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Why are Some Words More Difficult than Others? Some Intralexical Factors that Affect the Learning of Words
Abstract
Dieser Artikel versucht auf der Grundlage von empirischen Untersuchungen einige Faktoren zu beschreiben, die dafür verantwortlich sind, daß ein neues Wort in einer Fremdsprache schwerer oder leichter erlernt wird. Die Faktoren, die dieser Artikel beschreibt, sind ‘intralexikalisch’, d.h. sie stammen aus dem betreffenden Wort selbst; z.B. Schwierigkeit der Aussprache oder morphologische Komplexität.
... Wyrazy różnią się między sobą: znaczeniem, wymową, przynależnością do części mowy, stopniem konkretności/abstrakcyjności, regularnością odmiany (w przypadku odmiennych), a także długością (Laufer 1990). Ostatni parametr jest nie tylko zauważalny, lecz także obiektywnie mierzalny 3 . ...
... Ogólnie jednak wielu badaczy przyjmuje, że słowa dłuższe są trudniejsze, a krótsze -łatwiejsze (zob. Lado 1955;Laufer 1990;Seretny 2006;Broda i in. 2014;Dębowski i in. ...
... Jeśli tekst zawiera, przykładowo 300 wyrazów, a powinien, biorąc pod uwagę liczbę znaków, mieć ich 400, oznacza to, że większość tworzących go wyrazów musi być dłuższa niż 6 znaków. Uwzględniając dodatkowo fakt, iż słowa funkcyjne są z reguły krótkie (Laufer 1990), słowa autosemantyczne w tym tekście muszą być bardzo długie. Jeśli zaś tekst ma 300 słów, a powinien mieć 200, ponownie biorąc pod uwagę liczbę znaków, to większość jednostek leksykalnych jest w nim krótka 13 . ...
W niniejszym artykule podjęto próbę znalezienia odpowiedzi na pytanie: Jak długi jest przeciętny polski wyraz? W tym celu w trakcie dwóch badań przeanalizowano 90 próbek tekstów zaczerpniętych z Narodowego Korpusu Języka Polskiego zawierających po 1000 słów W czasie badań kontrolowano średnią liczbę znaków w każdej próbce, jak również medianę liczby znaków na wyraz. Uzyskane wyniki pozwoliły na określenie długości przeciętnego polskiego wyrazu (PW), która wynosi 6 znaków. Przeliczono też liczbę znaków we wszystkich próbkach i ujęto ją za pomocą PW, porównując długość tekstu wyrażoną słowami faktycznymi i przeciętnymi. Zastosowane procedury statystyczne umożliwiły odrzucenie hipotezy zerowej o braku różnicy między użyciem wyrazów konkretnych, a PW jako miary długości tekstu. W podsumowaniu przedstawiono możliwe zastosowania tego modelu dla celów (glotto)dydaktycznych.
... Over the past decades, research evidence has accumulated, supporting the influences of sublexical, lexical and contextual features on visual word recognition (for a review, see Balota, 1994). When it comes to vocabulary learning, such factors are supposed to Orthographic, Semantic, and Contextual Influences on Initial Processing and Learning of Novel Words During Reading: Evidence From Eye Movements moderate the level of difficulty for L2 learners (for a review, see Laufer, 1990). Vocabulary learning is a multi-faceted process. ...
... In the field of short-term memory research, word length effect-that is, serial recall for short words is better than that for long words-has been regarded as one of the benchmark findings (Baddeley et al., 1975). Many studies on L2 vocabulary learning have also revealed similar advantages of short words (for a review, see Laufer, 1990). Hiebert and colleagues (Hiebert et al., 2019) found that number of letters negatively impacted the performance of both L1 and L2 speakers of English in vocabulary knowledge tests. ...
