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Sense of humor, physical health, and well-being at work: A three-year longitudinal study of Finnish police officers

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to provide a longitudinal prospective test of the hypothesis that a greater sense of humor would predict better physical health and workplace well-being over a three-year period, using a variety of physiological and other indicators of health. Data were obtained from 34 Finnish police chiefs in both 1995 and 1998, including self-report and peer ratings of sense of humor; measures of blood pressure, cholesterol levels, alcohol consumption, body mass index, and smoking; and self-report measures of work capacity, burnout, stress, and workplace satisfaction. Primary analyses provided no evidence in support of the humor-health hypothesis, as sense of humor scores obtained in 1995 failed to predict any of the 1998 levels of physical health and workplace well-being. Further analyses, including data on an additional sample of 53 Finnish police constables, revealed some associations that were contrary to the humor-health hypothesis (e.g., higher scores on some aspects of sense of humor were associated with greater body mass, increased smoking, and greater risk of cardiovascular disease). These findings are discussed in terms of the continued popularity of the humor-health hypothesis, despite the lack of substantial empirical support, and the need for more sophisticated conceptualizations of humor in future research.
Sense of humor, physical health, and well-
being at work: A three-year longitudinal study
of Finnish police officers
PAAVO KERKKA
¨
NEN, NICHOLAS A. KUIPER, and ROD A. MARTIN
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to provide a longitudinal prospective test of
the hypothesis that a greater sense of humor would predict better physical
health and workplace well-being over a three-year period, using a variety of
physiological and other indicators of health. Data were obtained from 34
Finnish police chiefs in both 1995 and 1998, including self-report and peer
ratings of sense of humor; measu res of blood pressure, cholesterol levels,
alcohol consumption, body mass index, and smoking; and self-report
measures of work capacity, burnout, stress, and workplace satisfaction.
Primary analyses provided no evidence in support of the humor-health hy-
pothesis, as sense of humor scores obtained in 1995 failed to predict any
of the 1998 levels of physical health and workplace well-being. Further
analyses, including data on an additional sample of 53 Finnish police con-
stables, revealed some associations that were contrary to the humor-health
hypothesis (e.g., higher scores on some aspects of sense of humor were
associated with greater body mass, increased smoking, and greater risk
of cardiovascular disease). These findings are discussed in terms of the
continued popularity of the humor-health hypothesis, despite the lack of
substantial empirical support, and the need for more sophisticated con-
ceptualizations of humor in future research.
Keywords: Sense of humor; physical health; work; police o‰cers.
Introduction
If humor and laughter have beneficial e¤ects on physical health, as is
commonly believed, one would expect that individuals with a greater
Humor 171/2 (2004), 2135 09331719/04/0017–0021
6 Walter de Gruyter
sense of humor would show evidence of better health over time. However,
in a recent comprehensive review of the research on humor and physical
health, Martin (2001) concluded that there is little consistent evidence of
correlations between self-report measures of sense of humor and various
indicators of health status. Although some studies have found the ex-
pected negative correlat ions between humor test scores and self-reported
illness symptoms (e.g., Carroll and Shmidt 1992; Ruch et al. 1996; Simon
1990), other studi es, often with larger sample sizes, have failed to repli-
cate these findings (e.g., Anderson and Arnoult 1989; Labott and Martin
1990; Porterfield 1987). Similar inconsistencies have been found in re-
search on sense of humor and secretory immunoglobulin-A (S-IgA: a
component of the immune system), with some small studies finding sig-
nificant positive correlations (e.g., Dillon and Totten 1989) and other
larger studies failing to find any correlation (e.g., Lefcourt et al. 1990;
Martin and Dobbin 1988; McClelland and Cheri¤ 1997).
A limitation of much of the existing research on sense of humor and
health is that the studies have tended to focus on only one or two health-
related variabl es. Indeed, most studies have relied exclusively on self-
report measures of illness symptoms rather th an more objective physio-
logical indicators of health. Although, as noted above, some studies have
examined a single component of immunity (S-IgA), none of the previous
studies have employed a broader range of physiological measures to ex-
amine various health risks, such as those relating to risk for cardiovascu-
lar disease (e.g., blood pressure, cholesterol levels, body mass index).
Besides limited study of physiological measures of health status, past
studies also have not examined the relationship between sense of humor
and potential health-related habits, such as smoking, overeating, and al-
cohol consumption. Past research has been based on the assumption that
humor benefits health through such mechanisms as improved coping with
stress or potential salutary physiological e¤ects of frequent laughter.
