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Investigating macroscopic textual variation through multifeature/multidimensional analyses

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... Previous research has explored the association between discourse and interaction as well as informality; more than forty linguistic cues have been identified in relation to interaction (Biber, 1985;Nini, 2014). Due to the vast number of features, preliminary research in any case is a requisite to identify potentially crucial linguistic cues (Biber, 1985). ...
... Previous research has explored the association between discourse and interaction as well as informality; more than forty linguistic cues have been identified in relation to interaction (Biber, 1985;Nini, 2014). Due to the vast number of features, preliminary research in any case is a requisite to identify potentially crucial linguistic cues (Biber, 1985). Gorsuch (1983: 332) (1983). ...
... Gorsuch (1983: 332) (1983). The research reported on here, accordingly, has adopted five of the most relevant indicators -(1) first and second person pronouns, (2) contractions, (3) informal emphasizers, (4) subordinator "that" deletion and (5) stranded prepositions (Biber, 1985). However, it is of vital importance to conduct an exploratory study once any significant linguistic indicator has emerged in the corpus analysis process. ...
Thesis
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This research aims to study the syntactic differences of the two dystopian classics-Brave New World and Fahrenheit 451-with an attempt to identify the differences of British and American discourse in terms of syntactic structures. While there are numerous attempts in studying the differences of the two English varieties over the years, few are in search of the syntactic feature of the dialects, and none in the linguistic aspect of dystopian literature. The study adopts an interdisciplinary method, which combines corpus study and syntactic analysis with sociolinguistic research. A novel in each English variety is selected as data. The data will be examined through text analysis, followed by a computational analysis -Multidimensional Analysis Tagger (MAT) - to identify the linguistic cues within the corpora, and the way the proportion of a linguistic feature affects individuals' perception toward formality and interactiveness. This study employed five linguistic indicators that are found to be associated to colloquial written expression from Biber's previous research on American and British writing (Biber, 1987). Results reveal that informal emphasiser and lexical density are of the most significance in terms of influencing the perceived informality of a written narrative. Further exploratory research has been conducted to identify other outstanding linguistic features in relation to interactive expression. Sociolinguistic factor such as writer variable has also been taken into account. Compared to British dystopian narrative, the American corresponding novel tends to be more colloquial and interactive, resulting in a perception of informality of the English dialect.
... Third person pronouns are characteristically used in anaphoric expressions, while the other pronouns are generally used deictically (Lass 1999a, 147-48;Huddleston andPullum 2002, 1468). Wallace L. Chafe and Jack Danielewicz associate this lack of referential explicitness to the spoken register, as speakers usually have limited time to produce utterances, resulting in the use of neuter pronouns such as it, which increase the vagueness of the text but at the same time boost production (1986, 90; see also Biber 1986). ...
... There are twenty-seven linguistic features associated with complexity, and these are classified into four different groups (Biber 1992): integrated structure, lexical specificity, passive constructions and dependent clauses. With the exception of lexical specificity, where the scores were obtained from the calculation of mean word length and the type/ token ratio, the distribution of integrated structure, use of passive constructions and use of dependent clauses was found to be statistically significant (X 2 62.6348, p < 0.00001) (Cantos-Gómez 2013, 75-80). ...
... Word length and type/token ratio are indicators of lexical specificity, signalling "potential and actual lexical variety" respectively (Finegan and Biber 2001, 258). From a register perspective, high levels of lexical variety are usually found in academic writing, while they are more restricted in the spoken domain due to the time requirements of online production (Biber 1988, 238; see also Biber 1986;Chafe and Denielewicz 1986). Table 4 shows the scores for mean word length and type/ token ratio in the texts under study. ...
Article
In linguistics the concept of complexity has been analysed from various perspectives, among them language typology and the speech/writing distinction. Within intralinguistic studies, certain key linguistic features associated with reduced or increased complexity have been identified. These features occur in different patterns across various registers and their frequency is an indicator of the level of complexity of different kinds of texts. The concept of complexity has not, to date, been evaluated in early English medical writing, especiallyin terms of different text types. Thus, the present article analyses linguistic complexity in two Early Modern English medical texts, a surgical treatise (ff. 34r-73v) and a collection of medical recipes (ff. 74r-121v) housed as MS Hunter 135 in Glasgow University Library. Since they represent two different types of medical text, they can be productively compared in terms of linguistic complexity. The results obtained confirm that the surgical treatise is more complex than the collection of medical recipes owing to the higher presence of linguistic features denoting increased complexity in the former and of those indicating reduced linguistic complexity in the latter.
... Existe una gran cantidad de tipologías de tipos textuales que centran su visión clasificatoria en la secuencia macroestructural (Werlich, 1975en Ciapuscio, 1994, en la situación comunicativa (Gülich, 1986), en los rasgos lingüísticos (Biber, 1985) e incluso en combinaciones de estos factores (una revisión exhaustiva en Ciaspucio, 1994 y en Parodi 2010: 37-52). ...
... Otras investigaciones sobre diferentes tipos textuales del ámbito académico, profesional y científico se han realizado sobre corpus de nativos chilenos construidos en la Universidad de Valparaíso y que han integrado diferentes versiones identificadas con la sigla PUCV (Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso), analizables por medio de una interfaz propia llamada El Grial[1]. La Escuela de Lingüística de Corpus de Valparaíso transfiere la metodología utilizada por Biber (1985) intentando superar el anclaje léxico no con el agregado de otros criterios sino en base a una nueva interpretación de la coocurrencia de rasgos. ...
Conference Paper
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Este estudio analiza la coocurrencia de rasgos lingüísticos como forma de caracterizar el género académico "Presentación oral". El corpus de trabajo contiene 20 presentaciones de estudiantes ELE italianos y alemanes comparadas a través de un VARIMAX. Los resultados contrastan con la caracterización de los textos científicos. Palabras clave: Géneros académicos, Presentación oral, rasgos lingüísticos
... Koch and Oesterreicher's model (1985, English version: 2012 . 1) of 'Nähe und Distanz' ('Nähe' = immediacy, conceptual orality: a printed interview (d) or a phone call with a friend (b); 'Distanz' = distance, conceptual literacy: an article in a newspaper (j) or a speech (i)) is constantly used in German linguistics. ...