This study investigated the impacts of orthographic, semantic and contextual variables—including word length, concreteness, and contextual support—on the processing and learning of novel L2 words when first encountered during reading. EFL students were recruited to read sentences for comprehension, embedded with unfamiliar L2 words that occurred once. Immediately after this, they received a form recognition test, a meaning recall test, and a meaning recognition test. Eye-movement data showed significant effects of word length on both early and late processing of novel words, along with effects of concreteness only on late-processing eye-tracking measures. Informative contexts were read slower than neutral contexts, yet contextual support did not show any direct influence on the processing of novel words. Interestingly, initial learning of abstract words was better than concrete words in terms of form and meaning recognition. Attentional processing of novel L2 words, operationalized by total reading time, positively predicted L2 learners’ recognition of new orthographic forms. Taken together, these results suggest: 1) orthographic, semantic and contextual factors play distinct roles for initial processing and learning of novel words; 2) online processing of novel words contributes to L2 learners’ initial knowledge of unfamiliar lexical items acquired from reading.
... The empirical studies (Burner, 2016;Chen, Kettle, Klenowski, & May, 2013;Hwang & Chang, 2011;Ng, 2014) conclude that formative assessment if used correctly has a positive impact on student learning and formative assessment was especially helpful for students who had not performed well in the study. But formative assessment is rarely used in studies on vocabulary learning (Allen, 2002;Coady & Huckin, 2001;Nation, 2004;O'Malley & Chamot, 2001;Schmitt, 2000) (Coady & Huckin, 2001), vocabulary teaching and learning (Schmitt, 2000;Nation, 2004), techniques in vocabulary teaching (Allen, 2002), influential factors in vocabulary learning (Laufer, 1990) and mental lexicon (Jiang, 2000). Nation (2001) also put forward three processes of learners' remembering words. ...
As critical reading is a process of active reader involvement, learners interact with the
author’s exposition and potentially construct conceptual understanding of its content,
a process for which Thinking Maps®
is a potential catalyst. This study examines the
potential effect of an instructional program based on Thinking Maps® on Jordanian
EFL tenth-grade students’ critical reading skills. It further probes the perceived
effectiveness of Thinking Maps® in developing their critical reading skills. Both
quantitative and qualitative data were sought by means of a pre-/post-test and a semi-structured interview. The findings reveal statistically significant differences in the
students’ critical reading skills in favor of the experimental group. The qualitative
analysis of the interview reveals that the participants perceived Thinking Maps® as
highly effective. Some implications and recommendations for EFL practitioners and
future researchers are put forth.
... Words vary with respect to visual, phonological, orthographic, semantic, and syntactic characteristics, which can make vocabulary learning more or less difficult (Schmitt, 2019). Laufer (1990) listed a number of intralexical factors that may moderate the difficulty of L2 vocabulary learning, including pronounceability, length, part of speech, inflectional/derivational complexity, abstractness, specificity, idiomaticity, register restriction, and number of meanings. More recently, Peters (2020) added additional factors to this list, such as cognateness and synforms (i.e., words with similar sound/spelling/meaning, originally put forward by Laufer, 1988). ...
Using eye tracking, this study examined L2 learners’ real-time processing of novel compounds across repeated exposures during reading. Sixty-one L2 speakers of Chinese read 12 stories over two days. Unbeknown to them, 12 novel compounds were embedded, each occurring six times. Growth curve analyses showed that semantic transparency, working memory capacity and morphological awareness had no impact on fixation durations for the novel compounds. However, participants with a larger L2 vocabulary size processed novel opaque compounds significantly faster than those with a smaller L2 vocabulary size. For both transparent and opaque compounds, first fixation durations did not change across exposures, yet similar curvilinear decreasing patterns were found in gaze duration and total reading time, with the rates of decrease moderated by L2 vocabulary size and working memory capacity, respectively. Taken together, such findings provide converging evidence supporting the incidental nature of vocabulary learning through natural reading.
... In relation to the label 'lexical error,' some authors (e.g. Laufer, 1990aLaufer, , 1990bLaufer, , 1991Lennon, 1991aLennon, , 1991bDagut, 1977) do not use a differentiating criterion between diverse categories of errors. They provide an overall classification of errors dividing them into grammar and lexis. ...