However, an alternative hypothesis that warrants investigation is that
sense of humor may have indirect e¤ects on physical health by influencing
health-related lifestyle activities. For example, individuals with a greater
sense of humor, perhaps due to a more cheerful and optimistic outlook,
may engage in more healthy lifestyle activities, such as obtaining regular
exercise and refraining from smoking or excessive alcohol consumption.
On the other hand, it is also possible that the optimism and cheerfulness
of high-humor individuals cause them to ignore potential health risks and
consequently to engage in fewer healthy lifestyle habits and behaviors. It
22 P. Kerkka
¨
nen et al.
is also possible, of course, that there is no relationship between sense of
humor and health-related behaviors.
A further limitation of the existing studies is that researchers have
generally only made use of cross-sectional designs, assessing sense of
humor and health-related variables at the same point in time. An excep-
tion to this is a study by Martin and Dobbin (1988), which found a stress-
bu¤ering e¤ect of sense of humor on levels of S-IgA assessed at three-
month follow-up. McClelland and Cheri¤ (1997) also examined the
relationship betwee n sense of humor scores and subsequent frequency and
severity of colds over a three-month period, although no correlation was
found. However, it may be beneficial to examine possible longer-term re-
lationships between humor and health outcomes using a prospective,
longitudinal design over several years, controlling for initial levels of
physical health variables. Such a design would allow for examination of
the ways in which sense of humor may relate to changes in overall health
status over a longer period of time.
The present study, which investigated relationships between humor and
health in a sample of Finnish police o‰cers, was designed to address
several of these limitations of past research. First, this study included a
variety of physiological measures pertaining to cardiovascular risk that
have not been examined together in previous humor research (i.e., blood
pressure, serum cholesterol, and body mass index). Second, the s tudy also
examined possible relationships between sense of humor and lifestyle be-
haviors that may be associated with increased illness risk (i.e., alcohol
consumption and smoking). Third, this study made use of a prospective
longitudinal design across a three-year period to predict physical health
and health-related behaviors, after taking into account initial levels of
health at time 1. Finally, in addition to these variables relating to physical
health, the present study also addressed the purported link between sense
of humor and enhanced well-being in the workplace. This was done by
also including a variety of measures relating to workplace satisfaction,
stress levels, burnout, and work capacity. The measure of sense of humor
used in the present study was the Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale
(MSHS: Thorson and Powell 1993), which has been used in previous re-
search on humor and psy chological health (e.g., Thorson et al. 1997).
Our primary analysis provided a test of the humor-health hypothesis by
using sense of humor scores obtained in 1995 to predict physical health
and well-being level s in 1998, after taking into account 1995 level s of
health and well-being. This is a stringent longitudinal test of the hypoth-
Humor and health in police o‰cers 23
esis that humor facilitates physical health and workplace well-being. Evi-
dence in support of this hypothesis would show significant partial corre-
lations between sense of humor scores and physical health and well-being
measures. As one example, the humor-health hypothesis would predict
that higher humor scores at time 1 would be associated with lower scores
on the measures pertaining to cardiovascular risk at time 2, after con-
trolling for risk levels at time 1. On the other hand, sense of humor may
actually show the opposite relationships with various health measures
(e.g., higher humor is related to higher levels of smoking, higher blood
pressure, etc.). This pattern would suggest that the cheerfulness and opti-
mism associated with greater levels of humor may result in less concern
about engaging in behaviors and habits that increase health risk. Finally,
it remains possible that the humor-health hypothesis would not be sup-
ported. In particular, it may be that sense of humor is unrelated to any of
the physical health, lifestyle, and well-being measures.
Method
Participants
The initial 1995 sample consisted of a total of 45 male police chiefs from
various cities, towns, and rural districts in Eastern Finland. By 1998 three
of these police chiefs had been lost from the study due to attrition (1
death, 1 retirement, 1 failed to respond); and a further eight were no
longer police chiefs, following a major reorganization of the judicial and
police systems in Finland. Accordingly, the final longitudinal sample
consisted of 34 police chiefs for whom sense of humor, physical health,
and workplace well-being measures were availab le in both 1995 and 1998.
The mean age of this final sample (in 1998) was 49.8 years, with a stan-
dard deviation of 6.3 years, and a range from 38 to 61 years.
Sense of humor measures
Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale (MSHS). The MSHS (Thorson
and Powell 1993) is a 24item self-report scale measuring several aspects
of sense of humor, including the generation of humor, use of humor in
coping with stress, tendency to amuse others, and positive attitudes to-
24 P. Kerkka
¨
nen et al.
ward humor. Past research indicates good reliability for the total score on
the MSHS, as well as several of the component scores (Kirsh and Kuiper
2003; Thorson et al. 1997). A Finnish translation of the MSHS that had
been psychom etrically tested and validated on a prior research sample by
the principal investigator (P.K.) was emp loyed in the present research.
