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Twenty-four years of community forestry in Nepal
Abstract
The Community Forestry programme was formally launched in Nepal in 1978 with the enactment of the Panchayat Forest Rules and the Panchayat Protected Forest Rules. The Community Forestry policy along with Community Forestry legislation has been continuously reformed over time. These reforms have recognised the use rights of the local people in the management of forest resources and established them as managers. Since the inception twenty-four years ago the progress in policy shift has been tremendous. However, the actual implementation is still slow in pace. This paper aims to review and analyse the policy changes during this period and discusses the constraints and opportunities provided by the Community Forestry programme in Nepal.
... 3 Nearly 20-30% of people needed to walk for more than three hours to get access to the nearest facilities, including bank, market centre, paved road, and bus stop (CBS, 1996). Deforestation and forest degradation have also been serious problems in mid-hills (Acharya, 2002). ...
... However, the CF of Nepal has not been able to produce anticipated outcomes in terms of forest productivity (Sapkota et al., 2020), income generation and job creation (Paudel et al., 2014d;Uprety et al., 2012), and biodiversity conservation . The reason is that: (a) forest management activities under CF are mostly limited to removing dead, dying and diseased (3D) trees and leaf litter (Acharya, 2002;Poudyal et al., 2020) (Acharya, 2002;Poudyal et al., 2020); (b) forest products from CF are being seriously under-harvested (Acharya et al., 2022); (c) greater emphasis has been given on protection-oriented management to ensure forest conservation Shrestha and McManus, 2008); and d) CF is still adopting conventional harvesting (Pahari and Bhattarai, 2020) and seasoning practices practice. 12 Gradual alienation of CF from the local political and development discourse has substantially reduced investments in forest management, allowing forests to turn into dense thickets . ...
... However, the CF of Nepal has not been able to produce anticipated outcomes in terms of forest productivity (Sapkota et al., 2020), income generation and job creation (Paudel et al., 2014d;Uprety et al., 2012), and biodiversity conservation . The reason is that: (a) forest management activities under CF are mostly limited to removing dead, dying and diseased (3D) trees and leaf litter (Acharya, 2002;Poudyal et al., 2020) (Acharya, 2002;Poudyal et al., 2020); (b) forest products from CF are being seriously under-harvested (Acharya et al., 2022); (c) greater emphasis has been given on protection-oriented management to ensure forest conservation Shrestha and McManus, 2008); and d) CF is still adopting conventional harvesting (Pahari and Bhattarai, 2020) and seasoning practices practice. 12 Gradual alienation of CF from the local political and development discourse has substantially reduced investments in forest management, allowing forests to turn into dense thickets . ...
Community forestry (CF) is one of the major forest management modalities in the world. A growing body of literature documents various outcomes and interactions of people with CF, but limited studies have assessed the mode of forest-people interaction considering changing socioeconomic and environmental contexts by employing a broader theoretical framework. Our study employed Ostrom's social-ecological system (SES) framework accompanied by a meta-synthesis of peer-reviewed literature (n = 74), review of policy documents and census reports (n = 28), interviews with four stakeholder groups (n = 47) and group discussions with district-level forest user groups (n = 20), to explore the changed context in Nepal's mid-hills since 1990 s. The study revealed transformational changes in socioeconomic and environmental contexts of Nepal's mid-hills compared to the conditions in which the CF was developed during 1990 s. Changes in the forces (or factors) of SES, including demography, socioeconomic development, government policy and environmental discourse are so pronounced that its feedback to the social-ecological system is discernible. For example, the evolving dynamics have changed the mode of forest-people interaction and their relationship by altering land use practices , resource use patterns, farm-forestry linkage, and pool of human resources, which is reflected in diminishing participation, social capital, collective action, and (voluntary) contribution to CF management. Such (emerging) dynamics in the social-ecological system could further jeopardise CF institutions and their deliberation, weaken the forest-food security nexus, augment leadership gaps in forest management, and impede the country's efforts in achieving global climate and development goals. To revitalize CF in this changing context, we suggest that community forests should be managed in three different models: urban, protection and production by putting payment of ecosystem services in place. As Nepal is a global leader in CF and its policies are informing forest and land use policies around the world, the outcomes of our study could offer an insight to the decision-makers of other countries for recalibrating land use policies by considering evolving local and global dynamics and their feedback to SES.
... However, Nepal's concept of community forest somewhat restricts this definition, treating it as a formal entity. 'Community forestry is the co-management of forests by the community and the government, with community forest user groups acting as an autonomous local institution comprised of village residents who use forests and have the authority to make decisions about forest protection, management, and utilization, including harvesting and sale [8,9]. It focuses on improving the livelihood and welfare of rural people and conserving the natural forest through local participation and cooperation [10]. ...
... The Master Plan for the forestry sector (1989) has emphasized community participation in forest management. The users received full authority to manage forest resources aftger the promulgation of the Forest Act in 1993 [8]. ...
... The uptake of SFM in Nepal is exemplified by the Forest Management and Utilization Development Project, which started forest management plans in the Bara and Rautahat districts of Terai in 1993 with support from the Finnish government and implemented them for over 5 years [57]. SFM, its practices, and its relationship to community forest management have been much discussed [92], as it is recognized as a key component of the community forestry program in Nepal [8]. Various policies and plans in Nepal have promoted and prioritized SFM, including the Multi-Stakeholder Forestry Program; the National REDD+ program [93]; the National Forest Policy (2019), and the Forestry sector strategy . ...
... However, Nepal's concept of community forest somewhat restricts this definition, treating it as a formal entity. 'Community forestry is the co-management of forests by the community and the government, with community forest user groups acting as an autonomous local institution comprised of village residents who use forests and have the authority to make decisions about forest protection, management, and utilization, including harvesting and sale [8,9]. It focuses on improving the livelihood and welfare of rural people and conserving the natural forest through local participation and cooperation [10]. ...
... The Master Plan for the forestry sector (1989) has emphasized community participation in forest management. The users received full authority to manage forest resources aftger the promulgation of the Forest Act in 1993 [8]. ...
... The uptake of SFM in Nepal is exemplified by the Forest Management and Utilization Development Project, which started forest management plans in the Bara and Rautahat districts of Terai in 1993 with support from the Finnish government and implemented them for over 5 years [57]. SFM, its practices, and its relationship to community forest management have been much discussed [92], as it is recognized as a key component of the community forestry program in Nepal [8]. Various policies and plans in Nepal have promoted and prioritized SFM, including the Multi-Stakeholder Forestry Program; the National REDD+ program [93]; the National Forest Policy (2019), and the Forestry sector strategy . ...
This paper investigates issues confronting forest management and sustainability, focusing on the governance of the community forest user group (CFUG) initiative in Nepal. The paper begins with a literature review to give a general overview of the historical and current situation of forest governance in Nepal. It explores the historical impacts of unsustainable logging in Nepal and the World Bank Report, which both investigated and explored avenues for improving the forest situation, including community forestry. The paper outlines the development of community forestry, the legislative, regulatory, and governance frameworks underpinning this unique system of community-driven forest management, and its relationship to sustainable forest management (SFM). SFM in turn has engendered a market for sustainably derived timber and labeling systems for ‘good’ wood. The paper continues by providing an analysis of stakeholder attitudes regarding the current forest governance situation in Nepal. Furthermore, it provides another small case study on how such standards might be applied in the local community context of protecting Nepal’s Red Panda while simultaneously delivering sustainable forest management and community development. It concludes with a discussion on the need for governance standards for forest management and community forestry in Nepal.
... Nepal was an early pioneer in promoting sustainable community forestry practices. Motivated by the degrading conditions of Himalayan forests, in 1978 the Nepalese government began an institutional shift toward decentralized governmental regulation, allowing local communities to directly access, monitor, and manage the forests that their livelihoods depended on (Acharya 2002). In both China and Nepal, an important goal of these programs is to alleviate poverty by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people. ...
... Thus, bari is similar to dryland while khet is similar to paddy land. Communities in Bhumlu have been practicing Community Forestry since 1978 (Acharya 2002, Gurung et al 2004, Thoms 2008), a community-based natural resource management program that involves forest management practices for sustainable forest management and local livelihood support (e.g. fuelwood provision). ...
Conservation efforts under the nature-based solutions (NbS) framework aim at better management of ecosystems and improvement of human well-being. Policies targeting forest-based livelihoods align well with the NbS principles, but their social-ecological outcomes are often confounded by complex human-environment interactions. In this study, we identify one major feedback effect of the ecosystem dynamic on people’s livelihoods based on datasets collected from two study areas in China and Nepal. Our methodology integrates satellite remote sensing, household surveys, and statistical models to investigate households’ cropland abandonment decisions under the influence of crop-raiding by wildlife. Results show that cropland parcels that have experienced crop-raiding are more likely to be abandoned in the following years. The more damage the crops have suffered on a given parcel, the more likely it is that the parcel will be abandoned. Parcels in proximity to natural forests, farther away from the house location, and with poorer access to paved roads bear a higher risk of being abandoned. These effects are robust and consistent after controlling for multiple parcel features and household characteristics at different levels and using the dataset from each study area separately. We conclude that policymakers need to consider this undesirable feedback of the ecological system to the livelihoods of local people to better achieve co-benefits for ecosystems and human society.
... Vol.: (0123456789) in Nepal to community forest program (Acharya, 2002;Dai et al., 2020;Kunwar et al., 2020;Niraula et al., 2013;Pathak et al., 2017). Moreover, agricultural areas in the region have experienced an increase in greening trend primarily due to CO 2 fertilization, nitrogen inputs, use of fertilizers, and improved irrigation facilities (Mishra & Mainali, 2017). ...