... Ghadessy (1980 : 103), par exemple, distingue, à côté des erreurs lexicales, les erreurs dues à l'influence du persan. Il est clair que le second type d'erreurs est d'un ordre totalement différent du premier, qu'il recouvre d'ailleurs partiellement (voir aussi Zughoul, 1991 (Halliday, McIntosh et Strevens, 1964 ;Cass, 1983 ;Laufer, 1990) ont souligné l'importance de ce type d'erreurs. Laufer (1990 : 293 Roey (1990: 48), nous employons le terme « collocation » dans le sens restreint de collocation lexicale fixée par l'usage: « Collocation is the term we shall now use both for the linguistic phenomenon whereby a given vocabulary item prefers the company of another item rather than that of its "synonyms" because of constraints which are not on the level of syntax or conceptual meaning but on that of usage, as also for the word combinations which represent this phenomenon ». ...
... Independently, the learning of false cognates could be hindered by the interference that could occur between the L1 meaning associated with its form and the to-be-associated L2 meaning. This possibility has not been proposed by any model of L2 acquisition, but it has been widely discussed in the SLA literature (Laufer, 1990;Ringbom, 2007;VanPatten et al., 2004) Marecka, et al. Cognition 206 (2021) 104477 learning studies that do not report a disadvantage in the acquisition of false cognates (Otwinowska et al., 2020;Otwinowska et al., 2020b;Vidal, 2011). ...
We explored the acquisition of three types of second language (L2) words in a paired–associates learning task. Seventy–six Polish participants were presented with 24 nonwords paired with pictures; they completed 8 interleaving test blocks of form production and meaning recognition, both followed by feedback. The nonwords included “cognates” (nonwords resembling the Polish word for the object depicted in a given picture), “false cognates” (resembling a different Polish word than depicted), and “non–cognates” (nonwords different from Polish words). We measured the learning trajectories for all word types across the blocks. Cognates were fastest to learn in the recognition blocks as well as in the production blocks. Compared to non–cognates, false cognates were learned equally fast in the recognition blocks, but faster in the production blocks. This suggests the learning of false cognates benefits from the overlap in L1–L2 form and is not harmed by L1 interference, while the learning of cognates benefits from both form overlap and conceptual overlap. The study is unique as it examines how learners acquire both the form of new words, and the link between the L2 forms and their meanings. It also explores the dynamics of the learning process.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the vocabulary acquisition among English as a second language (ESL) Learners. The study is based on grounded theory research designs. Grounded theory allows the study to generate a far-reaching comprehensible theory founded on behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism on the central phenomenon (using online games in vocabulary learning); from the results and findings (Creswell, 2012). A systematic design is applied which highlights the use of data analysis procedures of open, axial, and selective coding, as well as the development of logic paradigm or visual picture(s) from the generated theory (Creswell, 2012). The interview protocol consists of three parts: personal information, advantages and disadvantages factors, as well as possible factors that support or inhibit vocabulary acquisition. Based on the findings, there are basically eight (8) descriptor codes, and thirty (30) in-vivo codes. All of these codes are emerged from the inductive coding method. The Emerging possible categories from the first sample: The possible categories that could be derived from the pattern of codes are: a. Personal preferences & knowledge on computer or online games, b. Habitual playtime on playing computer or online games, c. Online games & learning English vocabulary, and d. Factors that could hinder learning English vocabulary.
There are three objectives of this study. First, to investigate the effectiveness
of TTS in Mandarin language reading, find out the shortage of TTS, and
understand the difference between machine-reading and human reading.
Second, the study concludes that TTS technology is mature enough now but
still needs to solve some problems in specific criteria such as conveying
humanity elements, putting in more human nature and expressing human
emotions in the reading process in the future. Third, teaching mandarin reading
is still necessary as the TTS system could not, instead of the importance of a
teacher in reading and learning thoroughly.