Psychometric work on this Finnish version revealed three reliable factors,
namely, humor generation relating to di‰cult situations (e.g., ‘‘I can ease
a tense situation by saying something funny’’), the ability to amuse others
(e.g., ‘‘People look to me to say amusing things’’), and the use of humor
to cope (e.g., ‘‘Humor helps me cope’’). The coe‰cient alpha reliabilities
for total MSHS scores in the present sample were quite high in both 1995
(.81) and 1998 (.82), with the separate factor scores also showing accept-
able levels of reliability (coe‰cients ranged from .62 to .87, with a mean
alpha of .73). Test-retest reliability across the three-yea r period of this
study revealed a high degree of stability for the total MSHS score
ðr ¼ :68Þ, humor generation score ðr ¼ :75Þ, and amusing humor score
ðr ¼ :66Þ. The coping humor score, however, showed less consistency
across this same time period ðr ¼ :38Þ. Total MSHS scores were also not
significantly related to age ðr ¼:26Þ or education level ðr ¼ :09Þ in our
sample.
Peer ratings of sense of humor. Peer ratings of each participant’s sense of
humor were obtained in both 1995 and 1998 by having colleagues rate
each police chief on sense of humor, using the common and standard
Finnish grading system (a 7point scale, with 4 being ‘‘very poor’’ and 10
being ‘‘excellent’’). The test-retest reliability for this measure over the
three years was .78.
Physical health measures
Cardiovascular Risk Index (CRI). For each participant this index con-
sisted of the sum of standardized scores on several physiological/bio-
chemical measures pertaining to blood pressure (systolic and diastolic)
and blood serum cholesterol levels, as well as self-reports of alcohol con-
sumption per week (obtained via a health habits questionnaire). In our
sample this overall index score showed good temporal stability over the
three years of the study (test-retest r ¼ : 62). The separate components of
the index also showed acceptable test-retest reliabilities for this same time
Humor and health in police o‰cers 25
period (systolic BP r ¼ :59; diastolic BP r ¼ :55; alcohol consumption
r ¼ :60; and cholesterol r ¼ :84).
Body Mass Index (BMI). Weight and height measures collected at
medical examinations were used to calculate a body mass index for each
participant. This was computed by taking the weight in kilograms divided
by the height in meters squared. Across three years, the scores on this
body mass index remaine d quite stable, with a test-retest reliability of .83.
Smoking Levels. The health habits questionnaire also asked each parti-
cipant to report on his or her level of smoking behavior, with these levels
being quite consistent over the three years (test-retest r ¼ :79).
Workplace well-being measures
The Workplace Well-Being Index (WPWBI) was composed of four dif-
ferent standard Finnish-language questionnaires assessing workplace sat-
isfaction, stress, and work capacity. These self-report measures were the
Bergen Burnout Indicator, the Work Satisfaction Inventory, the Work
Capacity Scale, and the Stress Symptoms Form. Prior research studies,
reported in Finnish sources, indicate appropriate psychometric properties
for all four measures. Internal consistency in our sample was high (e.g.,
Bergen Burnout Indicator Cronbach alpha of .92; Work Stress alpha of
.79). Across three years, the overall index score (computed by summing
standardized scores from the four measures) showed good stability (test-
retest r ¼ :64), with the individual components also showing acceptable
test-retest reliabilities (rs ranged from .51 to .66, mean r ¼ :61).
Procedure
Scores on all measures were collected twice for each participant, once in
1995 and once again three years later, in 1998. Nurses at the medical
health organization responsible for serving all police forces in Finland
collected health data on blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and body mass
(height and weight). The first author (P.K.) met with each police chief
twice (in 1995 and again in 1998) to administer the Sense of Humor
measures (MSHS, peer ratings), a health habits questionnaire (smoking
26 P. Kerkka
¨
nen et al.
and alcohol consumption), and the workplace well-being measures (re-
garding burnout, satisfaction, stress, and work capacity).
Results
Primary test of the humor-health hypothesis
Our primary analysis focused on the extent to which the self-report sense
of humor scores obtained in 1995 were predictive of physical health and
workplace well-being levels in 1998, after taking into account initial 1995
levels of health and well-being. The partial correlations pertaining to this
analysis are shown in Table 1. Inspection of this table indicates a com-
plete lack of support for the hypothesis that higher levels of sense of hu-
mor would relate to increased physical health and workplace well-being,
as all sixteen partial correlations in Table 1 were non-significant. Thus,
higher scores on any of the sense of humor dimensions in 1995 did not
predict lower risk for cardiovascular disease, lower body mass index, re-
duced smoking, or enhanced well-being at work in 1998.
