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The role of education and training levels of slaughterhouse workers in the cross-contamination of carcasses
Abstract
Meat products are frequently implicated in foodborne diseases. The hygienic status of dressed carcasses is largely dependent upon the general slaughterhouse hygiene and the skills of the workers. Training, knowledge of food safety issues and communication skills of slaughterhouse workers were evaluated to identify their role in the contamination of carcasses. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in a range of languages as no common language was spoken by all workers. Educational standards were generally low. About 17% of workers had no formal education and the majority of them (89%) had no training in safe food-handling. Personal hygiene standards were also low. In general, workers did not view themselves or the equipment as possible sources of contamination. The majority of the workers had limited understanding of effective cleaning regimes and sanitising procedures. The results demonstrate the potential benefits of appropriate educational and skills training in reducing the contamination levels on dressed carcasses.
... Also, explaining and increasing awareness regarding possible meat contamination sources would be beneficial for meat safety in the slaughterhouse context. Mothershaw et al. [118] previously suggested that demonstrations conducted in small groups, in the workers' native language, ensure better understanding among slaughterhouse workers undergoing training. Avoiding written instructions and using interactive methods and pictorial posters strategically placed can enhance participation and aid in reinforcing key messages [118]. ...
... Mothershaw et al. [118] previously suggested that demonstrations conducted in small groups, in the workers' native language, ensure better understanding among slaughterhouse workers undergoing training. Avoiding written instructions and using interactive methods and pictorial posters strategically placed can enhance participation and aid in reinforcing key messages [118]. ...
Despite their potential impact on meat safety and occupational health, fungi are often underestimated contaminants in slaughterhouses. Moulds and yeasts may be associated with meat contamination in multiple processing stages, and mycotoxigenic species, such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium, pose food safety concerns. Bioaerosols may carry infectious fungi at the slaughterhouse that are capable of causing respiratory conditions and allergies. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins can have hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, and carcinogenic effects in humans. While bacterial contamination in meat has been widely studied, fungal contamination remains overlooked due to limited evidence of immediate disease and the perception that its risks are lower than those of bacteria, which may contribute to insufficient research, awareness, and standardised surveillance protocols. This review compiles published data on the occurrence of fungi in slaughterhouses over the past twenty-five years. It highlights the primary mould and yeast isolated species, mainly identified based on morphological and microscopic characteristics, providing context for their role in meat safety and occupational health. The findings emphasise the need for improved risk assessment and fungal monitoring in meat plants. Standardised fungal detection and control protocols are also suggested for implementation to enhance meat safety and workplace conditions.
... This portend that more is needed to be done toward increasing the literacy level among the abattoir workers and creating awareness on good sanitary practices and personal hygiene outcome. Nonetheless, Mothers haw and colleagues [15] elucidated on the importance of literacy and the role of education as well as proper training of abattoir workers as these have huge impact on the cross-contamination prevention approach; they further stated that the hygiene status of abattoirs and its products are largely dependent on the general slaughter-house hygiene and the skills of the workers on meat safety strategy [15]. ...
... This portend that more is needed to be done toward increasing the literacy level among the abattoir workers and creating awareness on good sanitary practices and personal hygiene outcome. Nonetheless, Mothers haw and colleagues [15] elucidated on the importance of literacy and the role of education as well as proper training of abattoir workers as these have huge impact on the cross-contamination prevention approach; they further stated that the hygiene status of abattoirs and its products are largely dependent on the general slaughter-house hygiene and the skills of the workers on meat safety strategy [15]. ...
... Education of labor proportionally associated with the level of the hygienic condition of the slaughterhouse operations (Mothershaw et al., 2006). In the present study, 33.5% of informants were uneducated. ...
