant
students, students from schools of lower socioeconomic status (SES) districts and
students attending the lower track were shown to have a higher risk of experiencing grade
retention in comparison to female students, native students, students from schools of higher
SES districts or students attending the higher track. The results obtained are discussed with
regard to theories of judgment formation drawn from social psychology.
... Originating from the Early intervention theory, the practice is based on the idea that granting a child more time to develop will prevent failure and frustration in later academic life (Plummer & Graziano, 1987;Smith & Shepard, 1988). It is believed that a second chance at learning the curriculum will ensure mastery of necessary basic knowledge and skills for learning higher level content, and may therefore improve the academic achievement of kindergarten repeaters in the long run (Tomchin & Impara, 1992). The idea of early intervention is in line with the Rate of return to investment curve, as developed by Carneiro and Heckman (2003). ...
... Finally, the different timing of experiencing broken peer relationship may explain the results. For example, Tomchin and Impara (1992) argue that early retention bears less of a negative impact for children's psychosocial development compared to later retention. ...
When a child does not seem to be ready for primary school, a popular practice is to grant the child more time by letting it repeat kindergarten. However, previous quasi-experimental research demonstrated negative, though diminishing, effects of kindergarten retention on academic learning during the first years of primary school. The present study extends the existing evidence by addressing children?s post-treatment school trajectories. Analysing data from a large-scale longitudinal study, we find that, on average, kindergarten repeaters would perform better for mathematics until five years later, were they promoted to first grade instead. However, if promoted instead, kindergarten repeaters would also have a higher likelihood to be retained in first grade and, under that condition, have a lower growth rate and score lower for mathematics five years later.
... The term and concept of grade retention emerged in 1860 (Wood, 1960) and the main aim was to improve school performance by allowing underachieving students more time to develop academic skills (Wood, 1960). Tomchin and Impara (1992) opine that three types of decisions allow academicians to allow a student to repeat or progress a class: (a) the result itself; (b) age; and (c) background factors. Retention was generally accepted by teachers, parents and administrators until a certain time. ...
This research study was conducted to explore the grade retention practices in private schools of Karachi. The study focused on the impact of grade retention and investigated its effectiveness in terms of its merits versus demerits. The context of the study was six private schools of Karachi and scorecards of the failed students from the selected schools, who were in grade six, seven and eight. To achieve the objectives of the study, a mixed method was undertaken to collect the data. The quantitative data were derived from the scorecards of 84 students of two years, summing to a total of 168 scorecards of 84 failed students, who repeated the class in the same school. Paired sample t-test, one sample t-test and two-way MANOVA were applied to analyze the data. The researcher conducted interviews of six teachers and three principals. The interviews were transcribed and decoded, followed by categorization to explore the themes that emerged. The most crucial finding of the research is that retention and social promotion are ineffective solutions for the struggling learners.
... The scale used for PE to measure the level of empowerment perceived among the executives was adapted from 10 items of the scale of Menon (1999) and Spreitzer (1995), to analyze with 4 dimensions like meaning, impact, competence and self-determination. The scale used to measure RPs utilizes 12 personalized items (Tomchin and Impara, 1992;Kim et al., 2012) to measure the extent which executives were involved with and dedicated to be remaining in a particular organization. The scale comprised of four dimensions of work culture, work support and recognition, compensation and rewards, and compatibility and autonomy. ...
Purpose
This study aims to explore the relationship between work–life balance and employee retention by examining the mediating role of psychological empowerment among software firms based in India.
Design/methodology/approach
The study collected 283 responses by using a structured questionnaire and interview method. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to validate the hypothesized research model for examining the consistency and sturdiness of the study variables by applying AMOS 20.
Findings
The result reveals that psychological empowerment partially mediates the relationship between work–life balance and the retention of professionals. This indicates that a high degree of psychological empowerment strengthens the relations between work–life balance and the retention of professionals.
Research limitations/implications
The research outlined a best-fit model of psychological empowerment as a partial mediator among work–life balance and the retention of professionals. The study presents a set of sensible and practical aspects where work–life balance and retention of professionals can aid in developing and generating commitment to the organization which could offer new insights for software professionals, managers and practitioners.
Originality/value
This study emphasized that psychological empowerment helps in enhancing dedication, loyalty, integrity, allegiance and trustworthiness among employees, thus playing a role between work–life balance and the retention of professionals.
... Os estudos sobre as crenças relacionadas à reprovação têm identificado que uma grande parte dos professores, particularmente aqueles que lecionam os primeiros anos de escolaridade, acredita que a reprovação traz vários benefícios aos alunos em termos de aprendizagem e desenvolvimento de competências, apresentando crenças positivas sobre sua eficácia (Tomchin e Impara, 1992;Bonvin, 2003;Witmer, Hoffman e Nottis, 2004;Range et al., 2012;Crahay, Marbaise e Issaieva, 2013;Ribeiro et al., 2018). Essas investigações indicam que os professores consideram que a repro-vação é necessária para o futuro sucesso escolar dos alunos, que é mais indicada nos primeiros anos de escolaridade (pois terá um menor impacto negativo na autoestima e no autoconceito das crianças), e que é especialmente aconselhada quando o aluno é considerado imaturo. ...