Further tests of the humor-health hypothesis
Given that our primary analysis showed a lack of support for the hy-
pothesis that sense of humor would predict enhanced physical health and
Table 1. Partial correlations between 1995 sense of humor scores and 1998 physical health
and well-being (after accounting for 1995 physical health and well-being levels)
Sense of Humor Measure (MSHS)Physical Health and
Well-Being Measures
Total
Score
Generation
of Humor
Amusing
Humor
Coping
Humor
Cardiovascular Risk Index .01 .01 .24 .11
Body Mass Index .07 .13 .07 .21
Daily Smoking .14 .22 .06 .01
Workplace Well-Being Index .11 .06 .09 .14
N ¼ 34, All partial correlations reported in this table are non-significant.
MSHS ¼ Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale (Finnish version)
Cardiovascular Risk Index ¼ Systolic and Dystolic Blood Pressure, Cholesterol Level, and
Alcohol Consumption per week
Body Mass Index ¼ Ratio of Weight (kg) to Height (m
2
)
Workplace Well-being Index ¼ Work Satisfaction, Bergen Burnout Indicator, Work
Capacity, and Workplace Stress Symptom
Humor and health in police o‰cers 27
workplace well-being over time, we conducted a number of supplemen-
tary analyses to further test this hypothesis in several di¤erent ways. To
begin, we calculated the simple correlations between sense of humor
measures in 1995 and the physical health and workplace well-being mea-
sures in 1998 but without first partialling out 1995 levels of health and
well-being. These analyses revealed that 15 of the 16 simple correlations
were still non-significant, with a range of rs from .16 to .25 and an ab-
solute mean r of .14. Interestingly, th e sole significant correlation in this
analysis suggested that those with greater humor may exhibit poorer
health-related habits, as higher levels of MSHS coping humor in 1995
were associated with a higher level of daily smoking in 1998 (r ¼ : 34,
p <:05). This positive relationship between humor and smoking may be
due to the more extraverted personality traits of those with higher humor
scores (Ruch 1994), since previous research has found that more extra-
verted individuals are more likely to smoke (Patton et al. 1993).
We next considered the simple correlations between sense of humor
and health and well-being for the initial 1995 time period only. Consistent
with the analyses reported above, 14 of the 16 correlations were again
non-significant, with a range of rs from .16 to .22, and an absolute
mean r of .12. Again, the only two significant correlations were in a di-
rection opposite to the humor-health hypothesis, as they involved greater
levels of smoking being associated with both higher coping humor (r =
.45, p <:01) and higher total MSHS humor scores (r ¼ :35, p <:05).
Following this analysis, we then looked at only the data from the 1998
time period. Here, the vast majority of the correlations (13 out of 16)
were again non-significant, with a range of rs from .03 to .31 and an
absolute mean r of .13. Of note, the three significant correlations in 1998
were again all in a direction opposite to the humor-health hypothesis, with
higher risk for cardiovascular disease associated with both higher levels of
coping humor (r ¼ :37, p <:05) and amusing humor (r ¼ :35, p <:05). In
addition, higher levels of amusing humor in 1998 were also linked to in-
creased body mass for that same year (r ¼ :44, p <:01).
All the preceding analyses, including our primary analysis, relied on
self-reports of sense of humor (as measured via the MSHS). This measure
is a reasonably reliable and valid indicator of sense of humor, with con-
siderable temporal stability in our sample. It still remained possible,
however, that other methods of assessing sense of humor, such as peer
ratings, may show di¤erent patterns with the physical health and work-
place well-being measures. Therefore, in order to test this possibility, we
28 P. Kerkka
¨
nen et al.
replicated all of the analyses reported above, but using the peer ratings of
sense of humor instead of self-report MSHS scores. No significant rela-
tionships were found between the peer ratings of sense of humor and the
physical health and well-being measures for our primary analysis (range
of rs from .08 to -.19, mean absolute r of.13); nor fo r any of the supple-
mentary analyses reported above (range of rs from .03 to .22, mean
absolute r of .15).