... Baniya et al. (2019) reported that the percentage of forest in Nepal was 43.5% in 1960 and decreased to 29% in 1990. However, it showed a tremendous rise up to 39.1% in 2010 (Uddin et al., 2015) and 44.47% in 2018 (Baniya et al., 2019) after the implementation of community forest program across Nepal (Acharya, 2002). Despite the benefits of land greening, there are potential risks such as low stream flow during dry seasons, leading to water scarcity for irrigation due to increased vegetation cover and evapotranspiration . ...
Understanding the vegetation dynamics and their drivers in Nepal has significant scientific reference value for implementing sustainable ecological policies. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the spatio-temporal variations in vegetation cover in Nepal from 2003 to 2022 using MODIS NDVI data and explores the effects of climatic factors and anthropogenic activities on vegetation. Mann–Kendall test was used to assess the significant trend in NDVI and was integrated with the Hurst exponent to predict future trends. The driving factors of NDVI dynamics were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation, partial derivative, and residual analysis methods. The results indicate that over the last 20 years, Nepal has experienced an increasing trend in NDVI at 0.0013 year⁻¹, with 80% of the surface area (vegetation cover) showing an increasing vegetation trend (~ 28% with a significant increase in vegetation). Temperature influenced vegetation dynamics in the higher elevation areas, while precipitation and human interventions influenced the lower elevation areas. The Hurst exponent analysis predicts an improvement in the vegetation cover (greening) for a larger area compared to vegetation degradation (browning). A significantly increased area of NDVI residuals indicates a positive anthropogenic influence on vegetation cover. Anthropogenic activities have a higher relative contribution to NDVI variation followed by temperature and then precipitation. The results of residual trend and Hurst analysis in different regions of Nepal help identify degraded areas, both in the present and future. This information can assist relevant authorities in implementing appropriate policies for a sustainable ecological environment.
... Nepal's experience with community forestry exemplifies the transformative potential of decentralized governance and community participation in sustainable resource management. CFUGs have emerged as key actors in forest conservation and livelihood improvement, and serve as a model for similar initiatives worldwide [3,17]. The global example of community participation in forest management represents a significant shift towards devolution and decentralization in natural resource management, although it varies based on socio-economic factors and the policy contexts of the specific countries [12,[18][19][20]. ...
... In this context, considering CFUGs as organizations responsible for managing environmental initiatives like community forest management, we have developed twenty-two indicators across five performance criteria, as depicted in Figure 1 and Table 1. These indicators were formulated based on empirical studies, reviews of the academic and grey literature, and policy documents [10,17,[26][27][28]. The key policy documents reviewed were the Forest Act of 2019, the Forest Regulation of 2022, and the Community Forest Development Guidelines of 2009 from the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE) [28]. ...
The community forests (CF) in Nepal, facilitated by Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs), is widely recognized as an effective model of community-based forest management. Despite this recognition, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies assessing the performance of CFUGs in sustaining community forests. Addressing this gap, this study examined twenty-two indicators across five performance criteria, such as user group management, forest management, financial management, livelihood management, and collaboration and networking management, within four CFUGs in central Nepal. Data were collected through household surveys (n = 275) and focus group discussions (n = 4), and indicators of performance criteria were assessed using a Likert scale. Reliability was measured using the coefficient of Cronbach’s alpha. ANOVA was employed to compare mean performance criteria across the four CFUGs, providing an evaluative perspective on overall CFUG performance. The findings underscored collaboration and networking management as high performers, showing an index value of 0.71, while user group management exhibited moderate performance with an index value of 0.56, alongside other moderately performing criteria. Noteworthy disparities were evident across the four performance criteria (p < 0.01), with the exception of collaboration and network management. Approximately 55% of the indicators were rated low to moderate, revealing CFUGs’ deficiencies in regular functions, limited uptake of adaptive and market-oriented management practices, minimal contributions to biodiversity conservation, insufficient capacity for forest revenue generation and mobilization, and restricted income generation and benefit-sharing with communities. The absence of timely and pertinent actions further stifled interaction between CFUGs and community forests, undermining the potential for revenue generation, job creation, and collective actions essential for productive community forest management. Prioritization of the indicators based on the performance index value offers critical policy direction to ensure CFUG sustainability and augment participatory management of common pool resources. Strategies to address identified weaknesses and build on strengths are essential for the success of Nepal’s community forests.
... Community forestry has emerged as a key pillar of environmental management in Nepal since the 1970s, when national policy was introduced for state-owned forests to be managed at the local level by Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) (Bartlett and Malla 1992;Acharya 2002;Dev et al., 2003;Gurung et al., 2011;Nuberg et al., 2019;Dahal et al., 2021). The approach led to forest expansion and maintained links between communities and their local environments to support autonomous forest practices, especially subsistence agriculture. ...
... Community forestry aims to provide access to forest resources for relatively marginalised social groups (Acharya 2002;Thoms 2008;Baynes et al., 2015). To assist with local forest management in Nepal, community forestry was integrated into policy as early as the 1970s and tied to traditional forestry governance systems (Bartlett and Malla 1992;Pokharel et al., 2015). ...
There are significant changes in rural livelihoods as Nepali society passes through an agrarian transition. Understanding those changes is fundamental to guiding approaches to support communities to generate sustainable development pathways and to adapt to risk. The socio-ecological research examines how community forests are used by different household groups across the mid-hills of central Nepal. Results from a quantitative survey of community forest user group members suggest that households are increasingly reliant on off-farm/forest activities. While the forest remains important for subsistence activities, including providing fodder and mulch to support agroforestry, households are less actively managing or utilising community forests. As rural societies evolve and people become less immediately dependent on their local environments, policy will need to adjust to support complex agroforestry systems for multiple direct livelihood benefits. Socio-economic and demographic structural changes are important determinant factors in driving a divergence in the direct use values of the forest. Knowledge of complex local socio-ecological situations can guide multifunctional natural resource management outcomes that provide unique pathways for different types of households reliant on subsistence agroforestry and commercial harvesting activities. Without such knowledge of changing local environmental management needs, the evolving relationships between communities and their natural resources are likely to remain important, largely overlooked drivers of policy complexity within developing countries during agrarian transitions.
... He further argues that religious forests provide a refuge for many species, which may otherwise have been locally extinct (Ingles, 1994). Acharya (2002) also states that some plant species such as Pipal (Ficus religiosa), Bar (Ficus bengalensis), Gular (Ficus racemosa), Pakhuri (Ficus glaberrima), Amp (Magnifera indica) and Amala (Phyllanthus emblica) are considered highly sacred by Hindu communities and they are worshipped and used for birth to death rituals. Similarly, the sticks of Paiyu (Prunus cerasoides) and Dhak (Butea monosperma) are used to perform the ceremony of "brata bandha"of young Nepalese boys (Acharya, 2002) . ...
... Acharya (2002) also states that some plant species such as Pipal (Ficus religiosa), Bar (Ficus bengalensis), Gular (Ficus racemosa), Pakhuri (Ficus glaberrima), Amp (Magnifera indica) and Amala (Phyllanthus emblica) are considered highly sacred by Hindu communities and they are worshipped and used for birth to death rituals. Similarly, the sticks of Paiyu (Prunus cerasoides) and Dhak (Butea monosperma) are used to perform the ceremony of "brata bandha"of young Nepalese boys (Acharya, 2002) . Amatya (2018) added that a culture called "bel bibaha" is practiced in the Newar community where a young girl marries with the fruits of tree species Bel (Aegle marmelos) before the onset of her menstruation. ...
Agroforestry is the unique way of farming practice of agriculture and forestry in the same plot of land, Chepang are backward ethnic of Bagmati Province engaged in farm-based agroforestry system and generate production from its practice realized helpful during a crisis. A Novel Coronavirus called COVID-19 devastated sphere and keeps the human lockdown. The farmer faces trouble unexpected long day lockdown. This study is anticipated to analyze the impact of COVID-19 within Chepang in Nepal; as well as a proposed model for the agroforestry caused through COVID. Purposive sampling, with some 100 HHs (Raksirang Rural Municipality, Makwanpur district) data collected in the lockdown period. Chepang experienced many calamities, and COVID-19 was the unique way to fight, farm production was more consume instead of a sale. Continue lockdown engaged in agroforestry farming, lack of wage opportunity, partial functioning of the market, no sale of farm products are the common trends. Food aid support by Rural Municipality played a role helped some 30 HHs poor families. A long-term food security self-sustainability strategy suggested; continue lockdown may crisis, if farm products not sold and wage stopped. A model proposed considering COVID with pointing three major actors (Farmers, Local government and Development agencies) could play a vital role in the future for sustainable development, among the model conditional wage scheme could relieve farmers in the future sustainability.
... In the context of Nepal, studies on ESs have been conducted at the national level [47,48], basin level, such as the KoRB [49,50], GRB [45], and KaRB [51], and provincial level [48]. Some studies are carried out in thematic areas, such as forests [52][53][54][55][56], grassland [57,58], wetlands [59,60], and protected areas [61][62][63], and others focus on specific ecological regions [64,65]. ...
... There was a slight increase in forest area during the period of 1978-1985 [83]. In addition to the massive deforestation in the past, there has been a continuous increase in forest cover, in which the concept of community forest systems, with the notion of local users as the managers of forests, has played a crucial role [55,84]. In contrast, a different study showed a heavy decline in forest areas and, consequently, increased in fragmentation over a period of 84 years (1930-2014) [85]. ...
