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Early Growth of Corn as Affected by Soil Temperature1
Abstract
Corn growth was measured in 23 location‐years in the eastern United States, where an average soil temperature reduction of 2.2°F. at the 4‐inch depth was obtained by a straw‐mulch treatment as compared to unmulched treatments during the first 6 weeks following planting. For soil temperatures ranging from 60° to 83°F., the ratio of the dry matter produced on the mulched treatment to that produced on the unmulched treatment was linearly related to the 4‐inch soil temperature. The validity of this linear relation was supported by data from experiments in the greenhouse and laboratory where growth of corn was observed under carefully controlled temperatures. For field conditions, a corn growth vs. soil temperature relation was constructed from the above linear relation, and the estimated optimum soil temperature for corn growth (dry matter production) was 81.3°F.
The effect of soil temperature on four different growth measurements (height, dry matter production, yield of N, and yield of K) of corn was different for each growth measurement in both the field and the greenhouse.
... For the vegetation season, Bedrna (1977) reported higher soil temperatures in the fields and meadows compared with forests. Effects of mulching, soil types etc. on soil temperature are described in different publications (Allmaras et al. 1964;Li et al. 2021). Yang et al. (2021) studied the effect of cover crops on soil temperature at depths of 15 cm, 30 cm, 45 cm and 60 cm. ...
... Lal and Cumming (1979) reported that deforestation of tropical rainforest (in southern Nigeria) increased the value of maximum air temperature by 5-8 °C and the value of maximum soil temperature at a depth of 1 cm by 25 °C. In different publications on soil (and air) temperature, the values are given using different scales including Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K) or Fahrenheit (°F) -see Allmaras et al. (1964), Wang et al. (2018), Jin et al. (2019. ...
Many studies showed that afforestation increases carbon storage and it can have effects on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. Afforestation can affect local and regional climate and these effects differ between tropical, temperate and boreal areas. Forests are also efficient in protecting soils against erosion and their flood mitigation functions or other benefits are described in different publications. In this study, the pattern of air temperatures (20 cm, 40 cm and 60 cm above the surface) was studied 10 years after the afforestation of agricultural land (warm, mild dry region of the Czech Republic) with a mixture of broadleaved tree species (Quercus robur L., Quercus rubra L. and Acer platanoides L.) or monospecific Pinus sylvestris L. stand. The aim of our study was to find out the pattern of air temperatures (20 cm, 40 cm and 60 cm above the surface) on two plots (one of the plots ‒ old beech trees, the other plot ‒ clearing) in a beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest in a mildly warm, mildly wet region of the Czech Republic. The afforestation of agriculturally used land led to air temperature cooling and to a reduction of the amplitude of maximum and minimum temperatures. The average air temperature (from April 2021 to the beginning of November 2021) decreased by 0.7–1.1 °C on the afforested plots compared with the agriculturally used plot. In the beech forest, the average temperature decreased on the plot with clearing compared with the old beech trees (from the middle of September 2021 to the middle of November 2021). Our results confirm the benefits of afforestation to climate change mitigation; buffering of extreme temperatures is important for the human thermal comfort.
... The soil is a living bed and affects other environmental systems in various ways. One of the main features of the soil is the governing thermal regime that affects many biological aspects, especially the distribution of plants and animals, biological activities, and water movement in the soil (Post and Dreibelbis 1942;Allmaras et al. 1964;Berry and Radke 1995). ...
This study presents the first-time application of a novel emotional neural network (ENN) for soil temperature modeling. Two scenarios were considered for soil temperature forecasting; (i) Meteorological variables based modeling and (ii) Time series based modeling. For the first scenario, meteorological variables, including average air temperature, average wind speed, and total solar radiation, were considered as the input of a predictor model, while for the second one, the time delays of the soil temperature time series were considered as input(s) for forecasting future time-step soil temperature profiles. The multi-depth daily soil temperature datasets from Springfield and Champaign stations, located in Illinois, United States of America, were collected at the 10 cm and 20 cm depths to evaluate the proposed model. Moreover, the proposed ENN model was compared with other popular modeling techniques, including Generic Programming (GA), Least Square Support Vector Machine (LSSVM), and Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS). These case studies indicate the superior performance of the ENN compared to other popular modeling techniques for soli temperature applications. The mean relative error of scenario 2 was in the 5-7% range, while it was more than 40% for scenario 1.
... This decrease in soil temperature reduced root respiration and active N uptake during germination as well as early crop growth stages, and ultimately reduced corn grain yield potential (Fig. S5). Others have observed similar results (Allmaras et al., 1964;Bollero et al., 1996;Cooper and Law, 1978;Stone et al., 1999). Therefore, our simulation revealed that the pre-growing-season temperature not only changed the soil N status temporally, but also indirectly affected crop development, growing-season grain N demand (Fig. S7), and ultimately grain yield potential (Fig. 7d). ...
Improving nitrogen (N) use efficiency is urgently needed to achieve co-sustainability of agricultural productivity and environmental quality. Environmental conditions and farming management practices affect the N cycle in agroecosystems. Particularly, weather conditions during the pre-growing-season (e.g. winter and early spring for the U.S. Corn Belt) can influence the dynamics of soil inorganic N (SIN) content and have implications for the end-of-season crop yield. Here, we used an advanced agroecosystem model, ecosys, to assess the consequences of different pre-growing-season weather scenarios in terms of both SIN dynamics and crop productivity. We first benchmarked ecosys using extensive N trial data collected across the U.S. Midwest, and found that ecosys captured the N fertilizer-yield responses and field-scale N cycle dynamics. We then used ecosys to conduct multiple experiments by changing the pre-growing-season precipitation and temperature, and assessed how these changes affected soil N dynamics and crop yield. We found that: (1) wetter pre-growing-seasons reduced SIN content through increasing leaching, leading to a reduction in corn grain yield of 0.54–0.86 Mg/ha (5–14%) under no fertilizer and of 0.21–0.33 Mg/ha (1–3%) under the normal N fertilizer rate (167 kg N/ha; Illinois average N fertilizer rate in 2018); yield loss induced by higher pre-growing-season precipitation can be eliminated by applying more N fertilizer in spring; and (2) colder pre-growing-seasons can reduce SIN content through decreased N mineralization and enhanced leaching. Both factors further contribute to corn yield loss of 0.10–0.68 Mg/ha (2–8%) under no fertilizer and of 0.12–0.48 Mg/ha (1–4%) under the normal fertilizer rate; however, in this case adding more fertilizer does not necessarily eliminate the yield loss caused by the colder pre-growing-season, because the lower temperature not only causes SIN deficiency but also reduces early-growing-season active root nutrients uptake and crop N demand by cooling soil temperature. These findings expand our understanding of the impact of weather conditions on crop yield and can inform improvements in N fertilizer use efficiency in the U.S. Midwest agroecosystems.