Este estudo procurou investigar as crenças de professores e futuros professores-estudantes de cursos de formação de professores do 1º ciclo do ensino básico em Portugal relacionadas à reprovação no 2º ano de escolaridade. Participaram 137 professores em serviço e 99 estudantes em formação (idades entre 19 e 65 anos, 96,2% do sexo feminino), que responderam a um questionário sobre os efeitos acadêmicos gerais e socioafetivos da reprovação, bem como os efeitos da reprovação precoce. Os resultados mostraram uma grande variabilidade nas crenças, com os professores em exercício apresentando crenças mais positivas que os estudantes. Existe também uma associação entre as crenças dos professores e as suas práticas. As crenças parecem ter um impacto na prática docente, conseguindo sobrepor-se às políticas educacionais e às recomendações científicas.
... This is in line with previous research that shows that (…) teachers at all grade levels believe retention is an acceptable school practice that prevents students from facing daily failure and motivates them to work harder. (TOMCHIN;IMPARA, 1992, p. 199). ...
The present research aims to understand which conceptions and beliefs Portuguese teachers have about assessment in compulsory school, and whether if their beliefs are in line with the guidelines on national education policy. Moreover, it aims to understand why Portuguese teachers use grade repetition as a common resource when it is not scientifically recommended. To do so, a focus group was conducted, and a survey carried out with a sample of Portuguese teachers' population, with a 95% confidence level and a margin of error of 2.3%. Those procedures led to the conclusion that Portuguese teachers have personal beliefs towards assessment and grade repetition that have an impact on their practice and succeed in superimposing themselves on national educational policies and scientific recommendations.
... The SiBO data provided a comparatively comprehensive set of potential confounders of first-grade retention. Information was available on 171 characteristics prior to retention: 68 child characteristics (e.g., child demographics, academic achievement in the last pre-school year and first grade, psychosocial functioning in the last pre-school year and first grade, parental school involvement), 59 class characteristics (e.g., teacher demographics, class composition, instructional practices), and 44 school characteristics (e.g., principal demographics, school composition, school culture, school policy), among which almost all the variables that have been shown in prior research to be related to early-grade retention versus promotion, children's psychosocial functioning, or both (Andrews, Wisniewski, & Mulick, 1997;Gadeyne, Onghena, & Ghesquiere, 2008;Georgiou, Christou, Stavrinides, & Panaoura, 2002;Grant & Richardson, 2010;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Data were obtained from official records, achievement tests (Dudal, 2004;2005 ...
Educational scientists have the common goal of investigating what works in education, what the effects are of a particular treatment (e.g., intervention, program, practice). Most of them rely on observational studies. However, large differences may exist between the treated and control subjects (i.e., selection bias), which results in biased estimates of treatment effects. Clearly, this makes causal claims suspect. In this seminar, the use of propensity scores is proposed. I will present (1) the theoretical concept (definition, properties, assumptions), (2) how to implement it and (3) an application to first-grade retention.
... Stearns, Moller, Blau, and Potochnick (2007) find that the educational experiences of Black students, including educational pessimism, achievement scores, and misbehaviors, are more predictive of gradelevel retention than demographic variables. Tomchin and Impara (1992) find that teacher beliefs about a student will influence whether they are retained or not. And LiCalsi, Ozek, and Figlio (2017) show that greater maternal education reduces the likelihood of grade-level retention, even when the student is below the mandatory cutoff for promotion; this result is explained by teachers emphasizing nontest score criteria for students of well-educated mothers. ...
We characterize the extent to which Black-White gaps for multiple educational outcomes are linked across school districts in the United States. Gaps in disciplinary action, grade-level retention, classification into special education and Gifted and Talented, and Advanced Placement course-taking are large in magnitude and correlated. Racial differences in family income and parent education are strikingly consistent predictors of these gaps, and districts with large gaps in one outcome are likely to have large gaps in another. Socioeconomic and segregation variables explain 1.7 to 3.5 times more variance for achievement relative to nonachievement outcomes. Systemic patterns of racial socioeconomic inequality drive inequalities across multiple educational outcomes; however, discretionary policies at local levels are more influential for nonachievement outcomes.
... Indeed, grade retention has consistently been ranked by early adolescents among the most stressful life events that could happen to them (Anderson, Jimerson, & Whipple, 2005;Yamamoto & Byrnes, 1987). Reasons evoked by teachers for using grade retention vary widely, and although some of them are merely constrained to apply administrative policies, many believe that retention will help students do better academically (Tomchin & Impara, 1992;Witmer, Hoffman, & Nottis, 2004). We sought to understand its impact on aspects of students' life other than academic achievement by using modern analytic techniques designed to assess intervention effects. ...
This study tested whether grade retention at the transition into secondary school had a significant impact on adolescent psychosocial adjustment. A quasi-experimental design was used in which propensity score matching was implemented. Univariate ANCOVAs were subsequently run on a subsample of 181 students enrolled in one typical secondary school in the French-speaking region of Belgium (M = 12.91 years, 55.8% girls). These analyses revealed that retained students experienced decreases in self-esteem, perceived parental support for competence and involvement in the relationships with their parents, and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation variables. Retained students also failed to show the decrease in delinquent and aggressive behaviors and social withdrawal that was observed in matched promoted students. In sum, grade retention appears to be detrimental to early-adolescence psychosocial adjustment. To decrease rates of grade retention among adolescents, change is needed in parents’, school staff’s, and policymakers’ preconceptions that the practice has overall positive outcomes.