The objective of the study was to assess the hygienic practices and microbial quality of meat at slaughterhouses and butcher's shops in West Hararghe Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study design was used during April 2019 and August 2019 with a sample size of 52 study participants who worked in a slaughterhouse and/or meat retailing outlets in Chiro and Hirna towns. The data were collected using semi-structured questionnaire followed by laboratory analysis. The safety of meat products was determined by counting Total Viable Bacterial, Total Coliform, Enterobacter, and Staphylococcus spp. The result of this study showed that meat handlers were mostly uneducated working without protective cloths. Slaughtering and post slaughtering process in many premises were unhygienic, which causes a high risk of cross-contamination and is hazardous for public health. Microbial load both in slaughterhouses and butcher's shops were higher than the recommended standards. Overall the mean total bacterial counts, coliform counts, Enterobacter and staphylococcus spp. values were 7.01±0.25 log10CFU/cm 2 , 6.02±0.29 log10CFU/cm 2 , 6.950±0.16 log10CFU/cm 2 and 6.36±0.2 log10CFU/cm 2 , respectively. This might be due to cross-contamination through poor personal hygiene, lack of demarcation between dirt and clean met products in the slaughterhouses, evisceration, and dressing on an unhygienic floor.
... Conversely, it has been proven that education and training levels of slaughterhouse workers play an important role in reducing the health hazard and quality of products which demonstrate the potential benefits of appropriate educational and skills training (Mothershaw et al., 2006). Other studies noted the importance of training and education in improving animal welfare knowledge and the efficient execution of the meat slaughtering process. ...
This paper solely focuses on the two Brunei halal meat slaughterhouses and offers suggestions on how these findings can translate into considerations for the halal industry in Brunei. In Islamic law, dhabīḥah is the prescribed method of ritual slaughter of all lawful halal animals. This method of slaughtering lawful animals has several conditions to be fulfilled. This method requires proper training and mindset in order to be carried out correctly. This research is explorative using qualitative primary data collection through the use of interviews. The participants comprise slaughterhouse employees using a purposive sampling method. The intent is that this research adds to the body of literature seeking to understand the complexities of training and motivation in meat slaughterhouses and offer insight on the complexities between training, motivation, and performance. It also identifies how differences in organisational structure can impact the approach to the training and employee motivation approaches.
... Susonic, Balcon and Zocin [5] also stated that abattoir work could be associated with health hazards that could result in occupational diseases or may aggravate the existing ill health of non-occupational origin since many animal workers are exposed to many hazardous situations in their daily practice, depending on the work type. In some areas, there are bound to be enhanced occupational hazards due to possible hazardous physical, chemical, biological and/or ergonomic agents even in model abattoirs where meat safety is the ultimate goal. ...
An occupational health hazard is any agent, substance, object, equipment, human behaviour or factor capable of injury, disability, disease or death in individual working in an organization. Occupational infections caused by transmissible agents like bacteria, virus, fungi, parasites and toxins produced by these organisms can be hazardous when contracted by abattoir workers in their daily practices. This cross-sectional study assessed the knowledge of occupational health hazards and preventive practices among abattoir workers in Anambra State. Simple random sampling technique was used to select one hundred and twenty abattoir workers from the two major abattoirs in Awka South LGA, Anambra State, Nigeria. A validated structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The split half method was used to obtain a reliability index of 0.73 using Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient formula. The Chi-Square statistics was utilized to test the null hypothesis at0.05 level of significance and at the appropriate degree of freedom. Data regarding knowledge of occupational health hazards and the preventive practices against occupational health hazards were analyzed using frequency distribution tables and percentages. The mean and standard deviation of occupational hazard scores of the workers were 2.43 (2.93). The result showed that occupational hazards prevalent among these abattoir workers were of physical, chemical, biological, psychosocial, musculoskeletal and ergonomics in nature. Among the workers, 72.8% had a low level of knowledge while 27.3% had good knowledge of occupational hazards. 23.3% had good preventive practices while 67.7% had fair practice, Sex had a significant association with the level of knowledge (P<0.001) and practice (P=0.052) among the workers. The females had a higher level of knowledge than the males, while the males had a better practice of preventive measures than females. There is need to sensitize and organize trainings for abattoir workers to improve their knowledge and ensure proper control of occupational health hazards.
... 8 Occupational hazards have continued to rise in the past decades, resulting in increasing rates of occupational exposure. 9 The common occupational hazards experienced in abattoirs are physical, 10 chemical, mechanical, electrical biohazards 11,12 and psychosocial hazards. 13 Various studies conducted in developing countries indicated low knowledge, attitude and practice of the workers towards meat safety and low awareness of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) protection; lack of occupational health service 13 , inadequate food safety laws, weak regulatory systems, lack of education and legislation, 14 job in-satisfaction long time performance 15 , are some factors for these problems. ...