... The type and speed of the physical and chemical processes of the soil are controlled by temperature. One of the main features of the soil is the thermal regime that affects many biological aspects, especially the distribution of plants and animals, biological activities, and water movement in the soil (Allmaras et al. 1964;Berry and Radke 1995;Post andDreibelbis 1942 andSharrat et al. 1995). Soil depth temperature is often determined by the amount of heat exchange between soil depth and its surface, i.e. the heat flow intensity of the soil (Oliver 1987). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between atmospheric circulation patterns and soil depth temperature changes in Iran. To verify the correlation between atmospheric circulation patterns and soil temperature changes in the country, ten synoptic stations in the geographical range of Iran representing different climates were selected for research and analysis of data. To extract the circulation patterns by cluster analysis using Ward linkage method, nine circular clusters were identified and extracted. Among the patterns, five patterns were identified during the cold season, two patterns during the warm period, and two patterns during the transition period. Soil temperature data were first deseasonalized and changes (increase and decrease) due to the presence of warm and cold season were removed. The results of the correlation analysis between soil temperature changes in the nine-dimensional or nonuple patterns showed that there was no significant correlation between the mentioned patterns and temperature changes in the studied stations in models No. 1 and No. 2. The results of correlation analysis also showed that there was significant correlation between circulation patterns and soil temperature changes in seven other circulation patterns. The results of correlation analysis also showed that among patterns of circulation, patterns 7, 4, and 9 had the most impact on soil temperature changes in the country.
... The type and speed of the physical and chemical processes of the soil are controlled by temperature. One of the main features of the soil is the thermal regime that affects many biological aspects, especially the distribution of plants and animals, biological activities, and water movement in the soil (Allmaras et al. 1964;Berry and Radke 1995;Post andDreibelbis 1942 andSharrat et al. 1995). Soil depth temperature is often determined by the amount of heat exchange between soil depth and its surface, i.e. the heat flow intensity of the soil (Oliver 1987). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between atmospheric circulation patterns and soil depth temperature
changes in Iran. To verify the correlation between atmospheric circulation patterns and soil temperature changes in
the country, ten synoptic stations in the geographical range of Iran representing different climates were selected for research
and analysis of data. To extract the circulation patterns by cluster analysis using Ward linkage method, nine circular clusters
were identified and extracted. Among the patterns, five patterns were identified during the cold season, two patterns during
the warm period, and two patterns during the transition period. Soil temperature data were first deseasonalized and changes
(increase and decrease) due to the presence of warm and cold season were removed. The results of the correlation analysis
between soil temperature changes in the nine-dimensional or nonuple patterns showed that there was no significant correlation
between the mentioned patterns and temperature changes in the studied stations in models No. 1 and No. 2. The results
of correlation analysis also showed that there was significant correlation between circulation patterns and soil temperature
changes in seven other circulation patterns. The results of correlation analysis also showed that among patterns of circulation,
patterns 7, 4, and 9 had the most impact on soil temperature changes in the country.
... For more details see the references. 2. Dry matter production rate ( Allmaras et al. 1964 from Yan and Hunt 1999). The dry matter production rate was measured at temperatures from 13 to 37.5 °C and presented relative to measured maximum rate. ...
Accurate quantification of biological processes (e.g. germination) response to temperature was and still is of particular interest to many disciplines. Our objective was to develop and compare a new function (modified segmented function) with existing non-linear functions in fitting experimental data that cover both sub- and supra-optimum temperature ranges. We utilized diverse experimental and literature data on various crops such as safflower, maize, sorghum to test the functions which were: a modified segmented (derived in this paper), segmented and beta growth function. The datasets covered different plant biological processes, such as seed germination, leaf elongation. The new function fitted various experimental data with a root mean square deviation (RMSD) from 0.011 to 0.082. In 6 out of the 11 datasets, the new function performed better than the beta and segmented function according to various statistics. However, the performance of the segmented and beta function was better that our function in 4 and 1 out of the 11 datasets, respectively. The new function is interesting because all parameters have biological interpretation, it offers advanced flexibility in fitting complex datasets as compared to the two other functions and its response curve parts can be varied from linear to nonlinear based on thermal sensitivity parameter. We concluded that the new function is a good alternative to beta and segmented functions. Lastly our study confirms that there is no best function that can fit different data of temperature response.
... They found that in the southern and western areas (warmer zones) zero-tillage yielded 12% higher than conventional tillage, while in the northern (coolest) zone, zerotillage maize yielded 6% less and much of this is likely due to slow emergence and early growth in zero-tillage due to cooler soils early in the season. This reduction in corn yield with zero-tillage caused by cooler soils has been documented by numerous researchers working in the central and northern USA ( Allmaras et al., 1964;Kaspar et al., 1990). ...
... Residue management aff ects soil temperatures, and soils with surface residue are generally cooler than tilled soils (Allmaras et al., 1964;Anderson and Russell, 1964;Greb, 1966). Cooler temperatures may cause slower early season crop growth and are the primary reason given to explain limited adoption of no-tillage in the upper Midwest. ...
... The optimum root temperature for top growth of sugarbeets progressively decreases from 26° at 6 weeks after emergence to 23° at 13 weeks (68). Similar shifts have been shown in com (2) and barley (67). Temperatures in the field are never constant but vary diumally, seasonally, and with depth. ...