... Classrooms provide multiple cues of children's relative abilities, including teachers' differential responses to students' responses, public praise and criticism, length of time provided for children to answer a question, graded assignments, and student grouping based on ability (Brophy, 1983) To support this idea, research on the effects of grade retention has found that retained children improve in achievement relative to their younger grade mates (Anderson et al., 2005). The retained child is also likely to improve more than promoted students in the short term in meeting classroom expectations for behavioral and social competencies (Tomchin and Impara, 1992). ...
One of the great problems of Ethiopia for the educational arena is retention. Averagely 8.07% of each year of the secondary education students is repeated due to lack of achievement in this country. The percentage of retention in a country shows what proportion of students is regularly repeated in the same grade and who are, therefore, committing different crimes and misbehaved behaviors. Grade retention predicts many negative student outcomes: the frustration and humiliation associated with repeating the curriculum, combined with one’s physical size, may result in an increase in aggression and oppositional behavior. The main purpose of this study was to investigate some of the causes that contribute to grade nine students’ grade retention in general secondary schools of Dabat district. It has attempted to identify the major factors under two headings: in-school and out-of-school factors to present separate area of intervention. In order to attain the objectives, the study was carried out in two general secondary schools which were selected using comprehensive sampling techniques. The study involved 264(M=106 & F=158) grade repeaters and 44 teachers and 2 principals. The data gathered were analyzed using percentage, mean, Spearmen rank order correlation coefficient and t-test. Based on the result of the analysis, among the in-school factors, the highest percentages were observed for difficulty of language of instruction, students’ failure to study hard, poor quality of teaching, lack of guidance and counseling and frequent absenteeism of students were in-school related. On the other hand, low level of family income, parent (pupils) health problem, lack of parents support and child labor were identified as the major out-of-school causes for grade retention in grade nine secondary schools. It was also found out that the combined effect of both in-school and out-of-school factors was important in explaining students’ grade retentions in the secondary schools of the district. The incidence of the problem is relatively higher among girls than among boys.
... The practice of grade retention is generally based on the belief that an extra year in that grade will give struggling students the opportunity to master content that they failed to master the first year, and to mature, thereby increasing their academic achievement level (Bonvin, Bless, & Schuepbach, 2008;Pagani, Tremblay, Vitaro, Boulerice, & McDuff, 2001). Teachers who favour this practice, in particular, consider it reduces the likelihood for future school failure and supports the development of immature students (Haberman & Dill, 1993;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). However, the decision for retention in kindergarten is more commonly attributed to behavioural problems. ...
The study compared teachers’ and parents’ views about elementary school children’s psychosocial adjustment with and without a history of early grade retention. The sample included retained and non-retained students currently in Grades Two and Four (age range 7.5 to 11.6 years) in Cypriot public schools. The retained students experienced early grade retention either in kindergarten or Grade One and, therefore, were one year older than their current classmates. Both parents and teachers of all children completed a psychosocial adjustment inventory designed to assess social, emotional, and school competence as well as behaviour problems. The findings indicated important differences between teachers and parents in their evaluation of children’s psychosocial adjustment, but notable similarities in consistently evaluating early-retained children lower on all aspects of adjustment. Teachers evaluated all students lower than parents in terms of behaviour, school, and social competence. Both groups, however, considered retained students lower in social and school competence regardless of grade level. The implications of these findings in relation to evaluation aspects of psychosocial adjustment and the practice of early-grade retention are discussed.
... Y interviennent aussi des éléments connexes ou contextuels: l'histoire individuelle et/ou familiale de l'enfant, la situation actuelle de la famille, la disponibilité et le niveau de formation des parents et/ou des grands-parents, le contexte scolaire et notamment les caractéristiques du collègue qui pourrait accueillir l'élève en difficulté. De même, les enseignants auraient d'autant plus tendance à recourir au redoublement qu'ils adhèrent à une conception maturationniste du développement (Crahay, 2007;Smith, 1990;Tanner & Combs, 1993;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Bref, le jugement conduisant les enseignants à se prononcer pour ou contre le redoublement d'un élève se révèle complexe par son modus operandi intrinsèquement multidimensionnel: avant de conclure, les enseignants prennent en compte une constellation d'éléments d'origine et de types divers. ...
Décider le redoublement d’un élève relève d’une décision complexe car il semble bien que ce soit un ensemble d’éléments qui conduit l’enseignant à considérer cette mesure comme celle qu’il convient de prendre. C’est cette complexité que cet article tente de saisir et d’analyser. Ce qui est proposé ici, c’est d’analyser plus finement l’action (processus et formation) qui conduit à ce jugement. Quels constituants fondent le jugement aboutissant à une décision de redoublement et quels poids prennent ces différents constituants dans la décision finale? Les données empiriques proposées sont issues d’entretiens menés auprès de 41 enseignants de 6e primaire dans le canton de Genève au cours de l’année scolaire 2007-2008. Partant pour un même enseignant de décisions effectives tantôt de redoublement tantôt de promotion, ces entretiens tentent de renouer la trame décisionnelle du jugement in situ. La question de la qualification de ce jugement comme «professionnel» est alors traitée dans la discussion finale.
... Regarding early nonpromotion in Flanders, this is the next step in the present research project. International research, however, reveals that something more is needed to fill tbe gap between the scientific knowledge on nonpromotion effectiveness and the actual nonpromotion school practices (Carlton & Winsler, 1999;Tanner & Galis, 1997;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). ...