The study of land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) and their impact on ecosystem services (ESs) is vital for Nepal, where the majority of people are dependent on agriculture and services related to the ecosystem. In this context, this paper aims to appraise the empirical studies on land-use and land-cover changes and their impact on ecosystem services in Nepal Himalaya. The study acquired studies from Web of Science and Google Scholar for systematic review. Altogether, 90 scientific studies, including 64 on land use and land cover and 26 on ecosystem services, published between 1986 and 2020 focusing Nepal, were assessed. The results show that there were continual changes in land-cover and land-use types in Nepal, as well as in the pace of development due to natural, anthropogenic, and policy factors. According to the national land-cover scenario, forests tended to increase, whereas agricultural land gradually decreased in recent years, with some of the available agricultural land even being abandoned. The scenario of the agricultural land in the Karnali river basin was different from those of the land in the Koshi and Gandaki basins. In the mid-twentieth century, the expansion of agricultural land and massive deforestation were observed, mainly in the Tarai region. Development works, urbanization, and the rural–urban migration led to the gradual decrease in and abandonment of the available agricultural land in recent decades. Further, this overall scenario has determined in provision of ESs. Forests have the highest value of ES, and community forests have played a vital role in their restoration. The concept of payment for ESs has greatly supported socio-economic development and ecosystem conservation. However, the formulation and implementation of effective landscape planning with suitable policies and enforcement mechanisms is essential to balance the negative impact of LULC on the sustained management of ecosystems and their associated services.
... In Nepal, all forests were nationalised and came under centralised governance in 1957 (Acharya, 2002). However, growing concerns in the 1970s over deforestation and forest degradation, especially in the densely populated middle-hills (1000-3000 masl.), as well as the advent of common-pool resource governance theory (e.g., Ostrom, 1990), laid the foundation for Nepal's community forestry programme. ...
... Following national-level deliberations in the late 1980s and substantial financial support from bilateral and multilateral donors, the authority over state forests was gradually devolved to local communities (e.g. Acharya, 2002;Kanel and Dahal, 2008). Finally, the 1993 Forest Act and 1995 Forest Rule officially recognised community forest user groups (CFUGs) as self-forming autonomous institutions with perpetual succession that, subject to management plans approved by district (now divisional) forest officers, hold exclusive rights to their community forests (CFs). ...
Through the case of commercial timber production in Nepal's community forests, we uncover and explain how effective anti-corruption and harvest regulation have produced a kind of ‘allowed’ corruption that promotes forest conservation. An ethnographic study in four community forests and in-depth interviews of nearly 200 actors along the Sal (Shorea robusta) timber commodity chain showed that all actors participated in a highly organised form of collusive corruption. Anti-corruption officials call this practice “corruption without illegality” because it does not involve unauthorised harvest in community forests. Instead, it suppresses producer prices through legally required but rigged timber auctions that generate windfall profits, which sawmill owners share with upstream actors to ensure a steady supply of raw logs. Local-level timber brokers connect community forest user groups to sawmill owners. They also operate as stealth conveyers of unofficial payments to forestry officials and other upstream actors because they can camouflage such cash flows as transaction costs. Anti-corruption authorities enforce formal timber harvesting rules, which deters forestry officials from getting involved in overharvesting schemes. However, these same rules, plus some legal posturing, allow forestry officials to extract rents from legally harvested logs at minimum risk. This is hardly a coincidence because it enables the central administration to regulate difficult-to-control field-level forestry officials' behaviour without curtailing their access to informal incomes. Forest user groups lose out, but they could increase their timber income substantially by exercising their powers to decide whether or not to harvest timber. Elevating timber auction floor prices through state intervention is also feasible.
... In Nepal, all forests were nationalised and came under centralised governance in 1957 (Acharya, 2002). However, growing concerns in the 1970s over deforestation and forest degradation, especially in the densely populated middle-hills (1000-3000 masl.), as well as the advent of common-pool resource governance theory (e.g., Ostrom, 1990), laid the foundation for Nepal's community forestry programme. ...
... Following national-level deliberations in the late 1980s and substantial financial support from bilateral and multilateral donors, the authority over state forests was gradually devolved to local communities (e.g. Acharya, 2002;Kanel and Dahal, 2008). Finally, the 1993 Forest Act and 1995 Forest Rule officially recognised community forest user groups (CFUGs) as self-forming autonomous institutions with perpetual succession that, subject to management plans approved by district (now divisional) forest officers, hold exclusive rights to their community forests (CFs). ...
... Nepal has made a significant progress in development of forest resources through the CBFPM in late 1970's due to its nature of operation and procedures (Joshi, 2004). CBFPM in Nepal is successful in increasing the greenery of degraded sites, biodiversity and environmental situation forming, local level institutions for revenue management and improving the supply of forest products to farmers in the Hills of Nepal (Acharya, 2003). ...
... The Community Forest program was formally launched in Nepal in 1978 by enacting the Panchayat Forest Rules and the Panchayat Protected Forest Rules (Acharya, 2002). The community forest is a part of the national forest handed over to a local forest user group (FUG) to develop, conserve, manage, utilize, sell, and distribute forest products independently by fixing their prices according to an operational plan (GoN, 2019;Srijana Baral 2018;Rai et al., 2017). ...
Silviculture-based forest management is one of the sustainable ways of managing forests, which was initiated in Nepal about a decade ago. This paper conducts a cost-benefit analysis of silviculture-based forest management in selected communities and collaborative forests in the Kapilvastu and Rupandehi districts in Nepal's mid-terai region. Related data were collected from the financial records of the forest user groups, and the collected data were complemented and triangulated by conducting Key Informant Interviews. The results exhibited high profitability of silviculture-based forest management in Nepal. Disaggregation by the regime of forest management further showed the high profitability of collaborative forest compared to the community forest. The net present value (and benefit-cost ratio) of the collaborative forest was Nepalese Rs. 1.01 million (and 2.26), while that of the community forest was Nepalese Rs. 0.56 million (and 1.45). The results are robust to cost increment and benefit decrement by a margin of 10 percent. The study recommends the promotion of collaborative forests as a cost-effective alternative to improve the socio-economic profile of forest-dependent communities. The study also suggests including a cost-benefit analysis of forest management in forest plans to ensure sustainable forest management.
... Consequently, it often puts leopards in competition with humans (Polisar et al. 2003). Moreover, the forest restoration programs have improved forest habitats (Acharya 2002) thus increasing wildlife populations in a community forest in the mid-hills (Baral et al. 2022), and these large cats are likely to move to high altitudes, as such tigers have been recorded in Dadeldhura, far-western Nepal, at the elevation of 2,511 m (Thapa et al. 2022) and Ilam district in eastern Nepal at the elevation of 3,165 m, the highest elevation of Tiger in Nepal (Bista et al. 2021). Altitudinally, the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (hereafter ChAL), one of the priority landscapes, extends from the tropical lowland Terai (200 m) through the mid-hills to alpine high mountains, with the cold and dry trans-Himalayan region above 4,000 m where some high peaks exceed 8,000 m (MoFSC 2015). ...
This study was conducted in 12 long-term climate change monitoring plots in the
Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape, Nepal. A rapid survey resulted in 54 mammal species,
including felids. Four felid species: tiger Panthera tigris, leopard Panthera pardus,
leopardcat
Prionailurus bengalensis, and jungle cat Felis chaus, were recorded by
camera trap survey, while snow leopard was recorded through indirect evidence.
Leopard cats are the most abundant, and leopard is the most distributed cat in our
study area. This paper adds information on cat occurrence and distribution patterns
from the Inner-Tarai to Trans-Himalaya in Gandaki River Basin in Chitwan Annapurna
Landscape, which will help to evaluate the priorities for conservation action and,
where necessary, in formulating appropriate management. Monitoring plots provides
a strategic advantage over long-term monitoring of the population and distribution of felids in the landscape.
... gross forest gain exceeded 1600 km 2 , with forest gain accelerating in the 2014-2019 period. The expansion of forests in the central Middle Mountain(Gandaki and Bagmati provinces) and western Terai region (Sudurpaschim and Lumbini provinces) in the early period(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006) may be because forest conservation actions were initiated in these areas through forest policies and laws since the late 1980s(Acharya 2002, Thwaites et al 2018, Laudari et al 2022. The operationalization of community forestry programs in the early 1990s enabled the devolution of legal forest use and management rights to local forest users in the middle-hills(Thwaites et al 2018, Laudari et al 2022. ...
Many regions of the Himalaya are experiencing forest expansion, signifying a widespread forest transition across this fragile mountain system. In the Nepal Himalaya, forest expansion is increasingly attributed to the narrative of cropland abandonment driven by rural outmigration. Understanding forest change dynamics as consequences of land use changes is critical in the context of rural mountain societies such as Nepal, which exhibit complex interactions between forest, agriculture, and livelihoods. We analysed forest gain in Nepal from 2000–2019 to inquire where and when forests have expanded and what land covers transitioned into forests. We integrated spatiotemporal analysis of national land cover maps and photointerpretation of very high resolution (VHR) imagery to improve analytical estimates. The Middle Mountain physiographic region experienced the strongest hot spots of forest gains relative to the high mountains or lowlands. Visual interpretation of VHR showed that 68.8% of forest gains since 2000 occurred on shrubland, and 26.5% on cropland. The dominance of shrubland-forest transitions implied that shrubland is an intermediate stage in a multi-decadal succession process, or a semi-permanent state such as arrested succession. Notably however, we also detected cropland-forest transitions occurring as fast as 6–10 years, indicating the potential for rapid forest succession if biophysical conditions permit. Thus, variations in land cover transitions to forests in the hills implicated multiple pathways of forest regeneration, reflecting a variety of spatiotemporally explicit drivers. Our results differ from previous studies because VHR image analysis accounted for land cover classification errors and improved land cover quantification. Further research on spatially explicit mechanisms and drivers of forest gain are needed to understand the synergies of forest, agriculture, and livelihoods to inform land use land cover policies that could be leveraged to enhance rural mountain livelihoods.