Roots anchor the plant in the soil, absorb and translocate water and nutrients, synthesize and transport growth regulators and other organic compounds, provide a sink for carbohydrates from the shoots, and in some species act as storage organs. Most research on roots has dealt with their role in absorption. Root characteristics that affect the area of absorbing surface are important, i.e., root length density, number and type of root hairs, and mycorrhizal relations. With nutrients that diffuse slowly in the soil, such as P and K, root density is especially important. Factors that reduce root growth may injure the plant by reducing the volume and intensity of soil exploration. Fortunately, plants produce more roots than are needed for normal growth–insurance that the plant can survive stresses, purchased at a cost of the increased photosynthate and other materials required for the extra root production.
... The tillage system resulting in the deepest and most uniform seed depth had the greatest emergence rate. Soil temperature has been shown to influence seed germination (Allmaras et al., 1964). The fall moldboard plow system also had the greatest accumulated soil growing-degree days (Fig. 2). ...
Soil conditions induced by three tillage systems: fall moldboard plow, spring disk, and no-till were measured and the effects of tillage-induced soil conditions on planting depth, seedling emergence, and early growth of four maize hybrids grown continuously were evaluated. A field experiment was conducted on a poorly drained, moderately permeable soil. The residue from the previous maize crop remaining on the soil surface had a greater effect on plant growth than did the other soil physical properties measured. Seed placement was shallower and more variable on tillage systems with greater surface and residue cover. Early growth was delayed by systems with a large percentage of surface residue cover. Differences in emergence and early growth among maize hybrids were consistent across tillage systems. Tillage systems with the best early growth tended to have the greatest yield. Additional study results are discussed.
... Growing-season climate conditions (e.g., rainfall and temperature) affect the growth and yield of corn (Zea mays L.) and cause yield variations. Understanding the climate effect has been a continuous endeavor toward improving farming technology and management strategy to reduce the negative impacts of climate and to increase corn yield (Smith 1903Smith , 1914 Davis and Pallesen 1940; Runge and Odell 1958; Runge 1968; Allmaras et al. 1964; Voss et al. 1970; Hill et al. 1979; Chang 1981; Hazell 1984; Garcia et al. 1987; among others). The early studies of Smith (1903 Smith ( , 1914) used short-term records (10 yr) of corn yield and climate and showed that corn yield in some areas of Illinois was particularly sensitive to rainfall shortly before anthesis H U A N D B U Y A N O V S K Y al. (1987) examined these issues by contrasting the yield variations between two periods, 1931–60 and 1961–82, with very different farming technologies. ...
Understanding climate effects on crop yield has been a continuous endeavor aiming at improving farming technology and management strategy, minimizing negative climate effects, and maximizing positive climate effects on yield. Many studies have examined climate effects on corn yield in different regions of the United States. However, most of those studies used yield and climate records that were shorter than 10 years and were for different years and localities. Although results of those studies showed various influences of climate on corn yield, they could be time specific and have been difficult to use for deriving a comprehensive understanding of climate effects on corn yield. In this study, climate effects on corn yield in central Missouri are examined using unique long-term (1895 1998) datasets of both corn yield and climate. Major results show that the climate effects on corn yield can only be explained by within-season variations in rainfall and temperature and cannot be distinguished by average growing-season conditions. Moreover, the growing-season distributions of rainfall and temperature for high-yield years are characterized by less rainfall and warmer temperature in the planting period, a rapid increase in rainfall, and more rainfall and warmer temperatures during germination and emergence. More rainfall and cooler-than-average temperatures are key features in the anthesis and kernel-filling periods from June through August, followed by less rainfall and warmer temperatures during the September and early October ripening time. Opposite variations in rainfall and temperature in the growing season correspond to low yield. Potential applications of these results in understanding how climate change may affect corn yield in the region also are discussed.
... The upper soil profile, where roots of most annual species are concentrated, reaches nearly the same temperature as the air (Neilsen 1974;McMichael and Burke 1996). Roots are more sensitive to high temperature than shoots of most species, including barley (Hordeum vulgare L.; Power et al. 1963), maize (Zea mays L.; Allmaras et al. 1964), and wheat (Kuroyanagi and Paulsen 1988). Differential treatments to shoots and roots illustrate the importance of underground organs in plant responses to high temperature. ...
The impact of high temperatures on accumulation of starch in the grain of
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is usually attributed to
direct effects of the stress on the enzymes involved. However, roots are
extremely sensitive to temperatures that can be as high as those experienced
by the shoots, and their role in whole-plant responses should be considered.
Wheat (cv. Len) was grown at 15/15, 30/15, 15/30, and
30/30˚C shoot/root temperatures during maturation, and
accumulation of dry matter and N, contents of sucrose and starch, and
activities of enzymes in the pathway of starch assimilation in the endosperm,
were measured weekly. Dry matter and N accumulation were affected more by root
than by shoot temperatures. High whole-plant temperatures (30/30˚C)
accelerated linear grain growth but diminished the duration of assimilation,
the contents of sucrose and starch, and the activities of the enzymes
involved. The effects of high root temperature (15/30˚C) resembled
those of high whole-plant temperature, whereas low root temperature
(30/15˚C) tended to ameliorate them. Sucrose synthase and soluble
starch synthase were affected more than the other enzymes by high shoot
and/or root temperature. However, treatments that caused the lowest
activities resulted in the fastest, but briefest, linear rates of grain
growth. We concluded that shoots and roots interact in the response of wheat
to high temperature, and that stress on both organs affects accumulation of
starch in grain.
... The increased amount of plant residues at the surface and within the soil with no-till creates an environment that is wetter, cooler (during the growing season) and less aerobic than tilled soils (Allmaras et al., 1964). The greater amount of available C with no-till may lead to N limited conditions for plants even though the no-till soil has more total N than tilled. ...
... Growing-season climate conditions (e.g., rainfall and temperature) affect the growth and yield of corn (Zea mays L.) and cause yield variations. Understanding the climate effect has been a continuous endeavor toward improving farming technology and management strategy to reduce the negative impacts of climate and to increase corn yield (Smith 1903Smith , 1914 Davis and Pallesen 1940; Runge and Odell 1958; Runge 1968; Allmaras et al. 1964; Voss et al. 1970; Hill et al. 1979; Chang 1981; Hazell 1984; Garcia et al. 1987; among others). The early studies of Smith (1903 Smith ( , 1914) used short-term records (10 yr) of corn yield and climate and showed that corn yield in some areas of Illinois was particularly sensitive to rainfall shortly before anthesis H U A N D B U Y A N O V S K Y al. (1987) examined these issues by contrasting the yield variations between two periods, 1931–60 and 1961–82, with very different farming technologies. ...