Preprint
Koch and Oesterreicher's model of "N\"ahe und Distanz" (N\"ahe = immediacy, conceptual orality; Distanz = distance, conceptual literacy) is constantly used in German linguistics. However, there is no statistical foundation for use in corpus linguistic analyzes, while it is increasingly moving into empirical corpus linguistics. Theoretically, it is stipulated, among other things, that written texts can be rated on a scale of conceptual orality and literacy by linguistic features. This article establishes such a scale based on PCA and combines it with automatic analysis. Two corpora of New High German serve as examples. When evaluating established features, a central finding is that features of conceptual orality and literacy must be distinguished in order to rank texts in a differentiated manner. The scale is also discussed with a view to its use in corpus compilation and as a guide for analyzes in larger corpora. With a theory-driven starting point and as a "tailored" dimension, the approach compared to Biber's Dimension 1 is particularly suitable for these supporting, controlling tasks.
... The original MD studies (Biber, 1985(Biber, , 1988) analyzed a wide range of general spoken and written 44 registers in English, while many subsequent studies have applied those dimensions to the analysis 1 of other more specialized registers (Conrad & Biber, 2001). 2 ...
Article
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Aviation English (AE), a specialized register of English, prioritizes precision, brevity and clarity to maximize aviation safety. While there has been a growing focus within the linguistics community on AE training and assessment since the release of a set of standards and recommended practices, its linguistic properties remain comparatively underexplored. Drawing upon Biber’s (1988) multi-dimensional (MD) analysis framework, the present study conducted a corpus-based comparative MD analysis to investigate the multi-dimensional linguistic profile of AE vs. casual conversational English (CE) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to extract and interpret the co-occurring linguistic features of routine AE and non-routine AE. The comparative MD analysis shows that the AE exhibits more informational condensation, less authorial stance and technicality, and fewer features of online information elaboration compared to CE. The EFA shows variations in the linguistic and textual composition of the discourse of two sub-registers of AE across the two dimensions. Non-routine AE demonstrates a present-focused, viewpoint/intention-oriented approach, involving higher levels of integrative information flow compared to routine AE. Routine AE is characterized by a higher degree of information condensation and is marked by a planned, procedural, and intensive use of standard phraseology. Some pedagogical implications are then proposed for enhancing AE training to cultivate pilots’ and air traffic controllers’ language competence for precise, unambiguous communication tailored to both routine and non-routine operational contexts.
... MDA was developed to identify ''the salient linguistic co-occurrence patterns'' in a language from the perspectives of empirical and quantitative and explore register variations defined by the co-occurrence linguistic patterns (Biber & Conrad, 2001, p. 5). The approach can be traced back to Biber (1985Biber ( , 1986) and then developed further in Biber's (1988) study, and has been applied for interpreting register features and analyzing register variation based on corpora of Web (Biber & Egbert, 2018). ...
Article
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This paper provides a diachronic and bibliometric overview of register studies in the past decade. A total of 545 articles were selected from the field of linguistics of the database of Web of Science Core Collection for the analysis. For bibliometric analysis, CiteSpace and VOSViewer were used in order to reveal the co-citation analysis, the high-frequency keywords, keyword clusters, and the timeline of the keyword network in register studies. The results are summarized as follows. First, register studies have been gaining considerable academic attention in the examined years. Second, the major theoretical origins of register studies were text linguistics, systemic functional linguistics, and sociolinguistics. Third, corpus analysis and discourse analysis are the main research methods, followed by genre analysis, and conversation analysis. Fourth, important research themes were extracted and classified based on the following dimensions of register studies, namely, linguistic features, register types, register variations and pragmatic function. Furthermore, Teaching and education was an important dimension in register studies. Fifth, the recent research tended to focus on the register variations caused by the audiences, and corpus analysis and discourse analysis were widely used for broad analyses in different register studies. This bibliometric analysis also shows that online registers have become the research hotspot.
... Linguistic variations across the 16 disciplines are examined through five dimensions delineated by Biber (1985). The average dimension score of a dimension corresponds to a principal text type encapsulated within that dimension. ...
Article
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This mixed-method, corpus-based study investigates across disciplinary variations in the abstracts of Pakistani dissertations spanning 16 disciplines in the light of Biber's multidimensional analysis approach. While prior research has explored variations in the academic register of Pakistani English, a focused study on the abstract section has largely been ignored. Addressing this oversight, this research is conducted on a specially developed corpus of 72,702 words and analyzed using the MAT tagger. The findings indicate that, although there are evident disciplinary variations, the abstracts predominantly exhibit characteristics of being informational, non-narrative, context-independent, and non-persuasive. Notably, distinct variations emerged across disciplines in D3 (Dimension 3), D4, and D5, with Law as a notable outlier. These results support the idea that Pakistani English is a separate linguistic entity with unique characteristics.
... Scholars of World Englishes (Platt, Weber & Ho, 1984;Pride, 1982) have empirically regarded the emergence of "New Englishes" by exploring linguistic features. Such features describe language change at micro and macro levels (Biber, 1985(Biber, , 1986(Biber, , 1987(Biber, , 1988Mitkov & Stajner, 2011), diachronically (Biber & Finegan, 1989;Leech & Smith, 2005), and contrastively (Biber, 1995). According to Kroch (2001), language changes over a period of time in structure, vocabulary, phonology, morphology, and syntax. ...
Article
This research aims to see the evolution of Pakistani English. Therefore, it diachronically explores the linguistic variation in Pakistani English newspapers (PEN) utilizing a corpus-based multidimensional approach (MDA). Corpus for this research has been developed from the texts of four Pakistani English language newspapers published across six decades (1947-1996), and analyzed through MAT Software. The results reveal that the textual dimensions studied in PEN vary across the decades. Especially, textual Dimension 2 (D2) across 1977-1986 and 1987-1996 indicates that the discourse (used in PEN) is narrative due to the overuse of past tense, present participial clauses and public verbs, and is non-narrative across 1947-1956, 1957-1966 and 1967-1976 due to the overuse of third person pronouns, past tense and perfect aspect. Similarly, Dimension 4 (D4) across 1947-1956 highlights the language of newspapers to be interactive and less argumentative across 1957-1966, 1967-1976, 1977-1986 and 1987-1996. Due to these historical changes, the language of PEN is found to statistically less different across the decades, and close to Biber’s (1988) registers. Therefore, the language of PEN is concluded to: be informationally dense, non-narrative, explicit, abstract, and less argumentative; and fall in the outer circle (due to its closeness of PEN to Biber’s registers) where it is named as second language due to the linguistic variation.