... This study found more tree in 5-15 cm DBH size class in all four CFs studied, indicating that forest user group activities have supported the regeneration of trees, similar to the other community forests of subtropical Nepal (Maharjan et al., 2006). There was a low number of large DBH-size classes, which might be due to the disturbances in the past before the formation of the community forestry program (Acharya, 2002). The value of the shape parameter of Weibull is (c) above one supported mound shape (Chapagai et al. 2021;DFRS, 2015;Stainton, 1972). ...
Tree regeneration is one of the determinant factors for forest sustainability. We assessed the regeneration status of tree species in the four selected community forests of subtropical hills in Lamjung District, central Nepal. We laid 30 square plots (400 m2, 50 m2, and 4 m2) to collect vegetation data and recorded 23 tree species, with seedlings 53,583 individuals/ha, saplings 3,273 individuals/ha and trees 892 individuals/ha. Among the studied community forests, Kirtipur Community Forest had the fairest regeneration with seedlings, i.e., 58,438 individuals/ha. Tree DBH showed the value of the shape parameter of Weibull (c) > 1, supporting ‘mound-shaped’ distribution, indicating a newly regenerated forests with a possibility of attaining sustainable regeneration. The proportion of seedlings showed a good response to medium grazing, trampling, and litter collection. Protecting adult trees with higher DBH is essential to maintain continuous regeneration.
... Community forest (CF), one of the highly prioritized programs of the Master Plan for the forestry sector, provides users with the rights of forest management and utilization in accordance with the operational plan (OP) through formation of user groups (Acharya, 2002). Initially, the primary objective was solely focused on restoring forests and meeting the forest product demands of forestdependent communities (Kanel & Kandel, 2004). ...
The preferences of forest users regarding forest products are shaped by diverse socio-economic conditions, contributing to a complex preference-policy nexus. However, the factors influencing these preferences remain puzzling. This study aimed to analyze the preferences for forest products and assess the relevance of price subsidies across different economic strata (i.e., rich, medium, poor, and ultra-poor) based on cases from four community forests. The study employed stratified random sampling and well-being rankings to explore the socio-economic dynamics in community forests. Our findings revealed significant variations in forest product preferences among economic classes, with the wealthier class favoring timber, the medium preferring fuel wood, and the poorest class striving for fodder. Despite efforts to implement price subsidies, they proved ineffective, as the discounted timber rates failed to attract households with lower income. Therefore, to ensure the sustainability of community forestry, this study recommends initiating discussions among policymakers to develop policies that facilitate a fair distribution system. One practical solution suggested is to reconsider the current subsidized price differences between wealth groups. By addressing these issues, community forestry can achieve a more equitable and sustainable approach.
... In much of the literature, empowering IPs and LCs is associated with devolving power and decision-making authority to local governance structures to enable responsiveness to local issues. [52][53][54] This involves a role for local decision-making institutions and forums within conservation governance structures or nested forms of governance. 27 In turn, this places importance on good local leadership, representation and cohesion, or clarity of local preferences and aspirations to ensure that they are effectively communicated in negotiated processes. ...
As conservation initiatives expand in response to biodiversity loss, there remains limited understanding about what forms of governance and roles for different actors produce the best ecological outcomes. Indigenous peoples' and local communities' (IPs' and LCs') roles extend beyond participation to more equitable governance based on relative control and recognition of their values and institutions, but the relationship with conservation outcomes remains unclear. We review 648 empirical studies to develop a typology of IP and LC roles in governance and, for a subsample of 170, analyze relationships with reported ecological outcomes. The findings reveal that more equitable governance, based on equal partnership or primary control for IPs and LCs, are associated with significantly more positive ecological outcomes. This carries important implications , including for actions toward the Global Biodiversity Framework targets, suggesting a need to elevate the role of IPs and LCs to conservation leaders while respecting their rights and customary institutions.
... Furthermore, these abundant crop lands have been converted into bush or forest area due to regenerate the tree species that make the wild animals easy to reach closer to the settlement areas and causes HWC [7,13]. Besides this, community forest programs in the rural area improved the forest quality and help to significantly increase of wildlife population in the mid-hills [14][15][16]. Unfortunately, this increases the probability of encounters with wild animals and causes HWC events [6,[17][18][19]. ...
Crop damage, predation on domestic animals and human attacks are often associated with human-wildlife conflict. The abundance and encounter rate of wild mammals are often associated with human wildlife conflict. Crop damage, livestock depredation and human injury and their relation with environmental factors and encounter rate of the mammals was evaluated in the central region of Chitwan Annapurna Landscape. The abundance and the encounter rate of large mammals were determined by dividing the study area into four different study blocks (A, B, C and D) based on river course and topography. A total of 150 transects (average length = 3.18 ± 0.11 km), were administrated for data collection. Similarly, information on human-wildlife conflict was collected using 600 semi-structured questionnaires (150 from each block). The chital was the most abundant mammal (encounter rate (ER) = 1.49 and relative abundance (RA) = 55.45%) in block A whereas muntjac had the highest encounter rate in blocks B, C and D (ER = 0.34, 0.31, 0.79 respectively) but the relative abundance of rhesus was comparatively higher in blocks B, C and D. The signs of tiger were reported from block A only whereas signs of leopard were reported from all blocks. But signs of Himalayan black bear were reported from B, C and D. The encounter rate of the mammals correlated with the monetary loss caused by them. Greater one-horned rhino, wild pig and chital in lowland and monkeys, northern red muntjac, and Himalayan black bear in mid-hills (blocks B, C and D) were the principal crop raiders with a total average annual loss of US 76.60 per household. This study evaluated the encounter rate of mammals and their effects on the conflict with people. However, the negative effects arrived from human-wildlife conflicts always threaten large mammals. Hence, this study suggests future intensive studies related to mitigation and prevention methods to mitigate the issues of human-wildlife conflicts.
... There are different categories of forests government, community, religious, private, protected, and leasehold forests are found in Nepal (Acharya, 2002). The government-managed and protected forests are managed at the direct government level with the help of different government bodies whereas community, leasehold, and religious forests are managed by local communities, and private forests are managed by individual households (Singh and Chapagain, 2006). ...
Carbon stock in plant bodies is the significantly longer period reservoir for the atmospheric CO2 that causes adverse impacts on living and non-living climatic and environmental factors while increasing its proportional concentration in air. The present study aimed to estimate the carbon stock in trees of Mahendra Multiple Campus territory. The study was carried out by purposive sampling method, where altogether ten plots were laid of size 8.92m radii and measured diameter at breast height (DBH) (1.3m) and angle of inclination was taken from 5m horizontal distance from the tree pole. The calculation was made following the equation given by Chave et al., 2005 for wet forests. In total 17 species of trees were reported with the dominant species Dalbergia sissoo followed by Corymbia citriodora based on DBH and population density. The total carbon stored by trees inside the territory of MMC, Nepalgunj was 76.44 tons per hectare which is approximately 1/3rd of the world’s tropical forest average carbon stock. It implies the importance of trees outside the forest in carbon sequestration and balancing carbon emissions. Further estimation of carbon dioxide emitted from the territory, by different carbon emitters inside the area is recommended.
... Community-based forest management has approach been globally recognized as an innovative and successful approach to forest resource management (Acharya 2002, Shrestha & McManus 2007. Nepal is the pioneer country in implementing community-based forestry worldwide (Pokharel 2009) and now is recognized as a world leader in community-based forest management programme (Shrestha & McManus 2007, Ghimire & Lamichhane 2020. ...
A study was conducted in Buddha Shanti Collaborative Forest Management (BSCFM) of Parasi district to assess the sustainability of the collaborative forest management approach based on existing socio-economic and ecological conditions. The sustainability index was calculated by using Criteria and indicators method. A household questionnaire survey (n=115) and Focus Group Discussion was conducted among the collaborative forest management user group (CFMUG)
members to collect socio-economic data. Ecological data was collected through forest inventory. The results found that the overall sustainability index of BSCFM was 0.76 with the overall socio-economic and ecological sustainability index to be 0.75 and 0.77 respectively. This value indicates that the BSCFM is medium in condition socio-economically as well as ecologically with 75% and 77% likelihood of sustainability in social and ecological terms respectively. There is room for improvement in both the socio-economic and ecological aspects of BSCFM. In addition, the study also shows that criteria and indicators are useful tools for monitoring the efficiency and effectiveness of collaborative forest management programme.
... The main objective of the study is to assess the socio economic impacts of PFM Projects (Integrated Land Management Project, Poverty Reduction Project, Community Development Project and Reforestation of Blanks) in improving the social conditions of local population and in improving the economic conditions of local population in district Muzaffarabad, AJK. Acharya (2002) reported that CF intervention in Nepal helped the development of local level institutions for forest management. The users have established forest management research plots at their own initiative, diversified income generating activities and allocated limited use rights to individual members within the CFUGs. ...
... This approach allows for the utilization of available resources while also ensuring the ecological integrity of the forest. The CF in Nepal began in the late 1970s as a response to the concerns over the massive exploitation of national forests (Acharya 2002;Bhattarai 2016). The indigenous people back then were entrusted with the responsibility of formulating rules for forest usage and conservation, allowing harvest only for few months while prohibiting harvest during other times of the year (Ranjit 2019). ...