An investigation was made of variations in corn and soybean yields
resulting from natural fluctuations in weather conditions between years
in a five-state area in the Midwest. Analyses were performed for crop
districts within each state and for various combinations of the five
states when crop yields are evaluated over periods of 1-5 years. Results
were presented in the form of temporal-spatial probability
distributions, in which the distributions were based on deviations from
`expected' yield after adjustment for technology advancements during the
period of record (1931-75). In general, it was found that
weather-related deviations in corn yield were greater than in soybeans,
a decrease in temporal variability occurs from west to east, negative
deviations tend to be greater than positive deviations, but that the
five-state area seldom experiences large deviations from expected yield
and the occasional large deviations do not usually persist long.
... The rate of increase in corn leaf area during early vegetative growth is most closely related to temperature (Ragland et al., 1965) for early plantings but later plantings were found to be related to solar radiation as much as temperature. The maximum rate of season long dry matter production of corn plants has been reported to occur at 27°C (Allmaras et al., 1964). Early season weather has little overall correlation with final grain yield (McCormick, 1980). ...
Crop simulation models (CSMs) can evaluate the effects of management and environmental scenarios on crop growth and yields. Two corn (Zea mays L.) crop growth simulation models, Hybrid-Maize, and CERES-Maize, were calibrated and validated under mid-Atlantic United States conditions to provide better understanding of corn response to variable environmental conditions and developing management that decreases temporal yield variation. Calibration data were from small-plot population by maturity studies conducted across five site years. Model validation was performed on data from large, replicated trials from across Virginia. Both CSMs under-predicted corn grain yield. CERES-Maize grain yield prediction error was consistent across the range of plant density, whereas accuracy of Hybrid-Maize varied with density. Validation results of the calibrated CSMs showed reasonable accuracy in simulating planting date and environment on a range of corn hybrids. Because each model has unique strengths and assessment modules, the CSM can be matched to the individual use.
... The beneficial effect of a decrease in soil temperature for crop growth in the tropics is well known (Lal, 1976). On the other hand, cooler soil temperature may lead to unfavorable conditions for crop growth in cooler locations (higher latitudes or altitudes), as has been described for maize in the northern USA (Allmaras et al., 1964). This trend, however, does not apply to our study site, though it is Fig. 6. ...
The CropSyst crop–soil-simulation model was used to assess the performance of conservation tillage in comparison to conventional tillage during 13 years of continuous maize cropping in highland Mexico. We tested if the calibration and validation requirements for CropSyst could be met using data sets, which were routinely collected by agronomists. Highest maize yield was observed under zero-tillage with retained residues. Simulation results indicated that this was due to more favorable moisture conditions, attenuating water stress in adverse years. Soil mineral N concentration measured in 1998 indicated the likelihood for N-stress under zero-tillage with residues retained. CropSyst additionally predicted N-stress as a yield limiting factor in other years, despite a seemingly optimal N supply by mineral fertilizer. CropSyst could predict yield under conventional tillage with residues retained and under zero-tillage with residues removed reasonably well, indicated by a modified Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient of efficiency (E1) of 0.32 and 0.48. Yield predictions for conventional tillage with residues removed were poor (E1 = −0.05) and those for zero-tillage with residues retained insufficient (E1 = −0.20). Nonetheless, simulation results highlighted systematic differences between treatments with regard to water and N-dynamics. CropSyst lacks routines to account for soil crusting, the temporal impact of tillage on soil hydraulic conditions and the effect of surface residues physically restraining surface water runoff. These model shortcomings and the lack of detailed and continuous field measurement constrained detailed analyses and discussion of quantities produced by the model.
A travers le monde, les systèmes de labour de conservation ont connu une grande extension ces dernières décennies et ceci pour une large gamme de culture. Cependant, la substitution des labours par l’application des herbicides a causé des changements dans les caractéristiques du système sol-culture pour un type de climat particulier. En, effet, il a été rapporté que les propriétés physiques, chimiques et biologiques affectent et sont affectées
par le système de labour. La propriété́ physique qui change sensiblement par
réduction des labours est I'humidité du sol. En début du cycle de la culture il est souvent mentionné que la partie supérieure du sol est plus humide sous système de non labour ou de labour simplifié en comparaison avec le labour conventionnel. En d’autres termes, ces systèmes permettent une conservation d'eau dans le sol pour permettre à la culture d'échapper à des déficits hydriques. Cet état hydrique du sol peut être bénéfique pour la germination et la croissance de la culture. Les systèmes de labour de conservation
provoquent une diminution de la température de la partie superficielle du sol et favorisent une meilleure rétention de I'eau dans le sol. Plusieurs chercheurs ont signalé une meilleure utilisation de l'eau par les cultures en semis direct résultant en rendements plus élevés. Les avantages des labours de conservation dans le contrôle de l'érosion hydrique et éolienne sont universellement reconnus, excepté certaines zones. Les changements dans les propriétés chimiques sous les systèmes de labours réduits se résument en une teneur élevée en matière organique, en azote total, en aluminium et manganèse échangeable, en un niveau élevé en phosphore et potassium assimilables et en nitrates, et en une baisse de pH en surface. Ainsi, du fait de la non ou la faible manipulation du sol, ces propriétés tendent vers celles des sols sous pâturage permanent. Les changements biologiques sous ces systèmes se maniféstent par I'apparition de nouvelles espèces de mauvaises herbes particulièrement les espèces pérennes, I'augmentation de la population de la faune et de I'activité microbienne du sol en surface, une dénitritlcation accentuée et des taux de nitrification faibles. En plus, il a été rapporté une meilleure réponse de la culture sous ces systèmes et particulièrement dans les sols à texture moyenne à grossière et à drainage externe possible ou modéré.