Cross-linguistic differences in morphological complexity could have important consequences for language learning. Specifically, it is often assumed that languages with more regular, compositional, and transparent grammars are easier to learn by both children and adults. Moreover, it has been shown that such grammars are more likely to evolve in bigger communities. Together, this suggests that some languages are acquired faster than others, and that this advantage can be traced back to community size and to the degree of systematicity in the language. However, the causal relationship between systematic linguistic structure and language learnability has not been formally tested, despite its potential importance for theories on language evolution, second language learning, and the origin of linguistic diversity. In this pre-registered study, we experimentally tested the effects of community size and systematic structure on adult language learning. We compared the acquisition of different yet comparable artificial languages that were created by big or small groups in a previous communication experiment, which varied in their degree of systematic linguistic structure. We asked (a) whether more structured languages were easier to learn; and (b) whether languages created by the bigger groups were easier to learn. We found that highly systematic languages were learned faster and more accurately by adults, but that the relationship between language learnability and linguistic structure was typically non-linear: high systematicity was advantageous for learning, but learners did not benefit from partly or semi-structured languages. Community size did not affect learnability: languages that evolved in big and small groups were equally learnable, and there was no additional advantage for languages created by bigger groups beyond their degree of systematic structure. Furthermore, our results suggested that predictability is an important advantage of systematic structure: participants who learned more structured languages were better at generalizing these languages to new, unfamiliar meanings, and different participants who learned the same more structured languages were more likely to produce similar labels. That is, systematic structure may allow speakers to converge effortlessly, such that strangers can immediately understand each other.
A consideration of the knowledge that is assumed by lexical competence is offered as a frame of reference for assessing vocabulary teaching. Linguistic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic aspects of word knowledge are examined. These include word frequency, vocabulary growth in native speakers, collocation, register, case relations, underlying forms, word association, and semantic structure. Vocabulary techniques are discussed according to the way that they attempt to build up these aspects of vocabulary knowledge.
Most second language acquisition research has been concerned with grammar or phonology and has failed to discuss lexical acquisition. The main reason for this neglect has been the lack of vocabulary study by linguists. However, recent concern with semantic theory has brought new impetus to work on lexical acquisition. Useful research on lexical acquisition is dependent upon a number of fundamental theoretical issues. Among these are: (1) whether the processes whereby second language vocabulary is acquired parallel those by which first language vocabulary is acquired, (2) what individual personality characteristics affect the learning and use of vocabulary, (3) the stages by which the lexical stock of a second language learner grow and expand and the factors which influence this growth and expansion, (4) the relationship between active/productive and passive/receptive knowledge of vocabulary, and (5) the kinds of research in lexical acquisition further required. Factors that affect the growth and expansion of second language vocabulary include phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic features of the learner's first language, second language, and other Languages with which s/he is acquainted. In addition, the personality, motivation, and knowledge of the learner and the situation in which the learning takes place affect lexical acquisition. (JK)
The retention of English equivalents of Latin words and phrases by 30 seventh-grade pupils has been tested immediately, after one day, one, three and eight weeks. It is concluded that the forgetting curve for English equivalents is less abrupt than that for nonsense syllables, and similar to that for poetry. After two months only one-half of the meanings were retained. The materials used stand in the following order with respect to per cent of recall: (1) identical words; (2) associative words; (3) idioms and phrases; (4) non-associative words. Immediate and delayed recalls correlate highly, especially at the extremes; and both immediate and delayed recalls correlate to a fairly high degree with intelligence. Silent reading ability correlates with both recalls, while word knowledge does not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper focuses on the acquisition of new word formation devices in the target language as an indication of near-native competence at the advanced level of second language acquisition. The study reported here is based on data collected via written questionnaires consisting of three parts: (a) a production task requiring respondents to suggest innovations for nouns that have not been named in the existing lexicon; (b) an evaluation task requiring respondents to select the most appropriate innovation; (c) an interpretation task requiring respondents to interpret innovative blends. The questionnaires were administered to native speakers of Hebrew (the target language) and to two groups of learners, one advanced and the other intermediate. The findings show that the advanced group has reached a level of target language competence that enables them to produce and evaluate innovations in ways that approximate native speakers' responses, whereas the intermediate students deviate considerably from target level competence. The acquisition of word formation devices in the target language is presented as a gradual acquisition process.
Our main aim in this paper is to explore the interlanguage pragmatics of learners of Hebrew and English. We focus on the use of pragmatic indicators, both lexical (please/bevaqaŝa; perhaps/ulay) and grammatical (e.g., the difference between could I borrow and could you lend), with particular reference to deviations from native-speaker norms in the speech of non-native speakers. The analysis follows the analytical framework developed for the Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP). Data from two sets are analyzed: (a) native and non-native Hebrew, and (b) native and non-native English (with occasional reference to other CCSARP data sets). The results suggest that non-native speakers' misuse of pragmatic indicators can have serious interactional consequences, ranging from inappropriateness to pragmatic failure.