Educational research has found few benefits of prepnmary school nonpromotion; nevertheless, in many countries the practice remains quite common. The aim of this study is to extend knowledge regarding preprimary nonpromotion via investigation of a wide set of child and family characteristics deemed predictive and discriminative of different postkindergarten nonpromotion alternatives in Flanders, Belgium. The study participants were 3,633 children (3,375 were promoted to first grade, 138 repeated kindergarten, 71 transferred to special education, 49 attended a transition room). Child preacademic scores and psychosocial functioning were relatively strong predictors for promotion versus nonpromotion. Child and family demographic characteristics were more decisive regarding the choice between retention, special education, and a transition program. The study raises questions about nonpromotion practices in terms of selectivity mechanisms, prevention, and educational alternatives.
... Decisions to place children in a multi-year track are made largely by teachers and administrators with the agreement of parents (Byrnes, 1984;Cross, 1984;Diamond, Reagan, & Bandyk, 2000;Tanner & Galis, 1997;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). The large number of children retained in kindergarten each year despite the evidence to support retention as an effective intervention speaks to the intuitive attraction of retention as an attempt at providing a fair method for catching children up. ...
... Y interviennent aussi des éléments connexes ou contextuels: l'histoire individuelle et/ou familiale de l'enfant, la situation actuelle de la famille, la disponibilité et le niveau de formation des parents et/ou des grands-parents, le contexte scolaire et notamment les caractéristiques du collègue qui pourrait accueillir l'élève en difficulté. De même, les enseignants auraient d'autant plus tendance à recourir au redoublement qu'ils adhèrent à une conception maturationniste du développement (Crahay, 2007;Smith, 1990;Tanner & Combs, 1993;Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Bref, le jugement conduisant les enseignants à se prononcer pour ou contre le redoublement d'un élève se révèle complexe par son modus operandi intrinsèquement multidimensionnel: avant de conclure, les enseignants prennent en compte une constellation d'éléments d'origine et de types divers. ...
... Those retained are often the most vulnerable students, and retention increases the likelihood that these students will later dropout of school . Although many teachers, administrators, and the public at large (Bulla & Gooden, 2003;Byrnes, 1989;Smith, 1989;Tomchin & Impara, 1992) assume teacher-based retention will help low-performing students, instead it greatly increases the likelihood that many of these students will retreat from educational experiences. ...
The author uses Maxwell's method of literature reviews for educational research to focus on literature relevant to test-based grade retention policies to make the following argument: although some studies have documented average gains in academic achievement through test-based grade retention, there is increasing evidence that these gains have occurred by limiting the educational opportunities for the most vulnerable of students. The author begins by briefly synthesizing research on high-stakes testing policies and teacher-based retention in general and then examines studies that have evaluated specific test-based retention policies in Chicago, Florida, New York City, Georgia, Texas, Wisconsin, and Louisiana. Drawing on Bourdieu and Passeron's concept of reproduction in education, the author shows how testing policies have contributed to class selection and exclusion in U.S. schools. Short-term gains produced by test-based retention policies fade over time with students again falling behind but with a larger likelihood of dropping out of school. These unintended consequences are most prevalent among ethnic minority and impoverished students. The author concludes by providing alternatives for ending social promotion that do not include grade retention as well as suggestions for further researching the role such policies play in perpetuating class inequities.
... Retention is sometimes believed to increase children's knowledge about basic skills, resulting in greater academic achievement over time (Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Yet existing research generally indicates that retention lowers academic achievement (Jimerson, 2001). ...
We analyzed two nationally representative, longitudinal data sets of U.S. children to identify risk factors for persistent mathematics difficulties (PMD). Results indicated that children from low socioeconomic households are at elevated risk of PMD at 48 and 60 months of age, as are children with cognitive delays, identified developmental delays or disabilities, and vocabulary difficulties. In contrast, children attending preschool either in Head Start or non-Head Start classrooms are at initially lower risk of PMD. Kindergarten-aged children experiencing either low socioeconomic status or mathematics difficulties are at greatest risk for PMD across third, fifth, and eighth grades. Also at risk for PMD between third and eighth grades are children displaying reading difficulties or inattention and other learning-related behaviors problems, children with identified disabilities, and those who are retained. Educationally relevant and potentially malleable factors for decreasing young children's risk for PMD may include increasing children's access to preschool, decreasing their risk of experiencing vocabulary or reading difficulties, and avoiding use of grade retention.
... Research on LRS and grade retention is sparse. Interviews with elementary teachers reveal that the large majority of teachers believe that retention in the early grades is effective for "immature" children (Tomchin & Impara, 1992). Although immaturity was not defined in this study, the term is often used by educators to refer to poor learning-related behaviors such as impulsivity, inattentiveness, and poor social skills. ...
The authors investigated the differential effect of retention on the development of academic achievement from grade one to five on children retained in first grade over six years. Growth Mixture Model (GMM) analyses supported the existence of two distinct trajectory groups of retained children for both reading and math among 125 ethnically and linguistically diverse retained children. For each achievement domain, a low intercept/higher growth group (Class 1) and a high intercept/slower growth group (Class 2) were identified. Furthermore, Class 1 children were found to score lower on several measures of learning related skills (LRS) variables and were characterized by having poorer self-regulation and less prosocial behaviors, compared to the other group. Findings suggest that some children appear to benefit more from retention, in terms of higher reading and math growth, than others. Study findings have implications for selecting children into retention intervention and early intervention.