... The third step is a functional interpretation of the evaluated linguistic patterns (Biber & Egbert, 2018). Biber (2006) used the dimensional approach for macro-and microscopic analysis for the evaluation of linguistic pattern structures, which are called language dimensions, for different type of text, such as texts with academic or everyday language, (Biber, 1985(Biber, , 2006Biber & Gray, 2013a, 2013b. The awareness of this linguistic pattern could be used for further analysis of the linguistic complexity of mathematical word problems. ...
Article
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The study examines language dimensions of mathematical word problems and the classification of mathematical word problems according to these dimensions with unsupervised machine learning (ML) techniques. Previous research suggests that the language dimensions are important for mathematical word problems because it has an influence on the linguistic complexity of word problems. Depending on the linguistic complexity students can have language obstacles to solve mathematical word problems. A lot of research in mathematics education research focus on the analysis on the linguistic complexity based on theoretical build language dimensions. To date, however it has been unclear what empirical relationship between the linguistic features exist for mathematical word problems. To address this issue, we used unsupervised ML techniques to reveal latent linguistic structures of 17 linguistic features for 342 mathematical word problems and classify them. The models showed that three- and five-dimensional linguistic structures have the highest explanatory power. Additionally, the authors consider a four-dimensional solution. Mathematical word problem from the three-dimensional solution can be classify in two groups, three- and five-dimensional solutions in three groups. The findings revealed latent linguistic structures and groups that could have an implication of the linguistic complexity of mathematical word problems and differ from language dimensions, which are considered theoretically. Therefore, the results indicate for new design principles for interventions and materials for language education in mathematics learning and teaching.
... So a new approach was developed to study register analysis and to compare two varieties with each other. The approach was named as Multidimensional approach and it was first developed and exercised by Douglas Biber (1984cBiber ( , 1985Biber ( , 1986 in register analysis. The present research focuses on non-narrative features (Dimension 2) in the language of Pakistan university prospectuses using the corpus in a way to investigate the significance of non-narrative features in prospectus language Pakistan universities. ...
Article
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The study focuses on the language of online university prospectus of Pakistan to show the significance of non-narrative features in relation to Dimension 2 "Narrative versus Non-narrative Concerns", of multidimensional analysis postulated by Douglas Biber (1988). The study incorporated a corpus-based investigation. Based on a representative corpus of five sections (about, facilities, department, library and Vice Chancellor message) of online university prospectus of Pakistan, multidimensional analysis was performed with the focus on Dimension 2. Multidimensional Analysis Tagger v 1.0 was used to tag and analyze the data. Dimension scores and the co-occurrences of the linguistic features were studied through Dimension 2 of multidimensional approach. The results indicate that language of Pakistan university prospectus shows greater concern for non-narrative and it was concluded that language of online university prospectus of Pakistan is argumentative, informational and non-narrative due to the presence of attributive adjective and present tense (non-narrative features) in high proportion. The study has educational as well as marketing implications in educational marketing.
... A AMD foi desenvolvida como uma abordagem metodológica baseada em corpus para identificar os padrões de coocorrência linguística subjacentes em um domínio do discurso (em termos empíricos/quantitativos), possibilitando uma comparação de registros, no espaço linguístico definido por esses padrões de coocorrência. Essa abordagem de pesquisa foi primeiramente utilizada em Biber (1985;1986) e depois desenvolvida mais plenamente em Biber (1988); desde então, a abordagem tem sido aplicada a inúmeros estudos de variação de registro (ver, por exemplo, o levantamento de estudos de MD em BIBER, 2014 e as recentes coleções de estudos de MD em FRIGINAL, 2013 e BERBER-SARDINHA; VEIRANO-PINTo, 2014). ...
Article
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Grande parte das pesquisas linguísticas sobre a internet tem como base o estudo de características linguísticas específicas que ocorrem na linguagem da internet (por exemplo, o uso de emoticons, abreviaturas, contrações e acrônimos) e também os “novos” registros da internet, aqueles mais evidentes, como por exemplo, blogs, fóruns da Internet, mensagens instantâneas e tweets. A análise multidimensional (AMD) já foi utilizada para investigar registros da internet, principalmente na análise de características gramaticais fundamentais, como por exemplo, substantivos, verbos e preposições. Uma pesquisa de cunho multidimensional difere de forma teórica e metodológica da maioria das abordagens de pesquisa no campo da linguística na medida em que ela se constrói a partir da noção de coocorrência linguística, que defende a ideia de que as diferenças entre registros podem ser descritas de forma mais adequada quando consideramos os conjuntos de características linguísticas que possuem base funcional. Contudo, a maioria dos estudos multidimensionais já realizados anteriormente são semelhantes a outras pesquisas sobre os novos registros da internet, como por exemplo, blogs, posts do Facebook/Twitter e mensagens de e-mail. Estes são os registros que quase sempre associamos com a internet, e por isso faz sentido que eles sejam o foco da maioria das pesquisas já realizadas. No entanto, isso só mostra como sabemos pouco sobre a complexidade dos registros encontrados na web e os padrões de variação linguística entre eles. Este é o objetivo do presente estudo. Em vez de começar com o foco nos novos registros que são considerados interessantes por natureza, analisamos uma amostra representativa de toda a web. Os usuários finais codificaram as características situacionais e comunicativas de cada documento do corpus, levando a uma gama muito mais ampla de categorias de registro do que as utilizadas em qualquer outro estudo feito anteriormente: oito categorias gerais; várias categorias de registros híbridos; e vinte e sete categorias de registros específicos. Esta abordagem é capaz de gerar uma amostra muito mais inclusiva e diversificada de registros da web do que qualquer outro estudo já realizado em língua inglesa. O objetivo deste estudo é documentar os padrões de variação linguística que subjazem esses registros. Por meio da AMD, revelamos as dimensões da variação linguística da web e as semelhanças e diferenças entre os registros que compõem essas dimensões.
... Out of the need of narrative plot, especially plot coherence, literary works tend to use pronouns to refer to the environmental elements, characters and events mentioned above, thus playing a role of textual cohesion. Francis & Kucera (1982), Biber (1985) and Tuldava (2005) share the view that one of the stylistic features of typical narrative articles is the "greater use of personal pronouns" . Fang Mengzhi (1988) compares the PB report of the US Business Publishing Bureau with the corpus of English short stories and finds that the number of pronouns in the novel is more than ten times that in the report. ...