Comparative soil temperature and soil tension measurements were obtained within the plow zone of two adjacent fields on Patton silty clay loam soil (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalf). Both fields were planted to corn (Zea mays L.), one using conventional tillage techniques (CT) and the other implementing no-tillage (NT) for the first time. Temperature time series were collected at depths of 2, 9, 16, and 23 cm at hourly intervals for the period of July 9 to October 28, 1989. Soil moisture tension at depths of 10, 18, and 26 cm, and relevant meteorological data, were recorded daily. The average daily temperature in the NT plow zone was consistently 0.50 to 0.75°C warmer throughout the growing season. When the soil was relatively dry, the daily temperature range was greater in the NT field near the base of the plow zone, but damped near the surface. This is attributed to the high thermal conductivity of a 2-to 7-cm-thick compacted surface layer in the nontrafficked interrows of the NT field. The compacted layer also inhibited precipitation infiltration, delayed soil water recharge, and caused surface ponding, which further dampened diurnal temperature amplitude at the surface of the NT field. Conductive heat transfer was enhanced by nonconductive processes near the surface of the CT plow zone. In the NT field, it appears that soil compaction blocked water vapor pathways to the atmosphere and restricted coupled-flow of heat and water vapor, heat transfer across the compacted layer occured primarily by conduction.
Core Ideas
Dry weather causes maximum reduction in yields of corn and soybean.
Precipitation during silking increases yields of corn.
In cold years, no‐till yielded 7.5% higher than alternate tillage and chisel tillage.
Fertilizer placement had significant effects on corn yields during normal and dry weather years only.
Understanding the influence of past “extreme” weather during critical growth stages of corn ( Zea mays L.) and soybean ( Glycine max L.) production may help us to predict how management practices could influence yield under climate change scenarios. This study evaluated the influence of tillage (moldboard plow [MP], alternate [AT], chisel [ChT], and no‐till [NT]) and fertilizer (N+NPK starter, NPK+NPKstarter, and NPK) management on yield during extreme weather events (cold, hot, wet, and dry) occurring at critical growth stages of corn and soybean under continuous–corn [CC; 1970–1990] and corn–soybean [CS; 1991–2015] rotations located in a somewhat poorly drained Bethalto silt loam near Belleville, IL. Results showed that during dry years, corn yield was 3.8% higher with NPK treatment as compared to NPK+NPKstarter fertilizer treatment. Soybean yield was not influenced by any type of fertilizer treatments during extreme and normal weather events. Corn yields were significantly affected by tillage in cold years in which NT yielded 7.5% higher than AT and ChT treatments; however, during wet years, ChT and MP yielded 8.5 and 7.3% (respectively) higher than NT. During cold years, soybean yield in AT was higher by 12.3 and 9.4% than MP and ChT treatments, respectively. As compared to normal weather years, corn yield was highest with all tillage treatments during wet years, showing beneficial influence of precipitation on corn yield during critical growth stage (silking). Our study results showed that dry weather has maximum potential for causing a reduction in corn and soybean yields under all tillage treatments.
Core Ideas
Corn stover removal was not common in 2010.
Crop sequences were similar for stover and non‐stover harvest farms.
State‐level variation occurred in the relative size of farms removing corn stover.
Soil erosion control measures were not frequently adopted by either farm group.
Crop residue management, provision of animal feed or bedding, and increased income are potential reasons for harvesting corn ( Zea mays L.) stover. Reasons for not doing so include the need for crop residue to restore or increase soil organic matter, protect against wind and water erosion, and cycle plant nutrients. Bioenergy market development may increase the number of producers harvesting corn stover. Can farming practice data predict the likelihood for harvesting corn stover at a national scale? Farm operation, technology, and management variables from the 2010 Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) of U.S. corn growers were compared between operations that removed corn stover and those that did not. Nationwide, stover was removed from approximately 6.3% of all corn operations, indicating stover harvest was not a common practice in 2010. Factors increasing the likelihood for stover harvest included producing feed corn, managing crop residues for pest control, and farmland ownership. Technology and conservation practice adoption rates were similar in both groups. Excessive stover removal can increase soil degradation. Both groups had erosion control adoption rates of ≤10%, which may provide an additional disincentive to harvest stover. Overall, the evaluated variables were similar between producers that did and did not harvest stover. This assessment provides a 2010 national baseline that can be used for future evaluations as bioenergy and bioproduct markets develop.
Climate and microclimate are concepts used in the characterization of an environment. The interaction between an object and its environment depends on the microclimate of the latter. The microclimate, on the other hand, is often considerably influenced by the presence of the object. Plants, for instance, by shading the soil surface, modify soil temperature and this may influence soil moisture relations and cause further changes in the soil or more precisely in the plant-soil system.
Unter den zahlreichen Faktoren, die physikalische, chemische und biologische Prozesse im Boden beeinflussen, sind die Bodentemperaturen von fundamentaler Bedeutung. Die Temperaturen und Wärmehaushalte der Böden stehen dabei in einer engen Wechselbeziehung zu Standortfaktoren wie Mikroklima, Vegetation, Relief und Hydrologie. Zusätzlich zu den externen Faktoren beeinflussen physikalische Eigenschaften des Bodens wie Stoffbestand, Textur, Struktur und Farbe der Oberfläche den zeitlichen Verlauf der täglichen und jährlichen Temperaturschwankungen im Boden. Für die Pflanzen und die Bodenfauna ist dabei essentiell, dass der Boden extreme Lufttemperaturen dämpft und damit ausgleicht. Wichtige temperaturabhängige pedogene Prozesse wie die Mineralverwitterung und -neubildung oder die von der Temperatur beeinflussten Humusgleichgewichte können in verschiedenen Klimaten zu vollkommen unterschiedlichen Bodenentwicklungen führen. Kennzeichnend für den Wärmehaushalt ist die enge Kopplung an den Wasserhaushalt. Phasenübergänge wie Eisbildung oder Verdunstung von Wasser finden unter hohem Wärmebedarf statt. Umgekehrt beeinflussen sowohl der Wassergehalt als auch der Aggregatzustand des Wassers im Boden sowie an der Bodenoberfläche empfindlich die Wärmeflüsse und Bodentemperaturen. Vor dem Hintergrund schwindender Ressourcen gewinnen Methoden zur Beschreibung des Wasserkreislaufes und der Wärmeflüsse an der Bodenoberfläche als zentrale Schnittstelle zwischen Atmosphäre und Lithosphäre z.B. für die Wasser- und Landwirtschaft zunehmend an Bedeutung. Speziell der Wärmefluss im Boden ist eng an den physikalischen Zustand der Atmosphäre gekoppelt. Die obere Randbedingung stellt somit einen zentralen Bestandteil bei der Beschreibung der Wärmehaushalte dar. Der folgende Text gliedert sich in einen allgemeinen Teil (Abschn. 1-3), in dem neben den Grundlagen zur Wärmeleitung in Böden auch der Strahlungshaushalt als wichtigste Energiequelle angesprochen wird. Aspekte zu lokalen Wärmehaushalten und Systeme zu ihrer Klassifizierung werden in den Abschnitten 4-6 behandelt. Dabei steht der Einfluss landschaftsbezogener Elemente auf die Bodentemperaturen, Wärmeflüsse und -haushalte im Vordergrund.