... • Welche Determinanten sowohl auf Seiten der betroffenen Schülerinnen und Schüler als auch auf Seiten der Lehrperson beeinflussen, nebst den offensichtlich festgestell- Pini 1991;Tomchin/Impara 1992;Paul 1996). Shepard (1995) plädiert für eine vermehrte Berücksichtigung der diesbezüglichen Lehrereinstellungen in künftigen Forschungen. ...
A educação inclusiva tem sido concebida como uma resposta de valorização de habilidades e necessidades do ser humano (Mittler, 2003), através de uma construção do conhecimento entendido como meio de socialização, fator de relações de equidade e respeito pela diversidade, e caminho de acesso à cidadania e a direitos comuns a todos. No presente estudo, pretende-se avaliar em que medida alguns fatores do contexto escolar podem contribuir para a criação de condições de inclusão e de redução das desigualdades socioculturais dentro do contexto educativo e fora dele.
Buscando compreender as competências docentes que favoreçam o processo de inclusão nas Instituições de Ensino Superior, foi realizado um estudo empírico objetivou identificar as competências de liderança transformacional como competências docentes e compreender seu poder de inclusão considerando o professor como líder transformador da realidade educacional e social, capaz de transformar a realidade estabelecida ao longo dos tempos. Esta pesquisa empírica teve como base um modelo de liderança (Parreira & Lorga Da Silva, 2014) baseado no conceito de tripla competência (Katz, 1974) e na sua conjugação com perspectiva da complexidade (Gödel, 1931/1986) como condição necessária para um desempenho eficaz da liderança. A partir da pesquisa realizada pode-se concluir
que o professor dotado das competências apresentadas, que são características da liderança transformacional, pode atuar com eficácia como agente de inclusão social estimulando os discentes do ensino superior. Não cabendo a este a redução das desigualdades, conforme a compreensão dos respondentes desta pesquisa.
Across the world, numerous students are being bullied at school. Bullying is often caused by a power imbalance between students. Therefore, identifying potential sources of such a power imbalance can prevent school bullying from happening. Based on the labelling theory, we expect that grade retention can lead to such a power imbalance and, therefore, increase the likelihood of being bullied at school. Hence, this study examines the association between grade retention and self-reported victimisation. We also expect that retainees will be less likely to become a victim of school bullying in schools and countries with a high number of other retainees. If true, this would signal a moderating effect of both school- and country retention composition on the association between grade retention and victimisation. The contextualised impact of grade retention upon victimisation is assessed by cross-national multilevel analyses on PISA2018 data (25 countries; 8,039 schools; 159,412 students). Overall, our findings indicate that being retained in primary and/or secondary education is associated with higher levels of victimisation, while retainees suffer from more victimisation in countries with a low number of other retainees. In contrast to our expectations, however, we did not find such a moderation effect of school retention composition.
Purpose: A work-life balance leads employees' texture towards job satisfaction for they can well-work whereas in the institutions; consequently they do not require to be hampered by outside problems. In the recent competitive world, among the companies, it is aggregate along with the global economic growth. This study intended to discover the impact of quality of work-life on employee retention and job satisfaction with the moderation of job performance. Methods: This study has 383 as a sample by using a simple random sample technique. A structured measurement scale was used. The researcher framed the conceptual framework with the support of literature. Basic analysis was tested and multiple linear regression was used to validate the constructed hypotheses. Findings: The result found that there is an impact of quality of work-life on employee retention and job satisfaction among the faculty members in higher education institutions. Job performance plays a moderation role in the relationship among the variables. Quality of the work-life and employee retention leads to better satisfaction among the employees.
Nombre de recherches ont traité de l’inefficacité du redoublement dans les pays qui y ont recours et, dans ces mêmes pays, les politiques de lutte contre le redoublement ne produisent pas les effets escomptés. Face à ces constats, on peut penser qu’ un dialogue de sourds (Dubet, 2002) s’est installé entre les mondes incriminés : le monde de l’école et le monde des scientifiques. Une des visées de la recherche présentée dans cet article consiste à penser ce problème dans une approche collaborative entre enseignants et chercheurs. Il s’agit d’initier une réflexion partagée sur le sens, le rôle, la fonction du « maintien » en troisième maternelle en Belgique francophone ; d’envisager et expérimenter des pratiques pédagogiques alternatives. Une année de rencontres mensuelles entre huit équipes d’enseignants volontaires et des chercheurs a permis, non seulement, d’infléchir le recours au maintien, mais également d’initier de nouvelles pratiques d’enseignement, de redonner un sens à l’action pédagogique et de « libérer » les compétences professionnelles des enseignants .