Chapter
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This paper is a corpus-based cognitive study of Anglo-American sinologists’ English translation of Chinese fiction during the last four decades. With a domain analysis of the semantically tagged corpus data, it shows that animals and plants are key concepts in the corpus of Chinese Fiction Translation in the four decades (CCFT), in sharp contrast with the reference corpora, that is, OTC, the Other-source-language Translational Corpus of Fiction, and EFC, the English Fiction Corpus of Balanced Selection. Data shows that the “rusticness” embodied in the construction of animal and plant images not only exists in the four periods, but also has no diminishing tendency in the translated Chinese Fiction. An analysis of the concordance-line corpus of animal and plant words reveals a variety of key cognitive domains like Emotional, Sensory, People, and Relationship, in the proximate surrounding contexts, clearly indicating the existence of metaphors, and further analysis is conducted on metaphors embedded in “as…as” construction. The diversified metaphors with animal and plant images are constructed along the Great Chain of Being, and fully reflect the rich imagination of the authors and translators. It is argued that the animal and plant concepts are not simply indexes of the rustic environment, but are essential in the construction of the literariness of translated Chinese fiction. Therefore, any criticism that neglects or denies the “rustic literariness” of Chinese Fiction and its translation is partial. The study has implications for introducing new theoretical models and empirical methods into literary translation studies.
... Penggunaan bahasa pada aras permulaan boleh dipertimbangkan secara sistematik melalui dimensi variasi. Konsep ini diperkenalkan oleh Biber (1985; untuk merujuk kepada parameter variasi yang didasari oleh setiap dimensi. Perkara ini mewakili pelbagai ciri linguistik bersama (semantik). ...
Article
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Metafora Linguistik atau Ekspresi Metafora atau Leksikal Metafora (Metaphorically Used Word (MUW)) merupakan bentuk perbahasan yang dikemukakan oleh Semino (2008) bagi meneliti secara eksplisit dan sistematik metafora dalam sesebuah wacana. Artikel ini bertujuan meneliti tiga (3) aspek penyelidikan metafora berdasarkan perspektif linguistik korpus, iaitu: (1) mengenal pasti lesikogrammatikal metafora leksikal ukuran, yang merujuk kepada pola kolokasi metafora linguistik; (2) kebarangkalian metafora leksikal ukuran, merupakan pengujian memungkinkan leksikal sebagai leksikal metafora (MUW); dan (3) Dimensi Variasi Metafora leksikal ukuran berdasarkan pemboleh ubah metafora topik dan sarana. Kajian ini menggunakan Korpus Petua Membina Rumah (KPMR). Korpus ini terdiri daripada MSS741, MSS1521, MSS1849, MSS1415, MSS2001, fasal Kitab Abu Masyar dan fasal Tajul Muluk. Korpus Petua Membina Rumah (KPMR) merupakan korpus khusus. Artikel ini menggunakan reka bentuk kajian kuantitatif dengan pendekatan statistik linguistik korpus berdasarkan perisian #LancsBox 4.5. Signifikan leksikal ukuran kerana leksikal ini merupakan 10 leksikal teratas dalam kata kandungan (kata nama). Leksikal ukuran ini memperoleh 54 kali kekerapan mentah dan 36.865101 kali kekerapan relatif. Dalam janaan Keyword In Context (KWIC) terdapat 24 leksikal yang berkolokasi bersama node ukuran. Dapatan pertama, leksikogrammatikal metafora menunjukkan rangsangan leksikal berkolokasi dengan node ukuran terdiri daripada leksikal tiang dan bendul (struktur rumah). Leksikal kolokasi ini merupakan pola leksikal metafora yang berlaku dan dikodkan sebagai bukan literal (metafora).Keduanya, dapatan kebarangkalian metafora menjelaskan leksikal metafora (MUW)berkemungkinan berlaku menerusi hubungan ko-kejadian node ukuran dan leksikal kolokasi.Ketiganya, Dimensi Variasi Metafora mengambil kira Leksikal Metafora (MUW) melibatkan metafora topik dan sarana seperti manusia, abstrak, pergerakan/kedudukan, objek/bangunan dan lain-lain. Ketiga-tiga dapatan ini menunjukkan leksikal ukuran digunakan sebagaimetafora (MUW) berdasarkan KPMR. Justeru, penerokaan data kekerapan ini merupakan paradigma dalam kajian metafora bahasa Melayu berpandukan linguistik korpus. Kata kunci: Kolokasi; Metafora Linguistik; Teks Klasik; Rumah; Pengenalpastian Ekspresi Metafora
... The materials were identified on an open-source website (cnx.org) that allowed us to download and modify college texts without copyright infringement. To avoid confounding factors influencing comprehension, passages needed to share a similar writing structure (Biber, 1985;Kulesz, 2014;Lee & Spratley, 2010). Therefore, we selected opening chapters from two introductory level textbooks: public speaking and social psychology. ...
Article
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Purpose An important predictor of postsecondary academic success is an individual's reading comprehension skills. Postsecondary readers apply a wide range of behavioral strategies to process text for learning purposes. Currently, no tools exist to detect a reader's use of strategies. The primary aim of this study was to develop Read, Understand, Learn, & Excel, an automated tool designed to detect reading strategy use and explore its accuracy in detecting strategies when students read digital, expository text. Method An iterative design was used to develop the computer algorithm for detecting 9 reading strategies. Twelve undergraduate students read 2 expository texts that were equated for length and complexity. A human observer documented the strategies employed by each reader, whereas the computer used digital sequences to detect the same strategies. Data were then coded and analyzed to determine agreement between the 2 sources of strategy detection (i.e., the computer and the observer). Results Agreement between the computer- and human-coded strategies was 75% or higher for 6 out of the 9 strategies. Only 3 out of the 9 strategies–previewing content, evaluating amount of remaining text, and periodic review and/or iterative summarizing–had less than 60% agreement. Conclusion Read, Understand, Learn, & Excel provides proof of concept that a reader's approach to engaging with academic text can be objectively and automatically captured. Clinical implications and suggestions to improve the sensitivity of the code are discussed. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.8204786
... Using AntWordProfiler software (Anthony, 2012), I found that 1.02% of the tokens in the corpus were on the AWL list, slightly more than Gardner's (2004) estimate from his corpus of juvenile fiction. There were 484 AWL word families that occurred at least once in the corpus, or roughly 85% of the total of 570. ...