Scientific Forestry Management (SciFM), an advanced silvicultural practice, was implemented from 2014 in the protection-oriented community forests (CFs) of Nepal, to advance national prosperity. However, in 2021, deforestation and rampant corruption led to criticism and the program was suspended. New policy formulations and discussions are developing among different actors in forest management. We, therefore, conducted a study to determine how CF users perceived the economic, social, and environmental aspects of SciFM and how it affects their livelihoods. We surveyed 290 households, interviewed key informants and conducted group discussions in the Terai and Hilly regions, where SciFM was implemented in CFs. All the users disagreed with the cessation of SciFM. Implementation of SciFM in CFs with sufficient reserve funds had a positive impact on income. However, those with fewer reserve funds incurred losses due to the initial investment required. 80% of CF users supported SciFM due to its economic benefits; 17% agreed on both economic and social benefits, while a mere 3% valued it for all three merits including resource conservation. SciFM was driven by the desire for financial upliftment, unaware of the corruption involved in its implementation. Policymakers emphasize the importance of addressing corruption issues and providing government support to implement advanced silviculture practices that are easily comprehensible to local forest users. The study's findings underscore the need for policymakers to regain trust and gain public acceptance and support for regulations and management initiatives. This can be achieved by fostering transparent communication, consistent reliable actions, and active listening to stakeholders' concerns and feedback. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Out of the total forest area, 2.83 million ha (47.5 % of total forest area) are managed by more than 4.2 million households under the community based forest management regime (DFRS, 2015;DoF, 2017). Thus, local communities play a major role in forest management and land use decision making, which involves collaboration between community forest user groups, government and non-government organizations (Hobley, 1996;Acharya, 2002). ...
The safeguarding of forests in the face of threats from climate change depends on important forest management
decisions. As particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, developing countries like Nepal require
concentrated efforts to adapt. However, a crucial element that is frequently disregarded is knowledge of the
factors that influence these important decisions. In this study, we investigate how risk and uncertainty aversion
among forestry professionals in Nepal, as well as their beliefs regarding climate change, influence their climate
change adaptation decisions. We performed a comprehensive online survey with 117 participants, using the
Theory of Planned Behavior and the New Ecological Paradigm as theoretical frameworks. The study used Holt
and Laury’s lottery choices methodology to assess risk and uncertainty attitudes statistically and includes a
separate part on climate change adaptation. The study tested the hypotheses that (1) The higher the risk and
uncertainty aversion of respondents, the stronger the tendency of changing management objectives and making
adaptive decisions and (2) Forest professionals who are well informed about climate change tend to practice
adaptive activities. However, the results falsify the first research hypothesis since risk and uncertainty aversion
has no statistically significant effect on the likelihood of professionals to adapt to climate change, whereas a risk-
averse attitude positively influences the intensity of adaptation strategies as the number of adaptive options
applied by forest professionals (coefficient: 0.037, p-value: 0.075).). We argued that adaptation decisions are
presumably affected by a legal barrier (42.3 percent) from policies and programs that limit the decision-making
authority of forest professionals. The results also falsify the second hypothesis and shows that despite having a
positive perception, forest professionals do not adapt until they have enough information to do this. We conclude
that providing timely, relevant information, revising current legal frameworks, and delegating enough authority
to forestry professionals acting on the ground are the key steps on the road to improved forestry adaptation.
... After forestry management responsibilities were formally devolved to local communities in the 1990s, CPR management often hinged on relationships within stratified user communities dictated by wealth, status, power, caste, and gender (Nightingale 2011). In some cases such disparities have determined individuals' access to and control over shared resources (Acharya 2002;Nagendra 2002;Agrawal and Gupta 2005), but in other cases it has allowed all users equal access to forest resources (Ojha and Kanel 2005;Persha et al. 2011). ...
... Today, Nepal's CF is globally regarded as an archetypal model for halting deforestation and forest degradation (Acharya 2002;Hobley et al. 2015;Jhaveri and Adhikari 2016). According to the Department of Forests in 2017, a total of 1,813,478 hectares of national forest have already been handed over as community forests. ...
... Community forestry is one of the major participatory forest management practices, was initiated in 1970's with the purpose of people's participation in the protection, management and utilization of the forest resources (Acharya, 2002). By the year 2015, the total carbon stock of Nepalese forest was estimated 176.95 t/ha (DFRS, 2015). ...
This study has attempted to estimate above and below ground biomass along altitudinal gradient and examined the relation between carbon stock and diversity indices. The study area was categorized into three sections based on the elevation interval of 200m ranging from 1300m to 1900m. Vegetation sampling was performed in 33 circular plots, each of 500m2 and was selected based on systematic random sampling. Phyto-sociological parameters and above and below ground biomass and total carbon stock were calculated for each section of the study area. Carbon stock showed negative and insignificant relation with species evenness (r=-0.24, P= 0.17) and positive but insignificant relation with species richness (r=0.17, p=0.34) and Simpson’s index of dominance (r=0.18, P=0.31). However, humped shaped and statistically insignificant (P=0.93) relationship was observed between Shannon diversity index and carbon stock. This research results provide baseline information for the management of Hasantar community forest.
... However, to be financially successful, household enterprises require entrepreneurial concession-based, in which communities obtain temporary use rights over state-owned resources but have limited decisionmaking authority, as seen in the joint forest management programs (Sundar 2000), or extractive reserves (Fearnside 1989). However, frequent failures of these approaches combined with an increasing power of local communities may have led, in some cases, to a more equitable sharing of tenure rights as exemplified by many co-management agreements (Acharya 2002, Paudel et al. 2022. Nevertheless, not all co-management initiatives are built upon an equal partnership between local communities and public agencies (Mollick et al. 2022). ...
The global diversity of forest-managing organisations (FMOs) could, so far, not be captured in a comprehensive framework or terminology leaving the research field fragmented. A typology of FMOs was developed using dimensions drawn from social economy theory to provide a unifying framework and coherent terminology. FMO types were described according to, (1) the formality of their land ownership and labour relations, (2) their objectives in managing forests, (3) their institutional characteristics, and (4) their participation in the social economy sector. The characteristics and forest management of each FMO type were reviewed. Additionally, public-private and private-sector partnerships between FMOs were classified. This multidimensional framework enables greater precision in the description and comparison of FMOs and their partnerships. Research hypotheses were elaborated to encourage future studies on how the characteristics of FMOs could affect the technical and silvicultural aspects of their forest management.
HIGHLIGHTS
• The study of organisations in the forest sector is hampered by the lack of a coherent naming convention.
• Forest-managing organisations were classified according to their position within or at the intersection of the public, market, household, and social economy sector.
• Partnerships between types of forest-managing organisations frequently centre around public forest agencies.
• According to this typology, it was hypothesized that organisational characteristics determine the appropriateness of certain forest management systems.
• The proposed typology can serve as a starting point for better understanding the diversity of forest-managing organisations.
... One of the contributing factors in expanding multidisciplinary research in Nepal is the evolution of community forestry (Timilsina and Heinen 2008). It is regarded as one of the most successful community-led forest management programs worldwide and has helped in the restoration of biodiversity throughout much of the country (Brendler and Carey 1998;Acharya 2002). The program brought experts from diverse social and natural science backgrounds together to study various aspects of forestry and biodiversity conservation. ...
Scientific research on biodiversity and conservation generates the knowledge base useful in achieving sustainability targets. The knowledge gap limits our ability to design well-founded strategies and impedes the prospects of addressing myriad conservation challenges. It is therefore important to assess trends and biases in biodiversity and conservation literature to monitor progress and make corrective actions where needed. Nepal is considered among the most biodiverse regions globally, yet little is known about the progress of biodiversity and conservation science. Here we reviewed 1098 articles published over the last fifty-six years (1964–2019) and provide a snapshot of research patterns, trends and gaps in terms research lens, physiography, ecosystem, protected area, taxonomy, ecological focus, funding, research recommendation, and research authorship and collaboration. The results of our study showed a monotonic trend of article publication until 1990, which increased significantly after 1999. There is a growing trend in the number of publications with socio-economic and multidisciplinary lens. Research publications are highly biased in favour of few taxonomic groups, mainly gymnosperms and mammals, with a preponderance of certain species, while other classes of both the plant and animal kingdoms were less studied. There was disproportionately low focus on certain physiographic regions (e.g., high Himalaya, Siwalik), ecosystem types (e.g., wetlands) and non-protected areas. Articles with an ecological focus were mainly exploratory—e.g., describing general distributions—whereas specialized ecological/evolutionary research (e.g., grazing, competition, physiology), except for genetics and climate change, were rare. More than half of the articles were authored only by foreign-based researchers, who contributed up to 89% of published articles, and consistently maintained dominance as corresponding and lead authors. There is a need to realign research efforts and support home-grown researchers with training, funding and institution-building. This requires a concerted commitment by the Government of Nepal, conservation organizations, researchers and academic institutions. There remains a great need for more empirical science to inform decision-making and consequently achieve ambitious national conservation targets.
... Community forestry as the means for sustainable forest management evolved in Nepal in the late 1970s as a forest management mechanism (Acharya, 2002). This has shifted the responsibility of management of national forests to the beneficiaries (Pradhan et al., 2017;Luintel et al., 2018). ...
Community forestry shifts power of management of forest from government to the community. At the same time, the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15(2) aims at sustainable forest management. This study aims at implementing SDG-15 through community forestry management in Nepal. Questionnaire survey method was applied for generating the qualitative data from the members of the Tarpakha Community Forest User Group along with interviews with concerned stakeholders of the forest user groups and field observation for understanding the real scenario of the forest and its surrounding. Out of information acquired from the survey, dependent and independent variables were categorized. For checking the effectiveness of one set of variables for sustainable management of forest, the variables were cross tabulated using Pearson's Chi square to test association and Phi and Cramer's V were used for further verification. Inspection of forests, plantation of forest, fire control, imposition of fines has been effective ways for sustainable forest management. Similarly, the conservation and management of forest resources are influenced by socioeconomic benefits that are delivered to the people and the inclusive policies that are implemented in management approach. More enhancement in activities of community forestry user groups will surely help in achieving SDG-15(2) by targeted period.