Introduction: Food-borne diseases and occupational problems due to poor knowledge, attitude,s and practice towards safe food handling practices in developing countries are common. The purpose of the study was to determine occupational hazards exposure and to assess knowledge, attitude, and practice towards meat safety among abattoir workers.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out on 216 abattoir workers from December 1st to February 30th, 2018 in Hawassa city. Systematic random sampling and semi-structured questionaries were used to collect data. Ethical approval for data collection was obtained from Hawassa University.
Results: The study indicated that the majority of them had fair knowledge (42.3%), positive attitude (43.8%), and fair practice (45.3%) towards food safety and compliance with abattoir law. The study also revealed the positive relationship between knowledge and attitude (p
... 8 Occupational hazards have continued to rise in the past decades, resulting in increasing rates of occupational exposure. 9 The common occupational hazards experienced in abattoirs are physical, 10 chemical, mechanical, electrical biohazards 11,12 and psychosocial hazards. 13 Various studies conducted in developing countries indicated low knowledge, attitude and practice of the workers towards meat safety and low awareness of Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) protection; lack of occupational health service 13 , inadequate food safety laws, weak regulatory systems, lack of education and legislation, 14 job in-satisfaction long time performance 15 , are some factors for these problems. ...
Introduction: Food-borne diseases and occupational problems due to poor knowledge, attitudes, and practice towards safe food handling practices in developing countries are common. The purpose of the study was to
... 3 Occupational infections mostly contracted by abattoir workers could be caused by iatrogenic or by transmissible agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites and the toxins produced by these organisms. 4 Of over 1,400 species of infectious microbes of human pathogens, 617 are zoonotic viruses and bacteria, the most likely to be considered "emerging". 5 Many occupationally acquired infections of abattoir workers could be promoted by human behaviors such as repeated contact with infected animals, trade of live/ wild animals, and construction of water bodies that favor the proliferation of mosquitoes. ...
Purpose:
This study aims to investigate the occupational hazards among the abattoir workers associated with noncompliance to the meat processing and waste disposal laws in Terengganu State, Malaysia. Occupational hazards are the major source of morbidity and mortality among the animal workers due to exposure to many hazardous situations in their daily practices. Occupational infections mostly contracted by abattoir workers could be caused by iatrogenic or transmissible agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites and the toxins produced by these organisms.
Materials and methods:
The methodology was based on a cross-sectional survey using cluster sampling technique in the four districts of Terengganu State, Malaysia. One hundred and twenty-one abattoir workers from five abattoirs were assessed using a validated structured questionnaire and an observation checklist.
Results:
The mean and standard deviation of occupational hazards scores of the workers were 2.32 (2.721). Physical, chemical, biological, psychosocial, musculoskeletal, and ergonomics hazards were the major findings of this study. However, the highest prevalence of occupational hazards identified among the workers was injury by sharp equipment such as a knife (20.0%), noise exposure (17.0%), and due to offensive odor within the abattoir premises (12.0%).
Conclusion:
The major occupational hazards encountered by the workers in the study area were physical, chemical, biological, psychosocial, musculoskeletal, and ergonomics hazards. To ensure proper control of occupational health hazards among the abattoir workers, standard design and good environmental hygiene must be taken into consideration all the time. Exposure control plan, which includes risk identification, risk characterization, assessment of workers at risk, risk control, workers' education/training, and implementation of safe work procedures, should be implemented by the government and all the existing laws governing the abattoir operation in the country should be enforced.
... The efficacy of a quality control system will be dependent on the level of understanding and awareness of the employee who executes the system (Ehiri et al., 1995;Khatri and Collins, 2007). The education and training levels of food workers have been associated with the level of contamination of food products (Mothershaw et al., 2006). The authority must try to overcome these difficulties by designing skill-based mandatory training programs at various occupational levels. ...
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to explore the views of the primary and the secondary stakeholders on the current functioning of the fish quality and safety regulatory system in Oman.
Design/methodology/approach
– The views on the fish quality and safety regulatory governance mechanism were elicited using a questionnaire survey.