Uma prática pedagógica controversa utilizada com alunos que apresentam dificuldades
académicas é a retenção escolar (RE), sendo esta uma medida que, de acordo com a legislação em vigor, deveria ser aplicada “a título excecional”. Apesar disso, no 2.º ano de escolaridade, as taxas de retenção em Portugal continental (8.9%) e na Região Autónoma da Madeira (RAM, 11.2%) são elevadas indicando que a decisão de retenção é mais frequente do que um carácter de excecionalidade faria prever. Este projeto de
investigação pretende compreender a forma como a decisão de reter um aluno é tomada na prática educativa pelos professores de 2.º ano de escolaridade na RAM. Será feita uma abordagem geral ao insucesso escolar em Portugal no 2º ano de escolaridade e em particular na RAM e aos fatores envolvidos na tomada de decisão. Serão apresentados os princípios metodológicos e métodos a utilizar nos três estudos delineados para cumprir os objetivos de investigação, nomeadamente: 1) um estudo correlacional que pretende compreender as crenças dos profissionais face à RE, as relações entre estas crenças e as taxas de retenção da escola, e os elementos que consideram mais relevantes na tomada de decisão da RE; 2) um estudo comparativo transversal que pretende determinar quais são as características dos alunos que diferenciam os alunos retidos dos alunos que transitaram e se os elementos considerados pelos professores na tomada de decisão da retenção identificados no estudo 1 são coerentes com as características dos alunos efetivamente retidos; 3) um estudo qualitativo para compreender de forma mais profunda os procedimentos adotados na
tomada de decisão da RE. Estes estudos permitirão compreender os elementos envolvidos na tomada de decisão da RE, permitindo detetar os obstáculos presentes nesta fase do processo avaliativo e superá-los eficazmente, melhorando a qualidade da decisão da RE, diminuindo fontes de desigualdade social e alcançando o caracter de excecionalidade que a legislação exige desta prática pedagógica.
Grade retention, the practice of requiring a student to remain in the same grade the following year, disproportionately affects students with sociodemographic risk and facing academic challenges. Each year, the United States spends $20 billion on retention and two million children are retained. Extant studies examining early elementary grade retention generally focus on short-term effects and academic outcomes; little is known about long-term effects on academic and psychosocial outcomes in the middle grades. The current study uses propensity score methods and a national data set to estimate the effect of first- or second-grade retention on academic achievement and psychosocial outcomes six or seven years later. By comparing students who were retained to students who were similar on observed characteristics but otherwise promoted, we generate causal estimates that show a statistically significant negative effect of retention on reading achievement. Significant and robust effects were not consistently detected for other academic or psychosocial outcomes. As grade retention is a widely used educational intervention, implications for its effectiveness from a policy and practice perspective are discussed.
Our goals in this study were to examine (a) the degree to which teacher perceptions of children’s behavior in kindergarten (averaged across fall and spring for each child) predict retention by Grade 5 and (b) whether these relationships are moderated by student race, gender, or socioeconomic status (SES). Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998‐99 (ECLS‐K) were used to examine how Externalizing Problem Behavior (EPB; e.g., aggression, defiance) and Weak Approaches To Learning (WATL; low enthusiasm for/engagement in learning) were related to retention among children identified as Black or White ( N = 6,750). Results showed that both types of behavior ratings were significant predictors of retention. There was a 46% increase in the odds of retention for every one‐unit increase in EPB (OR = 1.46, p < 0.001) and a 261% increase in the odds of retention for every one‐unit increase in WATL (OR = 3.61, p < 0.001). Gender moderated the relationship between EPB and retention and WATL and retention. Students who were female with EPB or WATL were at higher risk for being retained than their male peers. Implications for educators, researchers, and policymakers are discussed.
The present study was an investigation into retention effects on parental aspirations for students with learning disabilities. Results indicated that retention occurs twice as frequently for students with learning disabilities as for those in the general student population. Parents of retained students with learning disabilities tend to have lower educational as-pirations for thier children than do parents of nonretained students. Implications for use of retention as a prereferral strategy are discussed.
Previously, the literature was replete with the “bad” news of the Black male’s aberrant personality, lack of role fulfillment, and disenfranchisement from family and work (i.e., Gibbs, 1994; Polite, l994). Historically, the research arena has been particularly narrow, highlighting endless failure in the lives of African American
men and boys. However, more insidious than the negative way in which these paradigms emerged and took hold was the simplicity with which previous researchers attempted to
describe their subjects (e.g., Frazier, 1939; Moynihan, 1965).
Revisionist work seeks to amend, extend, or reconstruct prevailing thinking utilizing
new evidence or analyses. The revision of traditional interpretations of Black life have
given way to broader arenas for the focused study of Black male life, wherein the papers in
this monograph are important examples.
Flanders' large share of repeaters is at odds with the results of empirical studies (cf. infra) that claim that repeating a year has negative long term consequences on the academic and psycho-social functioning of pupils. The current contribution tries to explain this discrepancy between educational practice and empirical evidence by applying a qualitative empirical analysis on the different types of beliefs teachers and headmasters hold regarding repetition and by examining the way these beliefs play a role in the deliberations that take place in schools. The analysis relies on qualitative data from the SIBO survey as well as on 19 semi-structured interviews in two primary and three secondary schools. These analyses show that the beliefs of Flemish teachers and headmasters don't provide unambiguous support for repetition, but that elements like the longing of teachers for cognitive comfort, personal experiences that put repetition in a bright light and specific beliefs on learning and evaluation that are also supported by the educational system, all play an important role in the deliberation process and are able to positively influence beliefs pro repetition in schools.
The purpose of the present study was to examine student teachers' beliefs about creativity, creative outcomes, and factors related to creativity. Even though the importance of facilitating creativity in educational settings has been recognised, little attention has been paid to teachers' beliefs about creativity. In this study, a questionnaire, designed to explore conceptualisations of creativity and issues related to it, was administered to 49 student teachers. The results indicated that student teachers tend to perceive creativity as a general ability primarily manifested in the context of artistic endeavours. Moreover, creative outcomes were thought to be novel but not necessarily appropriate or correct. These findings are discussed with respect to their educational implications.