Article
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Some researchers have argued that low-achieving students may never acquire sufficient levels of academic vocabulary to be successful in school without some form of explicit vocabulary instruction (e.g. Snow, Lawrence, & White, 2009). In this paper, I summarize the available data on the efficiency, in words learned per minute of instruction, of explicitly teaching academic vocabulary. I also examine another possible source for academic vocabulary knowledge: pleasure reading, or what Krashen (2004) refers to as "free voluntary reading." A large corpus of popular, young adult fiction is analyzed to assess the likelihood that academic words can be acquired at least in part through reading. Comparing the relative efficiency of direct instruction and free reading, I found that reading is between two and six times more efficient than explicit teaching of academic vocabulary.
... Similar to other tools, such as Biber's (1985) multidimensional analysis, DocuScope identifies genre features based on multidimensional analysis of covariation among variables. However, different from other systems, which capture functional distinctions through analysis of grammatical categories, the DocuScope system directly targets functional categories (i.e., the experience that is created in the reader when a phrase is used) (Klebanov, Kaufer, Yeoh, Ishizaki, & Holtzman, 2016). ...
... Some explicit teaching of terms related to new concepts, for example, may be required. More importantly, there are characteristics of academic language that are only found in academic texts (Biber, 1985), and therefore can only be acquired through academic reading (Krashen, 2010). Pleasure reading can, however, provide an important "bridge" to more challenging school reading, including sub-technical vocabulary. ...
Article
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Several researchers have advocated explicit instruction of vocabulary in order to help students improve their reading comprehension, especially low-achieving readers who need to "catch-up" to their age peers. Very few studies, however, have attempted to compare the time efficiency of direct instruction to its alternatives. In this review, I calculate the efficiency of vocabulary instruction in 14 studies taken from a recent research review (Wright & Cervetti, 2017). I then compare those results with estimates of vocabulary acquisition via a likely alternative source of vocabulary growth, free reading. Free reading was found to be 1.7 times more efficient than direct instruction in building vocabulary in short-term treatments, and 12 times as efficient for long-term treatments.
... Biber proposed the multi-dimension/multi-feature approach in the 1980s and applied it into comparative studies of different registers for the following years [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Multi-dimension/multi-feature approach was introduced into China in the 2000s (see Lei Xiuyun [12] and Wu Jiangsheng [13,14]) and has been used since then for research, such as Ma Guanghui [15], Gui Shichun [16], Wen QiuFang [17], Hu Xianyao [18] etc. ...
... The materials were identified on an open-source website (cnx.org) that allowed us to download and modify college texts without copyright infringement. To avoid confounding factors influencing comprehension, passages needed to share a similar writing structure (Biber, 1985;Kulesz, 2014;Lee & Spratley, 2010). Therefore, we selected opening chapters from two introductory level textbooks: public speaking and social psychology. ...
Article
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Purpose There is a lack of quick, reliable, and valid standardized reading comprehension assessments appropriate for postsecondary readers. We attempted to address this gap by designing Read, Understand, Learn, & Excel (RULE), a reading comprehension measure that employs sentence verification and recall tasks to assess reading comprehension. This article describes the exploratory study undertaken to construct RULE and then examines the preliminary concurrent validity and alternate form reliability of this measure. Method The RULE measure was first developed by designing reading stimuli, test items for the sentence verification task, and directions for the recall test for 2 forms based on previous work (Griffiths, Sohlberg, Kirk, Fickas, & Biancarosa, 2016). Thirty undergraduate students who identified themselves as typical readers were administered the RULE measure as well as the Nelson–Denny Reading Test (Brown, Fishco, & Hanna, 1993). Students also completed questionnaires and participated in informal interviews to provide information regarding study and learning habits and academic background. Results There was preliminary evidence of alternate form reliability between the sentence verification task sets of 2 chapters of RULE (r = .38, p < .05). Preliminary evidence for concurrent validity between RULE and the Nelson–Denny Reading Test was provided by correlation coefficients in the low to moderate range (.03–.38). Conclusion RULE design and preliminary findings of concurrent validity and alternate form reliability provide “proof of concept” for an ecologically valid testing format that assesses comprehension skills appropriate for the postsecondary level. Suggestions for strengthening validity and reliability of the tool are provided, and clinical contributions of RULE are discussed. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.6987371
... Syntax analysis of the text and the use of style markers are common methods to genre text classification. Indicatively, Biber (1986Biber ( , 1988 distinguishes spoken and written texts in English language based on linguistic, syntactic and lexical features, in particular, using as indicators the passive voice of verbs, the present and past tenses of the verb, adverbs, etc., Karlgen and Cutting (1994) used as indicators the adverbs, the preposition, the appearance of types of third person pronoun etc. Kessler, Nunberg, and Schütze (1997) classified the texts based on verbal clues such as words expressing dates, punctuation and the average sentence length. Dewdney, VanEss-Dykema, and MacMillan (2001) used as indicators the moods in verbs, the adjectives and sentence complexity. ...
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Viewing its use in language teaching mainly as a text corpus, this article examines the problem of the assessment of suitability of this material for use in the Greek language course in Cyprus schooling. The suitability of texts for use in language teaching is defined by four parameters, which are described in detail in this article: text readability, content, genre, and grammatical information. The literature review shows the research gap as to the ways of finding on the Web a suitable text for use in language teaching according to specific characteristics. The tool diaKeimenou, which is presented in this article, aims to fill this gap and help the teacher choose the most suitable texts for teaching with reasonable effort and time. The results of the usability evaluation of diaKeimenou are also presented in this article.
... However, function words also show such associations, pointing to grammatical differences between text types. That such grammatical differences exist is, of course, also known, it has been demonstrated impressively, for example, in the research tradition started in Biber (1985), where bundles of lexicogrammatical features are used to identify and categorize text types. ...
Conference Paper
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Associations between words and grammatical patterns have been studied under various labels. Such studies have consistently shown that grammatical structures are typically associated with an above-chance frequency with sets of lexical items that are often functionally or semantically motivated. The stability of such associations across text types is less clear: since vocabulary differs quite strongly depending on text type, the same would be expected of lexicon-grammar associations. In this paper, I show that such variation exists and can be used to investigate domain-specific functions of grammatical patterns as well as the functional relationship between text types.