It also remained possible that the two composite index scores that we
employed in our analyses may have obscured possible significant associa-
tions between sense of humor scores and the individual components of
each index. For example, our cardiovascular risk index consisted of the
sum of several components, namely, systolic and diastolic blood pressure,
blood cholesterol levels, and weekly alcohol consumption. To investigate
this possibility, we also calculated separate correlations between sense of
humor scores and the individual components of each index. This analysis
revealed that both systolic and diastolic blood pressure were unrelated to
sense of humor scores (MSHS and peer ratings), either for the 1995 data
alone, the 1998 data alone, or using 1995 humor scores to predict 1998
blood pressure levels (across these various analyses the mean absolute
correlations were .08 for systolic and .11 for diastolic). Furthermore, a
more detailed examination of the 1998 data revealed that sense of humor
(MSHS) scores were unrelated to weekly alcohol consumption (r ¼ :20),
cholesterol levels (mean absolute r of .15), and days because of illness
(r ¼:11). This 1998 analysis also indicated that sense of humor (MSHS)
was unrelated to the individual components of the workplace well-being
index, such as work satisfaction, work stress symptoms, and work capac-
ity (rs ranged from .02 to .12).
Additional sample
Finally, it remained possible that the general lack of support for the
humor-health hypothesis, as demonstrated in all of the above analyses,
may hav e been specific only to our primary sample of 34 police chiefs. To
explore this possibility further, an additional sample of 53 male Finnish
police constables were recruited in 1998 and tested on several of the same
sense of humor, physical health, and well-being measures. These further
analyses also failed to reveal general support for the hypothesis that a
greater sense of humor would be associated with better physical health
Humor and health in police o‰cers 29
and workplace well-being. In particul ar, M SHS scores in this additional
sample were also unrelated to work satisfaction (r ¼:06), work stress
symptoms (r ¼ :15), work capacity (r ¼ :03), diastolic blood pressure
(r ¼:06), cholesterol level (r ¼ :16), body mass index (r ¼:07),
smoking (r ¼ :09), and days because of illness (r ¼:19). Further-
more, arguing against the humor-health hypothesis, higher levels of
humor were significantly associated with higher alcohol consumption
(r ¼ :26, p ¼ :05) in this group. Finally, only one significant correlation in
this additional sample supported the humor-health hypothesis, with
higher sense of humor scores linked to lower levels of systolic blood
pressure (r ¼:27, p <:05).
Discussion
When considered together, the various analyses conducted on the two
groups of participants examined in this study failed to provide support
for the hypothesis that a greater sense of humor is related to better phys-
ical health. In fact, our primary longitudinal analysis showed a complete
absence of any significant relationships between sense of humor scores in
1995 and physical health and well-being three years later, after taking
into account initial levels of health and well-being at time 1. Thus, this
study does not provide any evidence that sense of humor, as measured by
the MSHS and by peer ratings of humor, is related to changes in physical
health over a period of three years.
Our additional analyses on the main sample of police chiefs also failed
to support the humor-health hypothesis, with the vast majority of the re-
ported relationships being nonsignificant. The few correlations that were
significant actually showed findings opposite to those predicted by the
humor-health hypothesis, with higher humor being related to more
smoking, higher body mass index, and higher overall risk for cardiovas-
cular disease. Similarly, our cross-sectional analyses with the additional
sample of police o‰cers were also generally unsup portive of the humor-
health hypothesis, with the majority of relationships being nonsignificant.
Of the two significant correlations, one was supportive of the humor-
health hypothesis (higher humor related to lower systolic blood pressure),
and one was in the opposite direction (higher humor related to higher
alcohol consumption).
30 P. Kerkka
¨
nen et al.
A potential criticism of this study might be that the small sample size
for our primary analyses limited the power of the analyses to detect
meaningful relationships. However, it should be noted that the vast ma-
jority of the non-significant correlations were well below the values
needed to reach significance, with most falling below r ¼ :20. Further-
more, our additional analyses with a larger sample of police constables
replicated the lack of significant correlations. Thus, the lack of significant
findings does not appear to have been simply due to limitations of power.
In addition, the sizable test-retest reliabilities of nearly all measures indi-
cate that the nonsignificant findings were not merely due to unreliable
data.
The positive associations found between some sense of humor scores
and several health risk factors, such as increased smoking and alcohol
consumption, are particularly noteworthy. Although these findings need
to be interpreted with caution since they were not consistently found in all
analyses, they do provi de some initial evidence that sense of humor may
be associated with lifestyle behaviors that confer increased rather than
reduced health risks. Some of these associat ions may be due to the more
extraverted personality traits of high-humor individuals (Ruch 1994). In
this regard, past research has shown that extraverted individuals, as
compared to introverts, are more likely to drink alcohol (Cook et al.
1998), more likely to smoke (Patton et al. 1993), less likely to quit smok-
ing (Helgason et al. 1995), and more likely to be obese (Haellstroem and
Noppa 1981).
These findings are also consistent with the results of a large longitudi-
nal study reported by Friedman and associates (1993), which found a
greater lifetime mortality risk in individuals who were rated as being
more cheerful (higher sense of humor and optimism) in childhood. These
authors suggested that more cheerful individuals may underestimate the
risk of potentially health-impairing behaviors and may therefore be more
careless about their health. Indeed, consistent with some of the results of
the present study, a re-analysis of the Friedman et al. data also found
higher levels of smoking among more cheerful individuals (Martin et al.