... The 1993 Forestry Act was perhaps the most transformative as it allowed users to form CF user groups which have the legal authority to write their own constitutions and hold democratic elections and also provided CF user groups access, withdrawal, management, and exclusion rights to designated local forest areas (Thwaites et al., 2017). Nepal's Department of Forests (DoF) identified 61% (3.5 million ha) of state forest area as land that could be transferred to local CF user groups and managed for their benefit (Acharya, 2002). Today, CFs occupy nearly 2.3 million ha and are managed by over 22,000 CF user groups comprising 3 million households and nearly 57% of Nepal's population (Pandey and Pokhrel 2021). ...
... However, this did not help much in terms of translating discourse into practice, as the state and donor priorities were centred on decentralization of the forestry sector and handing over forests to local communities as community forest (CFs). The CFs were focused on forest protection and meeting subsistence needs of the local people (Acharya, 2002), so limited attempts were made for active forest management (Shrestha and Amatya, 2000;Yadav et al., 2003). ...
Opportunities and Challenges of addressing Climate change issues through community forestry in Nepal.
... It is widely recognized that prevalent forest management strategy of CFUGs is protection-oriented or passive (Acharya 2002;NPC 2001;Shrestha 2000;Branney 1996; Karki et al., 1994) resulting in fewer benefits than otherwise could have been. The term "protection-oriented" refers to the forest management system allowing only for the collection of dry wood and twigs as well as certain nonwood forest products (NWFPs) such as leaf litter for animal bedding and compost (Branney, 1996). ...
Mikania micrantha, commonly known as mile-a-minute, is one of the problematic invasive species confined in low lands of Nepal, particularly, in and around Chitwan National Park. This study assessed the alteration caused by Mikania micrantha on regeneration diversity, density and biological (carbon) sequestration in Kumrose Buffer zone forest. Equal numbers of sampling plots were taken in each forest block invaded and non-invaded by Mikania micrantha. The regeneration status was estimated through density and Shannon diversity indices whereas, soil organic carbon and biomass carbon stock were determined, analyzed and compared with available standard methodologies. The regeneration density and diversity were significantly higher in the non-invaded forest. Regeneration of major desirable forest species viz. Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu and Bombax ceiba were recorded in the noninvaded forest whereas regeneration of these species was absent in invaded forest. Higher regeneration diversity and density in the non-invaded forest (Shannon diversity index was 1.42) shows better forest conditions for the growth and development of tree species than in the invaded forest. Similarly, total carbon stock was 1.14 times higher in non-invaded forests indicating that Mikania micrantha can dramatically alter carbon sequestration. Though total carbon stock was higher in non-invaded forests, soil and undergrowth carbon stock was higher in the invaded forest. Overall findings demonstrate that Mikania micrantha can alter both forest regeneration and carbon storage ability of the forest. The study highly recommends to concern authorities control the further invasion of this species to conserve the rich riverine forest ecosystem.
... These attributes make the management of CPR challenging. The concept of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) arose as an odd to manage forests, one of the most valuable CPR (Acharya, 2002). Consequently, the PFM escalated quickly around the globe and approximately 730 million hectares of the forests in 62 countries representing 28% of the worldwide forest cover are being managed under participatory regime (Gilmour, 2016). ...
Community Forestry has long been considered an epitome of decentralized forest management in Nepal. The management of Community Forests are guided by their Operational Plans (OPs), the mandatory technical document. Their preparation demands substantial human and economic inputs. However, their extent of implementation and the significance of these plans to local user are topics of debate. In this context, this study analyzes users' perception about the OP and their implementation status. We took case study approach and conducted key informant interview (n=25), focus group discussion (n=16) and purposive household survey (n=246) in 15 Community Forest User Groups to compile required data. The perceptions were analyzed using qualitative methods. The results revealed that the users have poor understanding of their plans and considered the plan as technical legitimate documents. The implementation status of the plans was of sub-standard. Silvicultural operations prescribed in the operational plans were insufficiently carried out. We found that the users are adopting only the forest product harvest and utilization aspects of the plans. Provided the poor understanding of OPs among the users and quality of plan implementation, this study questions the relevance of current operational plans and emphasizes the need of reviewing the planning process so that their high-standard implementation can be assured.
... Nepal has a promising history of forest management and shows an excellent example of community-based forest conservation globally although the country has only 5.96 million hectares forests (40.36% of the country's land area). Concerned with massive deforestation and forest degradation in the early 1970s, Nepal initiated one of the most extensive community forestry (CF) programs in the world by handing government-controlled forests over to community forestry users groups (CFUGs) formed by local communities through an enactment of the Panchayat Forest Rules (Acharya, 2002). Since then, about 1.8 million ha of the forest areas have been handed over to and managed by, 19,361 CFUGs (approximately 1.45 million households or 35% of Nepal's population) under community-based forest management program (DoF, 2015). ...
Nepal—one of the most rapidly urbanizing countries in the world—has witnessed unplanned urbanization in recent decades. Nevertheless, spatial-temporal dynamics of land use land cover (LULC) in major cities of Nepal are not well understood. This study investigates LULC changes in the 12 rapidly urbanizing cities of Nepal from 1990 to 2020. Freely accessible Landsat images and Google Earth Engine (GEE), a cloud-based analysis platform was used to classify the city-landscape into five significant classes: vegetation, agriculture, barren, water body, and built-up using a random forest algorithm. Built-up areas have continuously increased in the Nepali cities mostly at expense of agricultural lands thus agriculture areas have decreased, and vegetation areas have followed mixed trends during each of the three decades. Biratnagar, Janakpur, Kathmandu, Nepalgunj, and Rajbiraj showed an overall increase in built-up areas at the expense of vegetation and agricultural lands while Bharatpur, Birendranagar, Dhangadhi, Ghorahi, Hetauda, Pokhara, and Tulsipur showed an overall decrease in agricultural areas with increased built-up areas and vegetation from 1990 to 2020. This study will assist the policymakers, city planners, and local governments to formulate sustainable urban development strategies and plans to prevent haphazard urban growth while preserving the city's agricultural lands to promote local food supply and green areas to ensure an uninhibited flow of ecosystem services in the cities.
... In 1960, forest occupied 43.5% of the total land while it was reduced to 29% in 1990. After the initiation of community forest programs [32], forest cover increased to 39.1% in 2010 [16], 40.36% in 2015 [33] and 44.47% in 2018 [34]. The grassland, glacier and crop land had decreased [35] consequently ESV was also decreased ( Table 2). ...
Abstract Economic valuation of natural resources is very important to strengthen national economy and
sustainable development. Identification and quantitative estimation of goods and services of available ecosystems i.e.
provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services are very difficult. Therefore, we have used global
ecosystem services values and service values used in Tibetan Plateau corresponding to the land use land cover
standard of Nepal. The national ICIMOD 2010, ESRI 2020, FRTC 2000, 2019 LULC and CRU climatic data sets
for temperature and precipitation were used. The ESV on different land categories at national, provincial scale and in
different ecological zones of Nepal was computed using Simple Benefit Transfer approach (Costanza et al., 1997)
with equivalent value coefficient of each ecosystem services and functions. The ESV of Nepal was found 17.34 ×
109 USD yr-1 in 2010 and 16.67× 109 USD yr-1 in 2020. In ecological regions, Terai and Madhesh Province was
observed lower ESV i.e. 2.62 × 109 USD yr-1 and 1.28×109 USD yr-1 respectively during 2019 in compared to other
regions and provinces. During the same period, in Himal, ESV was also found lowest i.e. 1.13×109 USD yr-1. The
ESV has increased in all provinces except in Karnali, Madhesh province and among all physiographic regions ESV
has decreased in High Mountains and Himal in between 2000 and 2019. The climate study showed that temperature
has increased by 0.02 oCyr-1 and precipitation has decreased by -3.95 mmyr-1 during 1990-2020 in Nepal. These
changes of temperature, precipitation and land use dynamics have influenced on ecosystem changes and consequent
ecosystem service values in national, provincial and ecological scales. As ESV is important lifeline for the people
and their livelihood. Further, this study provides crucial information about ecosystem services to humans in cash
values and its response to climate change in national scales in Nepal.
Keywords: ecosystem service values, climate change, land use, ecological zones, Nepal
... In 1960, forest occupied 43.5% of the total land while it was reduced to 29% in 1990. After the initiation of community forest programs [32], forest cover increased to 39.1% in 2010 [16], 40.36% in 2015 [33] and 44.47% in 2018 [34]. The grassland, glacier and crop land had decreased [35] consequently ESV was also decreased ( Table 2). ...
Economic valuation of natural resources is very important to strengthen national economy and sustainable development. Identification and quantitative estimation of goods and services of available ecosystems i.e. provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services are very difficult. Therefore, we have used global ecosystem services values and service values used in Tibetan Plateau corresponding to the land use land cover standard of Nepal. The national ICIMOD 2010, ESRI 2020, FRTC 2000, 2019 LULC and CRU climatic data sets for temperature and precipitation were used. The ESV on different land categories at national, provincial scale and in different ecological zones of Nepal was computed using Simple Benefit Transfer approach (Costanza et al., 1997) with equivalent value coefficient of each ecosystem services and functions. The ESV of Nepal was found 17.34 × 10 9 USD yr-1 in 2010 and 16.67× 10 9 USD yr-1 in 2020. In ecological regions, Terai and Madhesh Province was observed lower ESV i.e. 2.62 × 10 9 USD yr-1 and 1.28×10 9 USD yr-1 respectively during 2019 in compared to other regions and provinces. During the same period, in Himal, ESV was also found lowest i.e. 1.13×10 9 USD yr-1. The ESV has increased in all provinces except in Karnali, Madhesh province and among all physiographic regions ESV has decreased in High Mountains and Himal in between 2000 and 2019. The climate study showed that temperature has increased by 0.02 o Cyr-1 and precipitation has decreased by-3.95 mmyr-1 during 1990-2020 in Nepal. These changes of temperature, precipitation and land use dynamics have influenced on ecosystem changes and consequent ecosystem service values in national, provincial and ecological scales. As ESV is important lifeline for the people and their livelihood. Further, this study provides crucial information about ecosystem services to humans in cash values and its response to climate change in national scales in Nepal.