... MD analysis was developed as a corpus-based methodological approach for identifying the underlying linguistic co-occurrence patterns in a discourse domain (in empirical/quantitative terms), enabling a comparison of registers in the linguistic space defined by those co-occurrence patterns. This research approach was first used in Biber (1985;1986) and then developed more fully in Biber (1988); since that time, the approach has been applied in numerous studies of register variation (see, e.g., the survey of MD studies in Biber 2014, and the recent collections of MD studies in Friginal 2013 and Berber-Sardinha & Veirano-Pinto 2014). ...
Article
Most previous linguistic investigations of the web have focused on special linguistic features associated with Internet language (e.g., the use of emoticons, abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms) and the “new” Internet registers that are especially salient to observers (e.g., blogs, Internet forums, instant messages, tweets). Multi-Dimensional (MD) analysis has also been used to analyze Internet registers, focusing on core grammatical features (e.g., nouns, verbs, prepositional phrases). MD research differs theoretically and methodologically from most other research approaches in linguistics in that it is built on the notion of linguistic co-occurrence, with the claim that register differences are best described in terms of sets of co-occurring linguistic features that have a functional underpinning. At the same time, though, most previous MD studies are similar to other previous research in their focus on new Internet registers, such as blogs, Facebook/Twitter posts, and email messages. These are the registers that we immediately think of in association with the Internet, and thus it makes sense that they should be the focus of most previous research. However, that emphasis means that we know surprisingly little at present about the full range of registers found on the web and the patterns of linguistic variation among those registers. This is the goal of the present study. Rather than beginning with a focus on new registers that are assumed to be interesting, we analyze a representative sample of the entire searchable web. End-users coded the situational and communicative characteristics of each document in our corpus, leading to a much wider range of register categories than that used in any previous linguistic study: eight general categories; several hybrid register categories; and twenty-seven specific register categories. This approach thus leads to a much more inclusive and diverse sample of web registers than that found in any previous study of English Internet language. The goal of the present study is to document the patterns of linguistic variation among those registers. Using MD analysis, we explore the dimensions of linguistic variation on the searchable web, and the similarities and differences among web registers with respect to those dimensions.
... Consequently, spontaneous speech typically contains a large number of connectors, gap fillers, hedges, tags, backchannels, interjections and discourse markers (Erman 1987, Cameron 2001. All the features illustrated so far have been further proven in studies which apply multivariate statistical techniques, such as factor and cluster analyses 2 (Biber 1985, Biber andFinegan 1986). These studies show that face-to-face conversation is interpersonal, situation-dependent, and has no narrative concern 3 , or as Biber and Finegan (1986) put it, is a highly interactive, situated and immediate text type. ...
Chapter
Genre is not a new word, but there have been different understandings of it in different disciplines.
Article
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This study aims at exploring comparative linguistic variation across Pakistani and Chinese learners’ English argumentative essays using a multidimensional analysis (MDA) approach. This study uses a quantitative approach to describing co-occurring linguistic features. The corpus comprising 400 Pakistani and Chinese learners’ essays used in this study has been electronically derived from an online source, ICNALE. The representative corpus has been tagged and analysed through MAT tagger. This study addresses how the language of Pakistani and Chinese learners vary comparatively linguistically; it also explores their linguistic characterization which distinguishes their variety through their co-occurring linguistic features using MD analysis by utilizing five dimensions. The study is restricted to only two countries i.e., Pakistan and China, and the size of the data is considerably more restricted to one sub-register of essay writing, namely, argumentative essays. The results indicate that the language of Pakistani learners’ essays is informational but Chinese learners’ essays are involved in dimension 1 Chinese learners’ essays are narrative whereas Pakistanis learners’ essays are non-narrative on dimension 2. Dimension 3 specifies that Pakistani learners’ essay writings implement that the text is independent of context and contains significant nominalizations while Chinese learners’ essay writings are context-dependent in nature. Dimension 4 indicates that Chinese learners’ essay writings are more explicit and persuasive specifying extensive use of modal verbs than Pakistani learners’ writings. The nature of Chinese learners’ essays is abstract, formal, and technical while Pakistani learners’ essays are non-abstract, objective, and natural on Dimension 5. This study has shed light on how learners acquire new words and expressions from reading different texts that identify various lexical grammatical aspects writers employ and serve as the fundamental source of variety in their language. The categories of dimensions are developed based on particular linguistic features that are over- or under-utilized by assessing the statistical data.
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O ponto de partida para o presente artigo foi a observação de que, num corpo de cerca de 800 textos literários em português, a Literateca, havia consideravelmente mais menções ao vestuário nos textos brasileiros do que nos portugueses. Isto levou a uma análise mais fina do campo semântico da roupa, tentando confirmar ou refutar essa tendência, e se confirmada, identificar suas possíveis causas. Algumas tentativas de explicação com base nos campos da antropologia, linguística cultural e estudos literários são alvitradas, e alguns estudos exploratórios são apresentados usando um conjunto mais comparável de obras literárias nas duas variantes do português. O artigo tenta mostrar a vantagem metodológica de efetuar leitura distante, que guia a leitura próxima e que leva a novas fases de análise, assim como a necessidade de investigar muitas diferentes vertentes quando se lida com corpos anotados.
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A Linguística de Corpus, um dos ramos da Linguística Aplicada, tem como um dos seus construtos metodológicos a análise multidimensional, uma metodologia que leva em consideração a parte quantitativa da linguística, onde grandes quantidades de textos que formam o corpus de análise passam por procedimentos estatísticos. As características linguísticas dos textos são agrupadas em fatores de acordo com sua coocorrência nos textos que, ao serem interpretados linguisticamente, são chamadas de dimensões. Essa abordagem metodológica teve início na década de 80 com o linguista Douglas Biber nos Estados Unidos implementando o que chamamos abordagem americana da Linguística de Corpus. No Brasil, esta abordagem é desenvolvida tanto em textos em língua inglesa, portuguesa, alemã e espanhola e o LAEL na PUC-SP é o polo de desenvolvimento desta metodologia. O presente trabalho é uma revisão de literatura dessa abordagem que a princípio foi desenvolvida para análise gramatical / funcional e, hoje em dia, já há trabalhos na área lexical, semântica e colocacional.