2002). Although further investigation is certainly necessary to replicate
these particular findings of the present study and to explore potential
mediating mechanisms, these results do provide some preliminary evi-
dence that a sense of humor may be associated with at least some types of
risky health-related behaviors, such as smoking, overeating, and alcohol
consumption.
Humor and health in police o‰cers 31
More generall y, however, the present results add further weight to the
pervasive lack of support for the hypothesized positive relationships be-
tween sense of humor measures and physical health variables, as demon-
strated in much of the previous research (see Martin 2001 for an extensive
review). Using a broader range of physiological measures of physical
health risk, as well as measures of health-related lifestyle habits and be-
haviors, and a longitudinal prospective design, this study failed to find
any evidence for a positive relationship between sense of humor and
either physical health or work-related well-being. Thus, it would appear
that it may be overly simplistic to assume that there is a direct positive
relationship between greater sense of humor, broadly defined, and better
physical health.
Does this failure to find positive associations mean that we should
abandon th e time-honored and popular hypothesis that humor is benefi-
cial to physical health? We would say no and argue instead that further
research in this area is still warranted but that researchers need to employ
more sophisticated conceptualizations of humor and to ex plore more
carefully various potential mechanisms by whic h humor may influence
health. With regard to conceptualizations of humor, most of the research
to date has been based on the assumption that all forms of humor and
laughter are beneficial to physical and mental health. However, some re-
searchers have recently pointed out that some types of humor (e.g., a‰li-
ative or mildly self-deprecating humor) may be beneficial to physical and
psychological health, whereas other forms of humor (e.g., sarcastic or
defensive-avoidant humor) may actually be detrimental to well-bei ng
(Kirsh and Kuiper 2003; Martin et al. 2003). In this regard, Martin et al.
(2003) have recently developed a new measure of humor, the Humor
Styles Questionnaire (HSQ). The HSQ is based on a four-factor con-
ceptualization of everyday humor use in which two humor factors are
hypothesized to be beneficial to well-being (namely, a‰liative and self-
enhancing humor), whereas two factors are thought to be potentially
detrimental (namely, aggressive and self-defeating humor). Research to
date with th e HSQ, although focusing primarily on psychological rather
than physical health variables, has provided considerable evidence of dif-
ferential correlates with well-being and dysfunction for di¤erent styles of
humor (see also Kuiper et al., this issue, for a detailed presentation). The
MSHS, which was used in the present study, has been found to correlate
positively with all four HSQ scales, suggesting that it may not distinguish
between potentially beneficial and detrimental forms of humor. Thus, the
32 P. Kerkka
¨
nen et al.
failure to distinguish between positive and negative forms of humor may
account, in part, for the generally negative findings of past research ex-
amining the relationship between humor and physical health, including
those of the present study. Further research is thus needed to determine
whether more careful discrimination of humor styles, such as that pro-
vided by the HSQ, may yield more promising findings.
Future research using more sophisticated conceptualizations of humor
should also examine more carefully various potential mechanisms by
which di¤erent types of humor may infl uence health either positively or
negatively. For example, more a‰liative forms of humor may lead to
greater social support, which may in turn bu¤er the adverse e¤ects of
stress on physical health (Martin 2001). On the other hand, highly extra-
verted forms of humor may be associated with more health-impairing
habits and behaviors, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. Thus,
more fine-grained analyses may lead to a better understanding of ways in
which some forms of humor may be beneficial for physical health, while
other forms of humor may have adverse health e¤ects.
University of Joensuu and University of Western Ontario
Note
Correspondence address: Paavo Kerkka
¨
nen, Department of Psychology, University of
Joensuu, PL 111, 80100 Joensuu, Finland; sompanen@cc.joensuu.fi
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Humor and health in police o‰cers 35
... While there is evidence that humor can ameliorate the experienced effects of selfreported everyday life stressors (Abel, 2002;Kuiper et al., 1993) and experimentally induced stress (Kuiper et al., 1995), there is very little evidence that these effects get translated into better health outcomes, the many claims for the positive health effects of humor notwithstanding. The first longitudinal study of the causal effects of humor usage on health and well-being found no evidence for a facilitative effect of humor in a three-year study of Finnish police officers (Kerkkänen et al., 2004). Neither self-reported nor peerrated sense of humor predicted subsequent health and well-being of the Finish police officers in the study. ...