Seed germination is a biological process that is strongly affected by temperature and water potential. Our objective was to measure experimentally and model this combined effect and estimate robust parameter values that will assist researchers to estimate safflower germination rate under variable experimental conditions. A laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate the combined effect of seven temperatures regimes (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 °C) and five water stress levels (0, −0.4, −0.8, −1.2 and −1.6 MPa) on safflower seed germination. The derived dataset was analyzed using two modeling approaches that combine temperature and water potential effects: the multiplicative and the hydrothermal time models. The associated parameter estimates for each model were determined through statistical optimization and model performance evaluated against an independent dataset. The hydrothermal time parameters were 493.3 MPa h, 8.2 °C, and −1.34 MPa for θ
HT (hydrothermal time constant) T
b (base temperature), and ψ
b(50) (median base water potential) in sub-optimal temperatures, respectively. The parameter estimates for the multiplicative model were determined as 7.9 °C for T
b, 21.4 °C for T
o1 (lower optimal temperature), 29 °C for T
o2 (upper optimal temperature), and 40 °C for T
c (ceiling temperature); 0 MPa for WPc (critical water potential) and 1.18 h−1MPa−1 for water potential sensitivity coefficient (WPS); and 17.9 h for g
o (physiological hours for seed germination). Model evaluation showed that the multiplicative model predicted time to 50 % of seed germination more accurately (RMSE = 4.3 h and R
2 = 0.98) than the hydrothermal time model (RMSE = 9.5 h and R
2 = 0.93).
Conservation tillage systems are systems of managing crop residue on the soil surface with minimum or no tillage. The systems are frequently referred to as stubble mulching, ecofallow, limited tillage, reduced tillage, minimum tillage, no-tillage, and direct drill. The goal of these systems of plant residue management is threefold: leaving enough plant residue on the soil surface at all times for water and wind erosion control, reducing energy use, and conserving soil and water. These systems are used throughout the United States and the world and can be applied to all kinds of crop residue in many cropping systems. Because conservation tillage systems rely heavily on surface residue for erosion control and water conservation, it is imperative that the machinery is capable of operating satisfactorily when large amounts of residue are on the soil surface and that most residues are kept on the surface. Tillage systems developed within the past half century are capable of retaining most crop residue on the soil surface.
A field investigation was carried out to study the diurnal variation and annual variation of soil temperature in two widely different situations, namely bare field and agroforestry system in the new alluvial zone of West Bengal during November, 2000 to November, 2001. For diurnal variation study, surface soil temperature was measured starting from 6 am to 6 pm at one hour interval with the help of soil thermometer. Both the diurnal range and annual range of soil temperature in the bare field were more than agroforestry system. Likewise, the Standard Deviation of soil temperature on the daily basis and on the annual basis were also found to be more in case of bare field situation. The dependence of soil temperature on different meteorological parameters was analysed and linear regression models were developed for prediction of surface soil temperature for both the situation separately.
Water use efficiency (WUE) represents a given level of biomass or grain yield per unit of water used by the crop. With increasing concern about the availability of water resources in both irrigated and rainfed agriculture, there is renewed interest in trying to develop an understanding of how WUE can be improved and how farming systems can be modified to be more efficient in water use. This review and synthesis of the literature is directed toward the understanding the role of soil management practices for WUE. Soil management practices affect the processes of evapotranspiration by modifying the available water in the soil profile, or the exchange rate between the soild and the atmosphere. Plant management practices, e.g., the addition of N and P, have an indirect effect on water use through the physiological efficiency of the plant. A survey of the literature reveals a large variation in measured WUE across a range of climates, crops, and soil management practices. It is possible to increase WUE by 25 to 40% through soil management practices that involve tillage. Overall, precipitation use efficiency can be enhanced through adoption of more intensive cropping systems in semiarid environments and increased plant populations in more temperate and humid environments. Modifying nutrient management practices can increase WUE by 15 to 25%. Water use efficiency can be increased through proper management, and field-scale experiences show that these changes positively affect crop yield.
Interacting effects of controlled heat from electric heating cables 15 cm below the surface and of polystyrene insulation on the soil surface were studied over four seasons on an imperfectly drained outwash soil at Guelph, Canada. Heating to 22 C advanced germination of corn (Zea mays L.) by three days, improved emergence, advanced growth and increased yield at maturity. Insulation retarded germination, early growth and silking, but increased yields in three of the four years. Where heating decreased ear moisture content at harvest, insulation increased it. Heat combined with insulation gave the greatest response in growth, advance in silking, and increase in yield. The season with favorable soil temperature combined with low air temperature gave the highest yield of the four years. Fertilizer banded near the seed at planting advanced development and increased yields, but did not produce a statistically significant interacting effect with heat and insulation. However, fertilizer phosphorus uptake early in the season was markedly increased by heat and insulation. It was concluded that insulation can favor yield, provided that soil temperature is maintained near optimum.