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Since 1984 when Douglas Biber first conducted a multi-dimensional (MD) analysis, MD analyses have expanded in scope. However, there has yet to be a comprehensive survey of this body of research. This methodological synthesis conducts a large-scale survey of MD analyses dating back to Biber's (1984) dissertation. An unprecedented total of 230 studies including peer-reviewed articles and dissertations were coded for a variety of study characteristics and methodological choices. The results of this survey show that researchers have made a wide variety of methodological decisions including the choice of tagger, factor loading and communality cutoff values, and types of additional statistical analyses conducted. It was also found that reporting practices of MD analyses have been less than optimal, lacking information necessary for the replicability of the study. The study concludes with a set of recommendations for future MD analyses in relation to reporting practices and the goals of future studies.
Article
By applying Multi-Dimensional Analysis, this study has provided a thorough description of the lexico-grammatical characteristics of courtroom discourse to see to what extent it employs both linguistic features of oral registers and literate registers. In particular, this study focuses on language used in the four public sub-registers (opening statements, direct examinations, cross-examinations, closing arguments) of courtroom discourse and analyzes how oral/literate each sub-register is, instead of characterizing courtroom discourse as oral/literate overall. Detailed interpretation of results focuses on Dimension 1 (involved and interactive vs. informational production) and 2 (narrative vs. non-narrative discourse) as these two dimensions are identified as universal parameters of register variation (Biber, 2014). A corpus of high-profile courtroom trials was compiled for this study that includes the O. J. Simpson criminal trial, the Boston Marathon bombing trial, and the Oklahoma bombing trial.
Article
Combining the frameworks of multi-dimensional (MD) analysis and rhetorical structure theory (RST), this study examines the linguistic co-occurrence patterns in the discourse of corporate annual reports (CARs) and interprets their underlying functional dimensions. Our corpus consists of texts of corporate 10K reports from firms listed on New York Stock Exchange (NYSE; N of texts = 642, totally 14,674,047 tokens). Five functional dimensions are quantitatively extracted and qualitatively interpreted: (1) expression of direct persuasion; (2) expression of impersonal stance; (3) subjective versus objective positioning; (4) integrative expression of stance versus fragmented expression; and (5) expression of reliability. All these dimensions contribute to the communicative function of persuasion. The analysis of the rhetorical structures of excerpts with high concentrations of co-occurring linguistic features on each dimension further indicates the communicative strategy of persuasion. The proposed MD model is then applied to analyze the effect of firm performance on the linguistic variation in CAR discourse. We found that firm performance can significantly affect the linguistic variation in CAR discourse. CAR discourse from firms with good performance is more reliable. The result reveals managements’ use of concealment strategy in impression management. This study has implications for MD analysis, business discourse analysis, language pedagogy and accounting research.
Chapter
The chapter provides an overview of the developments in synchronic and diachronic corpus-linguistic research into World Englishes (WE), detailing methodological concerns such as sampling frames, representativeness, corpus size, and statistical modelling on the one hand and the broadening scope of corpus-based research from ENL to ESL and EFL varieties on the other hand. It also surveys areas in which corpus-evidence has been applied in the study of WE (e.g. as a testing bed for models of WEs, for the study of language contact, typology and change or as a source of evidence for sociolinguistic and pragmatic variation), providing ample illustration from seminal research papers and recent studies in the field.
Book
Cambridge Core - Sociolinguistics - Register Variation Online - by Douglas Biber
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Since Saussure, linguistic science relies on the assumption that there is a homogeneous language underlying the variation. This paper seeks to refute this assumption, using as methodology statistical explorations in large corpora. Theories are narratives that try to organize the data at our disposal, and it is therefore reasonable that new data (different both in quantity and quality) produce new narratives. From the perspective presented here, we see language being regular and irregular, without center or periphery. Irregularity is inescapable; language is complicated and simple, simultaneously. --- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22409/gragoata.2017n44a1015
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Multi-Dimensional Analysis (MDA) has been widely used to explore register variation. This paper reports on a project using MDA to explore the features of an interdisciplinary academic domain. Six dimensions of variation are identified in a corpus of 11,000 journal articles in environmental studies. We then focus on articles in one interdisciplinary journal, Global Environmental Change (GEC). It is expected that they will diverge sufficiently to produce differences that are analogous to register differences. Instead of identifying these “registers” on external criteria, we use the dimensional profiles of individual texts to identify ‘constellations’ of texts sharing combinations of features. Six such constellations are derived, consisting of texts with commonalities in their approaches to research: the development of predictive models; quantitative research; discussions of theory and policy; and human-environment studies focusing on individual voices. The identification of these constellations could not have been achieved through an a priori categorisation of texts.
Chapter
Ziel dieser Fallstudie ist es zum einen, die Faktorenanalyse als Instrument zur effektiven Auswertung und Interpretation geolinguistischer Daten zu propagieren. Es zeigt sich, dass die Faktorenanalyse tiefgreifende, latente Strömungen in der Gesamtvariation aufdecken kann, die sowohl beim Blick auf Einzelvarianten als auch in der bislang üblichen quantitativen Dialektologie verborgen bleiben. Dabei bleibt auch in großen Kartenkorpora der Zugriff auf die Rolle der Einzelvariante unverstellt. Zum anderen kann dargestellt werden, wie die unterschiedlichen Ebenen des Sprachsystems auch unterschiedliche geografische Konfigurationen zeigen. Das führt zur Einsicht, dass a) auf die einzelnen sprachlichen Systemebenen jeweils individuelle Faktoren unterschiedlich stark einwirken sowie b) das Ergebnis von Dialekteinteilungen durch die Wahl des zugrunde gelegten Materials klar vordeterminiert wird – und im Umkehrschluss, dass Einteilungen, die nur auf Ausschnitten der Daten oder einzelnen Systemebenen beruhen, nicht oder nur sehr eingeschränkt für andere Systemebenen sprechen können.