Findings
– Although specific benefits derived from the quality control (QC) regulations were recognized by both groups a number of key factors were highlighted for improvement such as funding, being more proactive, literacy, quality of fish received.
Originality/value
– The paper has identified some weaknesses and constraints that hinder the effective and efficient functioning of the quality and safety regulatory systems and provided appropriate policy recommendations to make the governance of the QC regulatory system in the seafood sector efficient and effective and to mitigate public health risk.
... The problem of low educational status of slaughterhouse workers plays a major role in the activities that revolve around processing of meat and possible contamination of carcasses (Mothershaw et al., 2006;Adesokan et al., 2012). This is therefore evidenced in the poor level of hygiene observed in the study area. ...
Classical swine fever (CSF) is a highly infectious and economically significant viral disease of domestic and wild pigs. The disease cause serious economic losses in the pig industry. It has been eradicated in developed countries such as the US. However, the status of CSF in Nigeria remains largely unknown and underreported. Serological investigation of CSF was conducted from June to August 2013 among slaughtered pigs at Bodija municipal abattoir, Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria. Sera from 364 (237 females, 127 males) pigs were screened to detect antibodies to CSF using a commercial indirect ELISA kit. The Seroprevalence of CSF was expressed as simple percentages. Our result showed an overall seroprevalence of 154(42.3%). The seroprevalence was significantly higher in females 107(45.2%) than males 47(37.0%). These findings suggest that CSF is present in slaughtered pigs at Bodija abattoir in Ibadan, Nigeria. This therefore calls for continuous monitoring of the disease among pigs in Nigeria since the presence and re-introduction of the virus can be devastating in pig herds. This will help to ascertain the actual burden and increase awareness of the disease to facilitate early detection in order to institute appropriate control measures to eradicate CSF in Nigeria.
(1) Background: The meatpacking industry in Brazil is vital for economic growth. It poses significant occupational health risks, particularly Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs). The present study analyzes the profile of slaughterhouse workers based on the governmental notification database. (2) Methods: The socio-demographic dataset (n = 820) was filled with worker data, and health profiles reported Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI) and WMSDs from 2007 to 2019, available online by the Brazilian Health Service. The dataset was analyzed to identify patterns of injuries and contributing factors. Descriptive statistics outlined worker characteristics, while Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) explored associations between variables. (3) Results: The results revealed that 51.34% of workers were male, with most aged 30–45. Repetitive movements were reported by 89.63% of respondents, while 78.90% worked shifts exceeding six hours. Soft tissue disorders were the most prevalent diagnosis (40.97%). The majority (53.17%) experienced temporary disabilities, and 5.73% had permanent impairments. Key risk factors included inadequate breaks, stressful environments, and limited ergonomic adaptations. This study highlights the critical need for preventative measures, such as ergonomic interventions, adequate rest breaks, and employee education, to mitigate WMSDs. Future research should include ergonomic evaluations and consider broader organizational variables to enhance slaughterhouse occupational health and safety. Addressing these challenges is essential for improving worker welfare and maintaining industry productivity.
This study investigated the prevalence of African swine fever virus (ASFV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) antibodies in pigs in Benue State, Nigeria. Serum samples were collected from a total of 460 pigs, including 416 from 74 piggeries and 44 from Makurdi slaughter slab. The samples were analysed using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test kit to detect the presence of ASFV antibodies, while competitive ELISA test kit was used to detect antibodies to CSFV. Our findings showed a total ASF prevalence of 13 (2.8%), while prevalences of 7 (1.7%) and 6 (13.6%) were observed in piggeries and in Makurdi slaughter slab, respectively. However, no CSFV antibody sera were detected in this study. Relatively higher ASFV antibody-positive pigs were detected in the slaughter slab than in piggeries. The difference in prevalence of ASF between the two locations was significantly associated (p = 0.017). These findings suggest the presence of ASFV antibody-positive pig in Benue State, Nigeria. Continuous surveillance and monitoring of these diseases among pigs in Nigeria to prevent any fulminating outbreak are recommended.