... Neither self-reported nor peerrated sense of humor predicted subsequent health and well-being of the Finish police officers in the study. In a follow-up longitudinal study, the same authors report that humor was, unexpectedly, positively related to health risk behaviors, such as smoking, and developing a high body mass index (BMI) (Kerkkänen et al., 2004). Kuiper and Borowicz-Sibenik (2005) suggest that the higher-order personality factors of agency and communion may moderate the effect of humor on health outcomes. ...
... An alternative possible explanation for the findings of the Kerkkänen et al. (2004) studies and for other studies that have failed to find a relationship between humor and health outcomes is that health effects depend upon the type as well as the level of humor that is commonly used by the people being studied. If the prevailing type of humor used by officers in the police departments studied by Kerkkänen et al. (2004) was aggressive and self-deprecating, then the humor may have been a cause of the increased smoking and other negative health effects; or negative humor is a health risk behavior that occurs together with other risk behavior such as smoking. ...
... Horrela, ikerketa batzuen arabera, umore zentzu gehiago dutenek ez dute umore zentzu gutxiago dutenek baino immunitate hoberik (Martin eta Dobbin, 1988) eta sintoma gutxiagorik (McClelland eta Cheriff, 1997). Umore zentzu handiagoa duten pertsonek ez dute beti immunitate gehiago, sintoma fisiko gutxiago eta gaixotasun kardiobascular gutxiago izaten (Martin eta Dobbin, 1988;McClelland eta Cheriff, 1997;Kerkkänen, Kuiper eta Martin, 2004). ...
... Hainbat ikerketak dioenez, bada loturarik umorearen eta osasunaren artean (Dillon eta Totten, 1989;Dyck eta Holtzman, 2013;Pressman eta Cohen, 2005;Stewart eta Thompson, 2015. Baina ikerketa batzuek ez dute aurkitu erlaziorik osasunaren eta umore zentzu handiagoaren (Kerkkänen, Kuiper, & Martin, 2004) edo erlazio kaxkarra aurkitu dute (Svebak, Götestam, & Jensen, 2004). ...
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Bere ingurunean aldaketak gertatzen direnean eta erronka berriei aurre egin behar dienean, jokaera berri batzuk eskatzen zaizkio organismoari, baina jokaera horiek sarritan zailak izaten dira eta energia asko eskatzen dute. Ingurunean gertatzen diren aldaketak ustekabekoak eta kontrolagaitzak direnean, informazio konplexua azkar prozesatzea eskatzen duten erronkei aurre egin behar die subjektuak; erantzun egokia azkar eman beharrean gertatzen da, baina ez du erantzun bizkor horrek eskatzen duen baliabiderik.
... Our results aligned with previous reviews of literature [22,74], which also concluded that the evidence regarding the effects of humor on physical QoL was limited and inconsistent. Similar results were presented in many studies in healthy and clinical populations, as some researchers found no association [75,76] or an inverse correlation with health QoL [77], while others supported that humor correlated with significant health outcomes, such as enhanced immune function [24], and reduced mortality [78]. ...
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Individuals grappling with chronic ailments often undergo a deterioration in their overall quality of life (QoL), encompassing psychological, social, and physical dimensions of well-being. Acknowledging that humor has demonstrated the potential to engender favorable effects on QoL, this systematic review endeavors to investigate the correlation between humor and QoL among adults contending with chronic health conditions. A comprehensive review of quantitative data was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health (CINAHL) were comprehensively searched from the establishment of each database up to June 22, 2023. Furthermore, reference lists of the included datasets and pertinent review articles were scrutinized exhaustively. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was employed to assess the quality of eligible studies. A total of 18 studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. These studies encompassed a diverse spectrum of chronic disease categories (including cardiovascular diseases, various types of cancer, etc.) and collectively involved a participant cohort comprising 4,325 individuals. Remarkable findings surfaced, indicating a noteworthy association between distinct facets of humor-such as one's sense of humor, coping humor, humor styles, and laughter-and psychological QoL. Nonetheless, the relationship between humor and physical QoL exhibited a more intricate pattern, characterized by mixed outcomes. Despite the limited and inconsistent evidence across studies, humor appears to exhibit a positive association with QoL.
... In addition to these psychological outcomes, WM has also been linked to physical health outcomes, such as less stress and better physical health, because WM allows individuals to feel a sense of control and purpose in their work, which can translate to lower stress levels and better health outcomes (Roepke et al., 2014), which in turn increase WWB (Kerkkänen et al., 2004). Based on this argument, the following hypothesis is presented: H3: WM is positively related to WWB. ...