Book
Variationslinguistik ist – kurz gesagt – die Suche nach Mustern im Chaos, nach Regelmäßigkeiten in sprachlichen Daten. Diese Arbeit zeigt, was eine stochastische Herangehensweise diesbezüglich leisten kann: Sie ermöglicht die Erfassung komplexer räumlicher Eigenschaften in Form von anschaulich interpretierbaren, objektiviert vergleichbaren Werten sowie die Anbindung an etablierte statistische Standardverfahren. In exemplarischer Anwendung auf das Material des Sprachatlas von Bayerisch-Schwaben werden Zusammenhänge und Unterschiede zwischen einzelnen sprachlichen Systemteilen (Wortschatz, Lautung, Formen) in bislang unerreichter Transparenz sichtbar. Dabei bestätigt sich die Vermutung, dass das klassische Konzept der „Dialekteinteilung" zu undifferenziert ist. Die Übertragung von Konzepten der Unschärfe auf Zusammenhänge innerhalb und zwischen Varietäten sowie die Visualisierung latenter Strukturen, die scheinbar homogenen Daten zugrunde liegen, führen vor Augen, wie fragil und komplex in der geografischen Sprachvariation das Zusammenwirken von Regularität und Irregularität sein kann. Die Arbeit wurde mit dem Förderpreis des Bezirks Schwaben 2014 und dem Johann-Andreas-Schmeller-Preis 2016 ausgezeichnet.
Article
This paper provides an overview of various English language corpora. It examines the relationships between the various extrant corpora and also indicates some of the features of a corpus of written English being developed in Australia. The article considers some of the linguistic and theoretical constraints on corpus-based research.
Chapter
This volume contributes to filling a gap in corpus-based research by investigating the ways in which linguistic features vary across genres/registers cross-linguistically. It brings together insightful chapters by leading scholars in the field, fruitfully exploiting genre- or register-controlled multilingual parallel and comparable corpora to: (i) problematize cross-register variation in a multilingual perspective, (ii) address methodological and theoretical issues raised by register-oriented contrastive and translation studies, (iii) investigate the cross-linguistic and cross-genre variation of specific linguistic features, such as lexical bundles, sentence-initial adverbials and tag questions, (iv) identify cross-cultural and cross-linguistic dissimilarities in expressing a functional category, viz. Appraisal, in the field of opinion mining. The book offers new cutting-edge research that should be of interest to specialists in contrastive linguistics, translation studies and cross-cultural studies. Originally published as a special issue of Languages in Contrast 14:1 (2014).
Article
Previous theoretical and empirical research on register variation has argued that linguistic co-occurrence patterns have a highly systematic relationship to register differences, because they both share the same functional underpinnings. The goal of this study is to test this claim through a comparison of two statistical techniques that have been used to describe register variation: factor analysis (as used in Multi-Dimensional analysis, MDA) and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA). MDA and CDA have different statistical bases and thus give priority to different analytical considerations: linguistic co-occurrence in the case of MDA and the prediction of register differences in the case of CDA. Thus, there is no statistical reason to expect that the two techniques, if applied to the same corpus, will produce similar results. We hypothesize that although MDA and CDA approach register variation from opposite sides, they will produce similar results because both types of statistical patterns are motivated by underlying discourse functions. The present paper tests this claim through a case-study analysis of variation among web registers, applying MDA and CDA to analyze register variation in the same corpus of texts.
Chapter
Approximately a quarter of a century ago, the Multi-Dimensional (MD) approach—one of the most powerful (and controversial) methods in Corpus Linguistics—saw its first book-length treatment. In its eleven chapters, this volume presents all new contributions covering a wide range of written and spoken registers, such as movies, music, magazine texts, student writing, social media, letters to the editor, and reports, in different languages (English, Spanish, Portuguese) and contexts (engineering, journalism, the classroom, the entertainment industry, the Internet, etc.). The book also includes a personal account of the development of the method by its creator, Doug Biber, an introduction to MD statistics, as well as an application of MD analysis to corpus design. The book should be essential reading to anyone with an interest in how texts, genres, and registers are used in society, what their lexis and grammar look like, and how they are interrelated.
Conference Paper
In spite of the great number of diachronic studies in various languages, the methodology for investigating language change has not evolved much in the last fifty years. Following the progressive trends in other fields, in this paper, we argue for the adoption of a machine learning approach in diachronic studies, which could offer a more efficient analysis of a large number of features and easier comparison of the results across different genres, languages and language varieties. We suggest the use of statistical tests as an initial step for feature selection in an approach which uses the F-measure of the classification algorithms as a measure of the extent of diachronic changes. Furthermore, we compare the performance of the classification task after the feature selection made by statistical tests and the CfsSubsetEval attribute selection algorithm. The experiments were conducted on the British part of the biggest existing diachronic corpora of 20th century written English language – the ‘Brown family’ of corpora, using 23 different stylistic features. The results demonstrated that the use of the statistical tests for feature selection can significantly increase the accuracy of the classification algorithms.
Article
The research aims at locating the basic difference between structures of British and Pakistani sports column writers. How columns writer picturize sports world cup in their columns and what are their intentions, how both these states project their point of view towards sports. The research aims at locating all the differences at the lexical level. MAT is used to analyze the text and it helps us in locating 165 features like passives, Nouns, pronouns, articles, conjunctions and other grammatical feature in the text . The research aims at exploring which community uses specific features excessively. The finding indicates the different ways of both writers how they present their views by using various writing techniques. The study also explores how sports column writers use specific structures and verbal situations in construction of reality and highlighting their interest to control the mind and maintain power over the audience.
Book
Methodological know-how has become one of the key qualifications in contemporary linguistics, which has a strong empirical focus. Containing 23 chapters, each devoted to a different research method, this volume brings together the expertise and insight of a range of established practitioners. The chapters are arranged in three parts, devoted to three different stages of empirical research: data collection, analysis and evaluation. In addition to detailed step-by-step introductions and illustrative case studies focusing on variation and change in English, each chapter addresses the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology and concludes with suggestions for further reading. This systematic, state-of-the-art survey is ideal for both novice researchers and professionals interested in extending their methodological repertoires. The book also has a companion website which provides readers with further information, links, resources, demonstrations, exercises and case studies related to each chapter.
Article
This paper studies the use of the term educación bilingüe intercultural (ebi) ('intercultural bilingual education') both in specialized discourse as well as in non-specialized documents from the perspective of a proposal for a terminology which is at variance with the traditional point of view, oriented towards terminology normalization and prescription. The focus here is on communication: according to this approach, terms are considered as units of natural language with a capacity for reference, but, like words, they can also have other functions (expressive, conative, etc.), and can be used in different communicative settings. This analysis allows us to explain the term intercultural bilingual education in discourses produced in different socio-cultural situations, to observe the degree of competence the producers of such discourses have of such a term and to describe the formal and conceptual variation of the term according to the users and the type of text.
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