The shelf‐life, quality and safety of meat can be reduced by bacterial contamination. The limited study of airborne bacteria often means that their impact is overlooked. This research assessed the role of airborne bacteria in the contamination of carcasses during processing in a slaughterhouse prior to implementing hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP). Aerosolised bacterial counts were determined using sedimentation plates placed at various locations along the processing line. Counts from the slaughterhouse were compared with counts from the animal lairage. The effect of the regular cleaning regimes (cold water or sanitizer wash) on the number and distribution of airborne bacteria was also determined. Significantly higher counts were obtained during processing times. Adjacent processing locations had similar counts; the highest counts were obtained in the washing location (104 cfu min−1 m−2 during processing). Counts in the animal lairage were not significantly different to those inside the processing plant. The proportion of Gram‐negative bacteria was high in the lairage when animals were present. Cleaning with water reduced the level of airborne bacteria but less than cleaning with sanitizer. The data demonstrate the importance of air as a source of bacterial contamination and indicate that it should be considered in a HACCP scheme.
The purpose of this study was to investigate if small sampling areas (10 and 100 cm²) from bovine carcasses allowed obtaining bacterial counts that were characteristic of the hygiene level in abattoirs during the slaughtering process and, as a consequence, to know the hygiene level of the carcasses. Two abattoirs were classified according to the infrastructure and the operations as Good (G) and Fair (F). At these abattoirs, samples were taken from two sites (brisket and round), from two sampling areas (10 and 100 cm² for each site), corresponding to nine carcasses per visit. Each abattoir was visited five times. The count of total viable microorganisms at 20°C was taken as an indicator of the microorganisms present. The differences between abattoirs, considering the sites, were not statistically significant. On the other hand, the differences between areas sampled (10 and 100 cm²) were significant and showed that the count will depend on the size of the area sampled. The conclusion is that small sampling areas are not adequate to evaluate the hygiene of bovine carcasses.
The change of bacterial counts during storage life of chilled (3±1 °C) lamb carcasses was determined by sampling at 0, 5, 10, and 15 d postslaughter and at the spoilage time. Three sites (neck, brisket, and leg) of each carcass were sampled using three sampling methods (swabbing, scraping, and excision of the swabbed and scraped areas). After slaughter, mean count of mesophiles (30°C) was 4.96 log10 CFU/cm2. The initial mean count of psychrotrophs (7°C) expressed as a percentage of the mean count of mesophiles was 33.4%. The mean values of mesophiles and psychrotrophs associated with spoilage were 7.4 log10/cm2 and 7.95 log10/cm2, respectively. Carcasses always had pH values above 5.8 and kept unspoiled 23-29 d. Brisket and leg were the most contaminated areas. Percentages of bacteria recovered by scraping were higher than those obtained by swabbing (ca. 20%). Bacterial counts were significantly affected by day of storage (p<0.001), sampling point (p<0.001), and temperature of incubation (p<0.05). Interaction between sampling day and sampling site was also observed. Copyright © International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians.
The effective design and implementation of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) systems for fresh meat is dependent on identification of those process steps that determine most of the contamination on the carcass, and institution of appropriate critical limits. Eight groups of 25 lamb carcasses of different preslaughter presentation statuses were subjected to excision sampling at multiple sites for microbiological contamination, and detailed examination for visible contamination. Examinations were conducted in a traditional dressing system after pelting, after pre-evisceration washing, at chiller loading, and at the end of the chill cycle.
Mean levels of microbiological contamination on carcasses immediately after pelting (log10 aerobic plate count/cm2) (APC) ranged from 4.63 on those derived from dirty woolly washed lambs to 3.93 on those derived from clean shorn unwashed lambs. Higher APCs were found on carcasses derived from groups of lambs with a long wool and/or dirty, and washed preslaughter status. There was a significant interaction between long wool and preslaughter washing at pelting, and differences between groups were “smoothed” as APCs generally trended downwards throughout subsequent process steps. Only long wool and preslaughter washing remained as significant factors associated with higher levels of contamination at the end of the chill cycle. Levels of visible contamination in different categories had a variable pattern, and carcasses derived from unwashed lambs had markedly higher rates of “other” and faecal contamination, a trend contrary to that for microbiological contamination. The pre-evisceration wash removed almost all contamination with wool, but had little effect on visible fecal contamination.