During the past decade, amid the current context emphasizing educational standards and accountability, the practice of grade retention has increased. The call for an end to social promotion has generated a variety of recommendations and legislation regarding promotion policies. This context has served as a catalyst for numerous debates regarding the use of grade retention and social promotion. In an era emphasizing evidencebased interventions, research indicates that neither grade retention nor social promotion is a successful strategy for improving educational success. Meta-analyses of studies during the past 100 years reveal deleterious outcomes associated with grade retention. Moreover, research also reveals prevention and intervention strategies that are likely to promote the social or academic competence of students at-risk of poor school performance. It is essential that educational professionals are familiar with the research when implementing interventions to promote student success. This chapter provides a brief synthesis of contemporary concerns and empirical studies examining student outcomes associated with grade retention, and also describes alternatives to grade retention. Particular consideration is given to implications for students with learning and behavioral disabilities, and the importance of focusing empirically supported strategies to promote student social and cognitive competence. Overall, educational professionals are encouraged to incorporate evidence-based programs and policies to facilitate the success of all students.
Depuis plusieurs decennies, la litterature accumule les etudes s’interessant aux conceptions des enseignants et futurs enseignants relatives au redoublement. Ceci a eu pour consequence l’apparition de nombreux questionnaires qui different quant aux sous-dimensions investiguees. Or, bizarrement, il existe peu d’ecrits mettant en relation ces differents instruments et aucune etude, a notre connaissance, n’examine leur validite psychometrique. Bref, aucun de ces questionnaires n’est considere aujourd’hui, comme la reference dans la recherche sur les croyances des futurs enseignants concernant le redoublement. La presente etude, financee par le Fonds National Suisse de recherche (Crahay & Marcoux, 2010) dans le cadre d’une recherche tentant d’analyser la structuration et l’evolution des croyances des enseignants a propos du redoublement, a notamment pour objectif de construire et de valider une echelle concernant les conceptions enseignantes sur le redoublement, et ce, sur la base de questionnaires deja existants. Le recueil des donnees s’est deroule a l’Universite de Geneve aupres des etudiants inscrits dans le cursus « enseignement primaire » de la faculte des Sciences de l’Education. Au final, deux echelles ont ete obtenues : une « echelle des croyances sur le redoublement » et une « echelle des connaissances des recherches sur le redoublement ». Les resultats statistiques revelent que ces echelles presentent de bons indices de fidelite (alpha de Cronbach) ainsi qu’une bonne structuration interne, ceci etant etabli a partir d’analyses factorielles exploratoires et une confirmatoire.
This unique and ground-breaking book is the result of 15 years research and synthesises over 800 meta-analyses on the influences on achievement in school-aged students. It builds a story about the power of teachers, feedback, and a model of learning and understanding. The research involves many millions of students and represents the largest ever evidence based research into what actually works in schools to improve learning. Areas covered include the influence of the student, home, school, curricula, teacher, and teaching strategies. A model of teaching and learning is developed based on the notion of visible teaching and visible learning. A major message is that what works best for students is similar to what works best for teachers - an attention to setting challenging learning intentions, being clear about what success means, and an attention to learning strategies for developing conceptual understanding about what teachers and students know and understand. Although the current evidence based fad has turned into a debate about test scores, this book is about using evidence to build and defend a model of teaching and learning. A major contribution is a fascinating benchmark/dashboard for comparing many innovations in teaching and schools.
Educational effectiveness theory and research have developed considerably in recent years. Despite the advances, several problems remain, such as the inability of effectiveness characteristics to explain variance in student outcomes satisfactorily and consistently. In this article, we introduce the concept of vision as a potential solution for these problems. Educational effectiveness has focused heavily on behavioural factors, but the ideas behind these factors could be important as well. After discussing related concepts at the national, school and classroom levels, we introduce the concept of vision which relates ideas and behaviour more strongly than earlier concepts such as expectations and beliefs because it emphasises causal relations between educational goals and means and pays attention to the psychological, pedagogical and sociological dimensions of education. Consequences for further theory and research are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to investigate general education teachers' beliefs, skills, and practices in planning and making adaptations for students with learning disabilities (LD) mainstreamed into general education. Participating teachers were identified by administrators and peers as being effective in working with students with LD. Sixty teachers (20 elementary, 20 middle school, and 20 high school) completed a survey instrument assessing teachers' beliefs, skills, and practices. A subset of the initial cohort of teachers (n = 12) also participated in extensive interviews and classroom observations to provide additional insight into their adaptive instructional practices. Results indicated that even among skilled teachers gaps exist between beliefs, practices, and skills. Discussion focuses on teacher beliefs, skills, and practices and differences among teachers in the three grade groupings.
Young-for-grade students have been shown to receive lower grades and have a higher likelihood of retention compared to their oldest peers upon kindergarten entry. Our study of 1474 economically disadvantaged first-time kindergarteners investigates if preschool attendance may ameliorate some of the risks potentially associated with being young-for-grade. Using the state-mandated age cutoff date, we establish four groups of students based on age (oldest/youngest in the cohort) and preschool experience (attended preschool/did not attend preschool) and use multilevel linear and logistic regression models in analyzing early literacy scores as well as the likelihood of being retained. Our findings show that while preschool attendance is associated with higher emergent literacy performance, young students still experience higher retention risks compared to their older peers, regardless of preschool attendance and controlling for end-of-year literacy scores.