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Leveraging the Conservation of Resources theory and Job Demands-Resources model, this study explores how Environmental Transformational Leadership (ETL) affects Workplace Well-Being (WWB) through the mediating influence of Work Meaningfulness (WM). Additionally, it examines the moderation effects of Leader–Follower Value Congruence (LFVC) and Person-Group Fit (PGF). Data from 271 US industrial employees spanning multiple management levels reveal ETL’s indirect effects on WWB via WM. LFVC serves as a moderating factor, regulating ETL’s indirect influence on WWB. Similarly, PGF moderates the relationship between WM and WWB. Strategies that appoint environmentally conscious leaders can enhance WWB through an uplift in WM. Moreover, strengthening LFVC and PGF yields positive results as they augment leadership and reinforce the beneficial ETL-WM-WWB dynamic. The paper concludes with insights for future research, alongside discussions on study limitations and implications.
... Answers are given on a 5-point scale ("Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree"). The original authors did not report a retest-reliability, but a Finnish version showed a three-year retest reliability for the subscale of 0.75 53 www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Mood. ...
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Humor research is supposed to predict whether something is funny. According to its theories and observations, amusement should be predictable based on a wide variety of variables. We test the practical value of humor appreciation research in terms of prediction accuracy. We find that machine learning methods (boosted decision trees) can indeed predict humor appreciation with an accuracy close to its theoretical ceiling. However, individual demographic and psychological variables, while replicating previous statistical findings, offer only negligible gains in accuracy. Successful predictions require previous ratings by the same rater, unless highly specific interactions between rater and joke content can be assessed. We discuss implications for humor research, and offer advice for practitioners designing content recommendations engines or entertainment platforms, as well as other research fields aiming to review their practical usefulness.
... As a world-recognized police force, the Finnish Police also emphasizes communication for every police member (Kerkkänen et al., 2004;Uhnoo, 2019). Generally, police authorities in other countries are given brief training in investigative techniques, weapons, and selfdefense. ...
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The aim of this article is to explain the advantages of national reputation. In globalization, reputation for a country is needed to get more potential investors, exporters, and travelers. One of the many ways to build a national reputation is through political or military diplomacy because it provides security guarantees for the international public. As an element in the defense department, the police must participate through reputation management strategies to gain national standing. The police must work professionally in order to contribute to building a national reputation. This article uses the comprehensive literature study and meta-synthesis analysis method to explains how the police performance, in communication perspective, can contribute to the national reputation. Policymakers could use this article to assist public policies designed to improve national, primarily through political diplomacy.
... However, some studies have failed to support the facilitative effect of humour. Thus, those with a greater sense of humour do not always display fewer physical illness symptoms (McClelland &Cheriff, 1997), a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease (Kerkkanen, Kuiper, & Martin, 2004), or show higher levels of immunity (Martin & Dobbin, 1988). This conflicting evidence has lead researchers to conclude that further work needs to be done to establish the role of humour in dealing with specific life situations. ...
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Humour is a psychological response characterized by the positive emotion of amusement, the appraisal that something is funny, and the tendency to laugh. Humour, is both a source of entertainment and a means of coping with difficult or awkward situations and stressful events. The present study aimed to explore how young adults using different styles of humour experienced COVID related state anxiety.For this purpose data was collected online from young adults in the age range of 20-30 years. The time of data collection on the pandemic timeline in India ranged from 3rd week of April 2020 to 2nd week of May 2020. The spread of COVID pandemic in India at the time of data collection was nearly 1 lakh cases (95,698 as per worldometer.info)). The state anxiety during the COVID 19 situation was assessed with the help of State Trait Anxiety Inventory (1977) by Spielberger. The Humour Style Questionnaire by Martin et al.(2003), was used to assess Adaptive styles of humour (Affiliative humour, Self enhancing humour) and Maladaptive styles of humour (Self- defeating humour and Aggressive humour). The total sample comprised of 100 adults. Results distinctly indicated that young adults high on Adaptive and Maladaptive Humour styles respectively differed significantly on Covid related State Anxiety. Additionally sex differences also emerged on Covid related State Anxiety. Implications of the study point towards the buffer effect of Adaptive humour in dealing with Covid related anxiety.
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All published research examining effects of humor and laughter on physical health is reviewed. Potential causal mechanisms and methodological issues are discussed. Laboratory experiments have shown some effects of exposure to comedy on several components of immunity, although the findings are inconsistent and most of the studies have methodological problems. There is also some evidence of analgesic effects of exposure to comedy, although similar findings are obtained with negative emotions. Few significant correlations have been found between trait measures of humor and immunity, pain tolerance, or self-reported illness symptoms. There is also little evidence of stress-moderating effects of humor on physical health variables and no evidence of increased longevity with greater humor. More rigorous and theoretically informed research is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn about possible health benefits of humor and laughter.
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