Early-season soil temperature has been reported to affect leaf appearance and expansion rates, and consequently corn (Zea mays L.) ontogeny. A 2-yr field experiment was conducted on a Drummer silly clay loam (fine silty, mixed, mesic Typic Haplaquoll) at the Agronomy and Plant Pathology South Farm of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Treatments consisted of planting dale (early May and early June) and soil temperature surrounding the corn growing point (5°C below ambient, ambient, and 5°C above ambient). Soil temperature was controlled using warm and cool water circulating through copper pipes buried next to the corn rows. Air temperatures were not controlled. Irrigation was used. The experimental design was a split plot in a randomized complete block with four replications. Ten plants were randomly selected within each replication and nondestructive measures of plant stage, individual leaf area, and leaf senescence were taken three times per week from emergence to V5, and once per week afterwards until complete leaf senescence. Growing degree days (GDD) were calculated using the modified growing degree day formula (MGDD). From planting to V5, MGDD were computed using the soil maximum and minimum daily temperatures from each treatment. After the soil temperature treatments were terminated, the MGDD calculations were based on maximum and minimum daily air temperatures. Lower early-season soil temperature delayed corn development and modified individual leaf area. Plants under these cooler conditions went through vegetative developmental stages faster per unit of accumulated MGDD, showing the effect of temperature on corn ontogeny. The results also show that the current method of calculating MGDD (with base temperature of 10°C) does not adequately predict corn development under exceptionally warm or exceptionally cool soils. Warmer early-season soil temperature linearly increased corn yield (β1 = 0.14 Mg ha-1 °C-1). Leaves in the lower half of the canopy were larger under cooler soil temperature treatments (β1 = -48.9 cm2 °C-1). There was a linear increase in the size of the leaves in the upper half of the canopy of the plants under warmer temperatures (β1 = 28.8 cm2 °C-1).
The temperature variations in the Mollisols of the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, India are described. The water-table depth in the experimental field ranged from 60 to 140 cm. The diurnal and annual periodicities in temperature wave indicate that soil temperature changes are rapid in the surface 0-15 cm layer and decrease progressively with depth. There is a pronounced peak and trough in the temperature curves between the 24th and 41st week of the year. The soil temperature varies from 8° to 47°C at the surface, 15° to 33°C at 40 cm depth, and 19° to 29°C at 175 cm depth. Analysis of the temperature variation in the different crop seasons shows that at 40 cm depth the soil temperature varies from 31° to 27°C in the monsoon crop season (from the 3rd week in June to October), and 15° to 24°C in the winter crop season (from November onwards). During the monsoon crop season the temperature variations at 40 cm depth are only 2°C (31° to 29°C) between the 3rd week in June and September, apparently due to the increase in soil wetness associated with the rise of the water table and the rainfall during this period. In the month of October the profile as a whole attains almost isothermal conditions except in the surface layers that are affected by the diurnal wave.
A study was conducted during 1982 and 1983 to determine the effect of tillage and mulching on soil environment and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata cv. FS-68) seedling growth under arid conditions. One disking and three diskings with a disc harrow up to 15-cm depth improved the soil environment and increased the final seedling emergence count, but did not affect the population of Macrophomina phaseolina in soil. Disking also increased plant growth and markedly reduced seedling mortality. Placement of weed mulch in-between the crop rows at the rate of 6 t ha−1 along with disking treatments significantly increased the mean moisture status of the 15-cm soil depth by 1.4% on a dry weight basis (Pw), significantly decreased the mean maximum temperature of the 10-cm depth (measured at 2 p.m.) by 3.9°C and thus increased plant growth and dry matter production. Mulching also markedly reduced the population of M. phaseolina and the mortality of the cowpea seedlings.
An analysis of the effect of mulch on soil temperature under tomato plants grown in a greenhouse is presented. Under greenhouse conditions, the soil temperature differences under mulched and unmulched conditions are found to be significant within the first 20 cm of the soil depth. The decrease of maximum soil temperature at day (2–3°C) and the increase of the minimum at night (2.0–3.5°C) compared with the unmulched is due to mulch. The polyethylene mulch damps the diurnal wave of soil surface temperature. The diurnal variation over soil surface for mulched soil was confined between 12–16°C, while under unmulched soil was between 11.5–19.5°C. The seasonal variation of the soil temperature is discussed. Shape differences between both treatments for hourly soil temperature are illustrated.
While numerous studies have indicated that field windbreaks both improve crop growing conditions and generally enhance crop growth and yield, especially under less favorable conditions, the relationship between the two is not clearly understood. A simple model is proposed to simulate biomass and grain mass accumulation of corn (Zea mays L.) with a windbreak shelter or without (exposed condition). The model is based on the positive relationship between intercepted solar radiation and biomass accumulation and requires plant population and hourly inputs of solar radiation and air temperature. Using published data, radiation use efficiency (RUE) was related to plant population, and a temperature function was established between the relative corn growth and temperature for pre-silking stages. Biomass and grain mass simulated by the model agreed well with those measured for both sheltered and unsheltered plants from 1990 to 1992. Wind breaks did not significantly increase biomass or grain mass of corn for this study, even though air temperature was greater with than without shelter, probably indicating that the microclimatic changes induced by windbreaks were not physiologically significant for the 3-yr period studied. The model has potential use in future studies to relate windbreak effects to crop yield and to evaluate windbreak designs for maximum benefits.
Maize was grown for 1 season as a row-crop on raised beds in a factorial experiment on reduced tillage. The effects of 2 passes of a spring-tined cultivator (Treatment C), of a small 70-mm wide rotary-hoe, ahead of the seeder (Treatment R) and of a mulch (Treatment M) on emergence, growth and yield of maize were determined. Treatment C produced a coarse tilth (41% aggregates > 20-mm diameter; 9% aggregates 0.5–2 mm) in the top 30 mm of pre-irrigated beds of a silty soil. Treatment R produced a fine seed-bed (4% aggregates > 20-mm diameter; 21% aggregates 0.5–2 mm), 70 mm wide and 30 mm deep, along each of the 2 sowing-lines. In the same pass, 2 rows of maize were sown at a depth of 25 mm into the wet soil.In the mulched treatments (M), where 5 t ha−1 of barley straw was applied after the crop was sown, to cover the bed, the water content around the seed (0–30-mm depth) over the first 9 days after the crop was sown was 29–74% higher than in the unmulched treatments (M0). For example, 1 day after the crop was sown, the water content of soil around the seed was 21% in Treatment M, close to field capacity, and 14% in Treatment M0. In Treatment M, the temperature around the seed (25-mm depth) at 15.00 h over the first 9 days after the crop was sown was almost always significantly lower than in Treatment M0; for example, the maximum temperatures of Treatments M and M0 were 32 and 41°C, respectively.Either Treatment M or R, but not Treatment C hastened emergence of maize seedlings and increased percentage final emergence. There were no significant effects of any treatments on plant yield. However, there was a trend within Treatment M for either Treatments R or C to increase yields.