... communities. The community forestry (CF) program is well institutionalized in Nepal with handing over the management of the forest to the communities living nearby (Acharya, 2002). A well- Nandhaur Wildlife Sanctuary, Champawat, and Boom Forest range TA B L E 2 Comparison of temporal activity patterns of recorded species with the nearest protected areas in lowland areas (Shuklaphanta National Park or other lowland protected areas) and available published data from mountain protected areas. ...
Anthropogenic land-use change continues to be predicated as a major driver of terrestrial biodiversity loss for the rest of this century. It has been determined that the effect of climate change on wildlife population will accelerate the rate and process of decline of global vertebrate populations. We investigated wildlife composition, occupancy, and activity pattern along the larger climate resilient forests that serve as microrefugia for a wide range of species under the escalating climate change. We used camera trap survey covering 250 km2 of climate microrefugia in Dadeldhura hills in far western region of Nepal. We used 62 trapping locations accumulating 1800 trap nights taking 98,916 photographs in 62 days-survey period during the summer season of 2020. We photographed 23 mammalian species with estimated species richness of 30 species (95% CI: 25-34) based on multi-species occupancy model. We estimated overall species occupancy ψ(SE(ψ)) to be 0.87 (0.09) in climatic microrefugia. While human activity predominated throughout the day, the majority of animals was found to exhibit nocturnal temporal patterns. Tiger and hyaena, two of the top predators, were newly discovered in the western Himalayan range of Nepal, with their discovery at the 34 highest elevations of 2511 meters and 2000m, respectively. In Nepal, high-altitude tiger range is characterized by tiger distribution above a 2000 m cutoff representing habitats in the physiographic zone of high mountains and above. Our findings establish a baseline and show that the climatic microrefugia that have been identified have high levels of species richness and occupancy, which characterize the Dadeldhura hill forest ranges as biologically varied and ecologically significant habitat. These areas identified as climatic microrefugia habitats should be the focus of conservation efforts, particularly efforts to reduce human disturbance and adapt to climate change.
... Recent examples of participatory policy initiatives linking conservation and livelihoods in and around PAs were the management of buffer zone and community forests. Similarly, the collaborative approach to forest management and governance practiced in the communal forests, which include the participatory forest management regimes undertaken under community, collaborative and leasehold forestry management systems, in conservation areas and buffer zones (Poudel 2019) have been demonstrably more effective than had been the top-down state governance that the communal systems replaced (Acharya 2002;Shrestha and Shrestha 2010;Pathak et al. 2017;Paudyal et al. 2017) since their formalization in the 1980s (Gilmour and Fisher 1991). However, it was apparent that participatory approaches had not prevented all over-exploitation. ...
The habitats of Nepal’s endangered red pandas provide ecosystem goods and services to surrounding human communities. Here, to help reduce pressure on the panda, we quantified the current use of the most important ecosystem goods and services obtained in and around a protected area in western Nepal, trends over the last 20 years, and factors driving those trends. Our results show that more ecosystem goods and services were sourced by communities living outside the protected area than inside except for fodder and bedding for animals, recreational activities and ecotourism. Incomes inside the protected area were higher than outside. Of the seven main services investigated (i) use of medicinal plants had increased but their availability had declined; (ii) bamboo use remained steady but less was available; (iii) there were no perceived trends in firewood use or availability; (iv) there was less transhumant pastoralism to upland pastures but pasture availability had declined; (v) less fodder and bedding for animals was collected inside the park than outside, but the availability was unchanged; (vi) use of sacred religious sites had declined inside but not outside the park; (vii) the reverse was true for recreational tourism. Direct drivers of change in ecosystem service provision included changes in weather patterns and fluctuations in the market for goods; indirect drivers were institutional governance and regulation, population growth, literacy, poverty, and infrastructure development. Policies that ensure sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services from panda habitats could improve local livelihoods, reduce natural resource degradation and help conserve the panda.
... From a reconnaissance survey of the study area, we identified five land use types representing major forest types (Sal forest, Riverine forest) and other ecosystems (Shrubland, Grassland, and Agricultural land) which are suitable for vegetation sampling (Table 1). The selected forests have been managed by local communities under Nepal's Community Forestry Program in which local users of forests are allowed to manage forests they use (Acharya 2002). In this program, the members of the forest users' group have regulated access for the collection of forest resources such as firewood and fodder. ...
Diversity of naturalized and invasive plants often vary across land use types. However, empirical studies analysing such patterns are mostly lacking at local level where management intervention are implemented. In this study, we aimed to understand if (i) the diversity of naturalized and invasive plants differ across land use types and (ii) the diversity of native species affects diversity of naturalized and invasive species. Vascular plants across five land use types were sampled in southern lowland of Nepal. Species richness was compared across land use types by one-way analysis of variance; and variations of alien species richness with natives by generalized linear model. Ordination was used to visualize the relationship between species composition and land use types. Out of 193 species of vascular plants recorded in the study area, 30 were naturalized and 13 invasive. Species richness varied significantly across the land use types. Disturbed and highly modified land use types (Shrubland, Agricultural land) had a higher number and cover of naturalized and invasive species than in relatively undisturbed Sal (Shorea robusta) forest. The richness of naturalized and invasive species declined with an increase in native species richness. Species composition varied across land use types, and a higher frequency of invasive species was found in disturbed land use types. The results suggest that regular monitoring and control of invasive species in highly invaded and disturbed land uses may help for early detection of new invasive species and prevent previously established invasive species from spreading into new habitats.
... Likewise, forest governance regimes evolve slowly and often exhibit strong path dependence (Beland Lindahl et al., 2017;Fréchette and Lewis, 2011;Korhonen-Kurki et al., 2014). When new governance models arise, such as decentralized and participatory forest management, they may take decades to be scaled up, while undermined by interests and entrenched positions related to previous regimes (Acharya, 2002;Dressler et al., 2015;Ribot et al., 2010). The emerging governance of "fast" resources (data) intersects with established governance of "slow" resources (e.g. ...
The rapid development of new digital technologies for natural resource management has created a need to design and update governance regimes for effective and transparent generation, sharing and use of digital natural resource data. In this paper, we contribute to this novel area of investigation from the perspective of institutional change. We develop a conceptual framework to analyze how emerging natural resource data governance is shaped by related natural resource governance; complex, multilevel systems of actors, institutions and their interplay. We apply this framework to study forest data governance and its roots in forest governance in Finland and Canada. In Finland, an emphasis on open forest data and the associated legal reform represents the instutionalization of a mixed open data-bioeconomy discourse, pushed by higher-level institutional requirements towards greater openness and shaped by changing actor dynamics in relation to diverse forest values. In Canada, a strong institutional lock-in around public-private partnerships in forest management has engendered an approach that is based on voluntary data sharing agreements and fragmented data management, conforming with the entrenched interests of autonomous sub-national actors and thus extending the path-dependence of forest governance to forest data governance. We conclude by proposing how the framework could be further developed and tested to help explain which factors condition the formation of natural resource data institutions and subsequently the (re-)distribution of benefits they govern. Transparent and efficient data approaches can be enabled only if the analysis of data institutions is given equal attention to the technological development of data solutions.
The integration of forestry with agriculture, known as agroforestry, is a longstanding practice that incorporates trees into farming systems and landscapes. Unlike a substitute technique, agroforestry complements traditional agricultural methods. Climate change presents global challenges, particularly impacting the agricultural sectors of developing nations. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), introduced by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 2010, offers a sustainable alternative to conventional farming by aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing agricultural productivity, resilience, and efficiency. This review explores the role of agroforestry in promoting food security and climate-friendly farming, identifies challenges hindering its adoption, and proposes strategies to enhance implementation. By fostering sustainable development and improving rural livelihoods, agroforestry contributes significantly to climate change resilience. The study employs a qualitative research design, synthesizing secondary sources to analyze agroforestry practices, challenges, and contributions. Agriculture accounts for up to 14 percent of greenhouse gas emissions, while deforestation and erosion contribute an additional 17 percent. Climate-friendly agriculture, rooted in sustainable practices, focuses on increasing agricultural production and income sustainably, adapting to climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. By promoting climate-friendly agriculture in Nepal, local knowledge and resources can be effectively utilized, generating self-employment opportunities, reducing production costs, and promoting sustainable agricultural ecosystems. Implementing climate-friendly agriculture is crucial for achieving sustainable development goals and mitigating the adverse effects of climate change in agricultural systems.
This comprehensive chapter covers various aspects of the biology and natural history of the greater one-horned (GOH) rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis, including names, taxonomy, subspecies and distribution, descriptive notes, habitat, movements and home range, activity patterns, feeding ecology, reproduction and growth, behavior, and status in the wild and in captivity. The chapter includes a distribution map, several photos of the species, and a list of key literature.
Chapter 1 introduced global environmental challenges and emphasized the imperative for effective environmental leadership that addresses these pressing issues. This chapter delves deeper into the breadth of environmental problems that require human intervention to protect and conserve nature for both current and future generations. Specifically, it examines the triple planetary crisis of climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution and waste, exploring their causes and effects on human health and welfare, the environment, and entire ecosystems, including plant and animal species. Solutions are discussed through frameworks on policy interventions, sustainable development, scientific guidelines, and human rights-based approaches. In practical terms, the chapter explores solutions such as climate adaptation, renewable energy, conservation of natural habitats and water resources, and waste and pollution management. Despite the integral role of the natural environment in our daily lives, we often overlook our responsibility to protect and coexist harmoniously with it, ensuring a safe, clean, and healthy environment essential for our survival. This chapter aims to refocus attention on the specific environmental sustainability and leadership needs of our communities and the planet as a whole, providing a comprehensive understanding of the tasks ahead and inspiring individuals, scientists, communities, and governments worldwide to engage in pro-environmental actions.