The issues concerning teachers' beliefs about and use of retention were explored in a qualitative study. Clinical interviews with teachers, participant observation in kindergarten classes, analysis of documents, and interviews with parents revealed that teachers' beliefs about the development of school readiness could be described and ordered along a dimension of nativism, that these beliefs relate to their use of retention as a solution to unreadiness or incompetence, and that elements of the organization of the schools in which they teach may also account for beliefs and practices. Teachers' endorsement of retention diverges both from extant propositional knowledge and from the perceptions of other interested groups.
This article presents the findings of a study designed to determine the relationship between teachers' beliefs about the teaching of reading comprehension and their classroom practices. The study, dealing with teachers from grades 4, 5, and 6, uses a beliefs interview technique borrowed from anthropology. Predictions about teaching practices were made from the belief interviews of 39 teachers and were related to practices observed in their classrooms. The study demonstrates that the beliefs of teachers in this sample relate to their classroom practices in the teaching of reading comprehension. A case study explores a situation in which the teacher's beliefs did not relate to her practices. This case suggests that the teacher was in the process of changing beliefs and practices, but that the changes in beliefs were preceding changes in practices.
This review assesses the progress made in research on teachers’ pedagogical thoughts, judgments, and decisions over the past decade and identifies areas of substantive and methodological research needed to improve the practice of teaching. Based on this research, we formulate “schema” or tentative “models” of teachers’ judgments, planning decisions, and interactive decisions. We then set forth recommendations for future research, including (1) the need to develop a taxonomy of critical teaching decisions, which link these decisions to their consequences in the classroom; (2) the need to intervene and alter teachers’ plans and decisions in our research, as well as describe them, with the goal of improving teaching; and (3) the need to link recommendations based on research to the implementation of them in practice.
The role of cognitive, perceptual, visual-motor, behavioral, achievement, and demographic factors affecting nonpromotion at kindergarten was examined in a sample of 34 nonpromoted and 34 promoted kindergarten children of a suburban area in Northern California. The major findings of the study, part of a longitudinal follow-up study, indicated that retained students were more likely to be male, of younger age, and of lower socioeconomic status. In addition, retained students had lower IQ and preacademic achievement test scores and demonstrated increased problems in the areas of visual-motor integration, perceptual organization, and behavior. A discriminant analysis indicated that perceptual problems, inattention, age, preacademic reading achievement, and sex were factors that provided the maximum differentiation between retained and promoted students at the end of kindergarten. The findings are suggestive of interventions that may prove beneficial in preparing retained children for entry into first grade.
This study examined the long-term impact of retention/promotion decisions on the academic achievement of primary grade students. First-, second-, and third-grade retainees were matched on several variables with same-age students who were not retained. Results of same-year comparisons indicated that retained students significantly improve their relative class standing by the end of the retained year, and in some cases they maintain this advantage over a 2-year period; however, after 3 years there are no differences between retained and promoted students. Comparisons of same-grade level performance provided some evidence that second- and third-grade retainees experience more sustained benefits from retention, although these benefits are delayed one year.
A comprehensive survey of 200 student folders revealed that elementary school (ES) nonpromotion is primarily associated with low academic achievement and low IQ, whereas a junior high school (JHS) nonpromotion is mainly correlated to behavioral suspensions and excessive absenteeism. Having an ES nonpromotion increases the risk of a later grade retention five fold. During the year following an ES nonpromotion, the behavioral and academic outcome is significantly improved and is generally satisfactory. This is clearly not the case after a JHS grade retention.
The twenty-second annual Gallup Poll surveyed parents and community members concerning national educational goals, school choice, parental control of public schools, examinations for promotion, grade retention and dropout rates, access to personal information about students, equal educational opportunity, desirability of teaching as a career, appropriate teacher salaries, and other topics. (MLH)
Today's administrators must exercise caution in using student retention as a means of responding to changing social values and to the current media attention on declining standardized test scores. Recent reviews of hundreds of studies of student retention have concluded that some low achieving students do benefit from retention, but the majority of retained students show no consistent benefits from retention and score lower than promoted students in areas of academic achievement, personal adjustment, self-concept, attitude toward school, and attendance. Although research is still inconclusive, and alternatives to retention often exist, the works of L. Wayne Light and Laurence Lieberman identify factors principals can use to judge an individual retention candidate as well as to develop a model for a decision-making process for retention. The essentials of a model for retention must include: (1) a clearly written policy adopted by the local school board, (2) a decision-making procedure with stated time lines and position responsibilities, and (3) effective communication with parents and the school community on the policy and procedure. Appendix A provides a sample policy statement. Appendix B provides a sample retention worksheet for use by the principal. Fourteen references are appended. (IW)
This article provides an overview of several issues relative to retention of school children. Included is a historical perspective on the present retention-promotion controversy, information on retention policies and retention prevalence rates, a review of research on the effectiveness of retention, and a discussion of several factors that should be considered by psychologists faced with the problem of making retention and promotion recommendations.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Akron, 1984. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 72-75). Microfiche. s
Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- J Cadwell
Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- D M Claflin
Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- M K Haack