and 5 to 13% in Minnesota (Ford and Hicks, 3 factorial design included combinations of with or without row board plow) or residue type (corn vs. soybean). Because cleaners, 0.0 or 93.5 L ha2 1 (0 or 10 gal acre2 1 ) of 10-15-0 starter removal of residue from the seed row hastened emer- fertilizer, and N sources anhydrous ammonia (AA) or spoke-injected gence, increased plant height, decreased grain moisture, urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN). A preplant broadcast application of UAN plus N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) also was and increased grain yield in Iowa, they recommended compared with spoke-injected UAN. Averaged across 3 yr, surface removal of a 16-cm band of residue from the seed row. residue coverage during the growing season remained .60% for CC Row cleaners increased emergence rate of corn in all and .40% for CSb for all treatments, but was about 8% lower with 3 yr and corn production in 1 yr in no-till studies on a clay knife application of AA compared with spoke-injecting UAN. Grain loam in Iowa (Kaspar and Erbach, 1998). The authors yields were not affected by N source. Yield response to starter fertilizer concluded that row cleaners reduce the risk of poor depended on N source and row cleaners. Continuous corn responded stands, and thus should improve corn yield potential to starter fertilizer (0.5 Mg ha 21 or 7 bu acre 21 ) when AA was used, in years when stand establishment is limited. In-row but not when UAN was used. Yields of CSb were increased 0.5 Mg removal of residue increased soil temperatures in the
In order to assess the agronomic and economic feasibility of growing corn under reduced tillage using manure as a source of fertilizer, a study of silage and grain corn (Zea mays L.) production using three levels of tillage (conventional, reduced and zero till) and two types of fertilizer (inorganic fertilizer and dairy manure) was initiated on a clay soil and a sandy loam soil in 1981 at Macdonald College. Results obtained between 1983 and 1986 showed that good yields could be obtained with zero and reduced tillage in combination with inorganic fertilizers. The use of dairy manure in combination with conventional and reduced tillage resulted in good plant yields at the sandy loam site but decreased plant yield at the clay site. The practice of zero till in combination with manure resulted in difficulties with weed control, poor seed emergence and a greater risk of frost damage in the spring. The costs of production were lowest when zero till was used in association with inorganic fertilizers.
Machinery was designed specifically for relay-cropping on permanent raised beds (150 mm high and 1.5 m wide) in northern Victoria. This machinery enabled maize (Zea mays) to be successfully sown at 2, 4 and 5 weeks before harvest, and 1 day after harvest (Control), of wheat (Triticum aestivum). The sowing equipment consisted of a four-row cultivator, behind which were four precision seeders. The wheels (250 mm in diameter) were spaced at 1.5 m to track along the base of the furrows. In one pass on each bed, the sowing equipment tilled two strips (each 50 mm wide, 30 mm deep and 50 mm from the outer row of wheat) and sowed maize, with little damage to the wheat crop. We extended the axle of the trailed harvester so that the wheels (250 mm in diameter) were 3 m apart, and moved the drawbar 300 mm to one side so that all wheels ran along the base of the furrows. There were no significant differences between treatments in yield (mean 2.9 t ha-1) of dryland wheat, in final emergence percentage (mean 89%) or in early growth of irrigated maize. The maize yielded significantly less grain in the treatment sown at 5 weeks (9.6 t ha-1), but not 2 or 4 weeks (mean 10.6 t ha-1) before the wheat was harvested, than in the Control (10.8 t ha-1). The wheat and maize yielded more grain than those grown traditionally as sole crops in northern Victoria.
Tillage and mulching effects on the environment of the seed zone and on growth of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seedlings in the humid tropics were studied at Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria, in the 1987 and 1988 late cropping seasons. The split-plot design experiment had conventional tillage (ploughing and harrowing), reduced tillage (ploughing only), zero tillage and grass mulch treatments. Conventional and reduced tillage practices decreased initial bulk density and increased seedling emergence, root growth, dry matter yield and overall seedling performance. Addition of mulch increased the soil moisture in the root zone and significantly decreased maximum soil temperatures and diurnal fluctuations in temperature. This provided a more stable environment for seedling establishment and growth than the unmulched soil.
In both years of this investigation the sum of total radiation, the actual soil temperature in 5 cm depth above the 5° C level and the energy demand for the evaporation of free water surfaces did offer the highest correlation with the growing performance parameters of barely and wheat. The influence of other factors and also of rainfall quantity was found of lower importance. These correlations are only valid, if sufficient soil water is available, a situation which was given in the cereal growing area in both years of these investigations.
Further the influence of interception to radiation and rainfall was studied. It could be found in which manner this value was correlated with the density of the rainfall, and also with the plant height.
Seedling emergence in different crops was studied in the soil temperature range of 5C to 45C. In peas and turnips seedling emergence stopped at a soil temperature of 35C and in other crops at 45C. The minimum temperature for seedling emergence was above 10C in case of cotton, sorghum, rice, maize and musk melon and above 15C in case of squash, bottle gourd and okra. Winter crops like wheat, gram, peas, and turnips emerged at 5C but the percent emergence was low. The optimum range for seedling emergence was narrower for vegetable crops as compared with cereals.
Under natural conditions crop plants are often exposed to high soil temperature regimes during growth. To determine the influence of a hot root-zone temperature (RZT) on growth and development of root system components of plants, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Moench) was grown in nutrient solution with three temperature regimes. Maximum seminal root (SR) elongation and first order lateral root (LR) initiation and elongation occurred at 25°C (control). At 40°C SR elongation and first order LR initiation and elongation were severely inhibited. Less inhibition in root growth occurred at 40/25°C (day/night) RZT than at 40°C. The duration of exposure to 40°C (i.e. from 0 to 6 days) had a profound influence on subsequent root growth and development when the plants were returned to 25°C; the longer the 40°C period the greater the degree of root growth inhibition at 25°C. Nodal roots (NRs) which arose mainly from the first node of the stem were initiated regardless of their previous exposure to 40°C; the number and length increased as the exposure duration at 40°C increased.
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