Humanity’s future depends on pulling together, not apart, to overcome the triple planetary crisis: the crisis of climate change, the crisis of nature and biodiversity loss and the crisis of pollution and waste.
(Inger Andersen, UNEP Executive Director).
The objective of this research was to study the determine the socioeconomic , the level assessment of people's participation in production forest management in the south east of Lao. The samples consisted of 111 villagers were live in Khangchone and Khorksavang village, who was asked complete the questionnaire. The survey data were analyzed by Microsoft Excel program, percentage, distribution, maximum, minimum, standard deviation , average values and Chi-quare test research hypothesis and statistical significance level was set at 0.05. The results showed: people's participation in the production forest management were 3 activities participation in the decision making planning was never and total average points was 8.18, participation in implementation was rather much and total average points was 24.45, participation in monitoring and evaluation was a little level and total average point was 22.25, the conditions related to people's participation forest management at Khangchone sub-forest management area were the position within the household, the position of household leaders within the society and the receiving of forest management news.
This Report summarizes over the studies done over Green and Brown sector of
Chitwan and Hetauda during the field visit. The effectiveness of ex situ conservation
in Nepal was studied from the case study of Elephant breeding center and Crocodile
breeding center. The objective of the study was to study the status and role of
crocodile and elephant breeding center. Direct observation and survey was carried out
for the study. The elephant center has been successful in breeding elephant in captivity
and releasing them in the wild. The Gharial breeding center serves as sanctuary for
endangered species of crocodile in Nepal. The assessment of carbon stock was carried
out in Kumroj Buffer zone community forest (KBZCF) and found to be 1593.6012 Mg
c/ hector. The carbon stock of KBZCF was calculated by concentric circular sampling
method. The study of indigenous knowledge and environment friendliness of tharu
community was studied by direct observation and key informant interview method.
The Tharu communities, tradition, knowledge and practices have contributed to the
conservation and sustainability of their environment. The avifaunal diversity in Sauraha
area was carried out to study bird diversity in Sauraha, Chitwan. The study was carried
out by direct observation method and 53 bird species were found where Black Drongo
and Alexandrine parakeet were found to be dominant species. The inventory of floral
and faunal diversity in Beeshazar Taal area was studied by Strip transect method. 17
faunal species were found among which Deer was found to be dominant having 17 in
number. 10 species of flora were found among which Eichhornia was dominant. The
ecotourism potential of Chitwan National Park was analyzed by questionnaire method
and found that the ecotourism potential of CNP is significantly high. The agriculture
pattern in Sauraha was studied by direct questionnaire method and found that paddy,
mustard and wheat were dominant in production. It is found that farmers were
dissatisfied with the economic return from the farming due to low productivity and
intervention of wild animals
Community forestry is small scale, village level forestry practice where decisions and actions are often made on a collective basis, and where the rural population participate in planning, establishment, management and harvesting of forest crops and receive a many or proportion of the socio- economic and ecological benefits from the forests. Conceptually community forestry can range from pure forest cropping on one extreme to combining tree and food crops agro forestry on the other. In the context of Nepal, according to forest survey, 2016, forest area had covered 44.74 of the total area of the country. This proves the popularly known proverb “Hariyo Ban Nepal Ko Dhan”. Forest alone contributes 10 percent of total GDP; livestock get 40 percent of total fodder from forest foliage. Fuel wood contributes about 76 percent of the total energy sources used in the country, which also comes from forest. Also, much of the agricultural system are directly or indirectly based on the forest. Community Forestry was introduced in Nepal in 1978. The community forest has been defined as the control, protection and management of the local communities known as user groups. It advocates strong community participation, bottom-up planning and sustainable use of forest resources. The main objective of the CF is to achieve the sustainable forest resources by converting accessible national forest into community forest into in stages. The CF approach has been highly successful in the protection of the forest in the hills of Nepal. The local user groups are responsible for the control, protection and management of the forest. CF advocates strong community participation, bottom-up planning and sustainable use of forest resources. Under this program, 2,312,545 hectares of forest land have been handed over to the community, up to 22,519 user groups, and 21,00,000 HHs were directly benefitted in mid-July, 2020. It shows that after emergence of community forestry program, local developmental activities have been increased.
Community forestry is becoming an increasingly popular forest management model worldwide. Community structure, property rights, and institutional perspectives of community forestry have been discussed so far. Yet, the question of how to integrate scientific knowledge into indigenous practices has not been sufficiently articulated, and this is the most significant issue in uncertain yet complex socio-ecological systems. Examining the current policy struggle of scientific vs indigenous practices in a pioneering country of community forestry―Nepal, we propose a framework of ‘management authorship’ in community forestry. As opposed to the classical approach of ‘biosphere people’ influencing ‘ecosystem people’ by injecting science into the community, this perspective paper would be instrumental in integrating science into indigenous practices without compromising capacity, confidence, and stewardship of local actors over the resulting adaptive management practices.
Community-based forest management takes myriad forms, including community forestry, urban and community forestry, and joint forest management. These variations are all implemented with a promise to include local communities (to varying degrees) in forest decision-making and management, but distinctions are often made between rural versus urban focused research and practice. Such distinctions may be arbitrary and increasingly unnecessary, as rural and urban communities exist on a continuum. To understand whether there is a measurable divide between urban and rural community forestry scholarship, we conduct a systematic bibliometric analysis including examining co-citation networks, citation counts, and keywords. We find there is a multi-dimensional divide between the scholars studying community-based forestry in rural and urban focused contexts, including in terms of discipline, topics of focus, and the intellectual foundations of each community. The separation we find between urban and rural community-based forest research represents an opportunity to explore where researchers and practitioners typically isolated in rural or urban research may learn from and connect with each other. Ultimately, we argue that community-based forestry cannot achieve its potential to improve forests and reduce inequality without increased connections between scholars and practitioners from the often siloed rural and urban communities. Connecting these communities will require increased collaboration between natural and social scientists and increased attention to the research needs of practitioners and local communities, which we argue may help facilitate more just forest governance.
Since 1950 the government of Nepal has shown a dramatic change in its attitude towards the condition of hill forests. Early indifference changed to an acute awareness as the extent of the deforestation problem became better known and its impact on village life became better understood. The initial reaction was to attempt to enforce protection through nationalisation legislation but this was a failure. A new forestry paradigm has emerged which can be described as "people centred' as opposed to the earlier "forest centred' one, but as the two paradigms presently co-exist, there is a potential for misunderstandings and conflicts between them. -from Authors
Community forestry is the major strategy in Nepal's forest policy. Evidence suggests that forest and tree resources on common and private land are improving and that indigenous forest management systems are common throughout the country. A strong government forest policy exists which, together with comprehensive operational guidelines, provides clear direction for community forestry workers. New progressive legislation will further strengthen the power of forest user groups to manage community forests. The primary focus of the community forestry programme is now to hand over the management responsibilities for government-owned natural forests to forest user groups. Encouraging progress is being made in many parts of Nepal, but some impediments to implementation still exist. -from Author
This article analyses the socio-economic impact of community forestry policy implementation in the Middle Hills region of Nepal, drawing on various reports and the author's own observations. It shows that some households, especially poorer ones, have less access today to forest products for subsistence use and income than they had before the community forestry intervention, and that income from the forest is minor and realized only after a long time. The few income-generating activities that involve the poor and women have had little impact. The article thus draws attention to a need to reconsider the approach to community forestry in the light of its socio-economic objectives.
"The practice of protection and utilization of common forest resources by rural people in Nepal has a long established history; the active management of such forests is a relatively new concept. The mechanism of community forestry has been developed since 1978 to stimulate active involvement of local people in forest management activities as a means to improve the livelihoods of these people. A well-managed community forest can provide a range of forest products to support the livelihoods of rural people. Under the community forestry framework, it is the local people who make decisions regarding the forest management, utilization and distribution of benefits from a forest; they are organized as a Community Forest User Group. Therefore, the responsibility of protection and management of a large proportion of Nepal's forest resources is on Community Forest User Groups. Presently around 850 thousands hectares of forest is under the control of about 11,000 Community Forest User Groups. However, it has been believed that the management of community forests in the hills of Nepal by Community Forest User Groups is passive and protection-oriented resulting in fewer benefits than otherwise could have. Consequently, the community forestry is now not only faced with the increasingly multifaceted challenge of reconciling the ranges of demand of various users within a community forests but also fulfilling the increased demand for forest products at national level. "This paper analyses the forest management and institutional development activities of three selected Community Forest User Groups from different parts of Nepal. It was observed that to tackle the present situation; Community Forest User Groups have developed various alternative institutional arrangements such as private and centralized system of forest protection and limited utilization. The legal foundation endorses only for collective institutional arrangements for the management of common forest resources by the Community Forest User Groups in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. Allocation of limited use rights and protection provision to individual as private property are interesting and crucial for the successful rehabilitation of degraded forests. Such arrangements are believed to be formulated as best and appropriate alternatives in the local situation."
The study aims to provide a better understanding of the ways in which forest resources are used in Nepal. Its focus is to examine systematically the costs and benefits of present and possible future sustainable and biodiversity-friendly management practices from household, national, and global perspectives. The authors define the analytical framework and the costs of financial and economic alternatives. They also present the economic, social, institutional and legal issues, and recommend strategies for change. The report should be of use to national and donor agencies concerned with the management of natural resources and conservation of biodiversity in Nepal, providing a framework for possible future donor support to the sector. It highlights issues that are of importance in the formulation and implementation of natural resource management programs by government and non-government agencies.
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