The results of this study suggest that attempts to use visible contamination as a parameter to monitor microbiological hygiene on carcasses at a designated critical control point in a HACCP system for red meat must be undertaken with caution. It would appear more appropriate to effect HACCP-based process control by monitoring the preslaughter presentation status of the animals, along with correct operating procedures at pelting and appropriate communication loops, rather than using on-line monitoring of the product itself for visible carcass contamination.
Although not well quantified, a portion of food-borne illnesses results from voluntary behaviors that are entirely avoidable, such as eating raw foods of animal origin or engaging in unsafe food preparation practices. A telephone survey of 1,620 respondents was conducted to assess the prevalence of selected self-reported food consumption and preparation behaviors associated with increased risks of food-borne illness and the demographic characteristics related to such behaviors. The percentages of survey respondents who reported consuming raw foods of animal origin were 53%, raw eggs; 23%, undercooked hamburgers; 17%, raw clams or oysters; and 8%, raw sushi or ceviche. A fourth of the respondents said that after cutting raw meat or chicken, they use the cutting board again without cleaning it. Safer food consumption and preparation behaviors were consistently reported by persons who were female, were at least 40 years old, and had a high-school education or less. These findings suggest that risky food consumption and preparation behaviors are common in the United States and that educational campaigns aimed at changing these behaviors may need to be targeted to specific groups of persons.
Abstract Objective: To establish the incidence and aetiology of infectious intestinal disease in the community and presenting to general practitioners. Comparison with incidence and aetiology of cases reaching national laboratory based surveillance.
Design: Population based community cohort incidence study, general practice based incidence studies, and case linkage to national laboratory surveillance.
Setting: 70 general practices throughout England.
Participants: 459 975 patients served by the practices. Community surveillance of 9776 randomly selected patients.
Main outcome measures: Incidence of infectious intestinal disease in community and reported to general practice.
Results: 781 cases were identified in the community cohort, giving an incidence of 19.4/100 person years (95% confidence interval 18.1 to 20.8). 8770 cases presented to general practice (3.3/100 person years (2.94 to 3.75)). One case was reported to national surveillance for every 1.4 laboratory identifications, 6.2 stools sent for laboratory investigation, 23 cases presenting to general practice, and 136 community cases. The ratio of cases in the community to cases reaching national surveillance was lower for bacterial pathogens (salmonella 3.2:1, campylobacter 7.6:1) than for viruses (rotavirus 35:1, small round structured viruses 1562:1). There were many cases for which no organism was identified.
Conclusions: Infectious intestinal disease occurs in
1 in 5 people each year, of whom 1 in 6 presents to a general practitioner. The proportion of cases not recorded by national laboratory surveillance is large and varies widely by microorganism.Ways of supplementing the national laboratory surveillance system for infectious intestinal diseases should be considered.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the association between the hygienic practice of slaughterhouse workers and the microbiological contamination level of carcasses. In 5 Finnish slaughterhouses the workers' hygienic practice was observed and the carcasses were sampled by the swabbing method. The overall means (log10 cfu cm-2) of the aerobic plate count in pork and beef carcasses were 3.23 and 2.65, respectively. Hygienic practice was found to be associated with the carcass contamination level, especially the disinfection frequency. In those slaughterhouses, where the disinfection frequency was low, the contamination level of carcasses was high. Designing slaughtering lines so as to make hygienic working possible is evidently very important. However, the enforcement of hygienic practice, such as the regular disinfection of working tools, is also important in reducing the microbiological contamination of carcasses.
Foods can become contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms from hands, the cutting board, and knives during preparation in the kitchen. A laboratory model was developed to determine occurrence of cross-contamination and efficacy of decontamination procedures in kitchen food-handling practices. Enterobacter aerogenes B199A, an indicator bacterium with attachment characteristics similar to that of Salmonella spp., was used. Chicken meat with skin inoculated with 10(6) CFU of E. aerogenes B199A/g was cut into small pieces on a sterile cutting board. The extent of cross-contamination occurring from meat to the cutting board and from the cutting board to vegetables (lettuce and cucumbers) subsequently cut on the board was determined. Swab samples from the cutting board, hand washings, and lettuce and cucumber samples revealed that approximately 10(5) CFU of E. aerogenes/cm2 were transferred to the board and hands and approximately 10(3) to 10(4) CFU of E. aerogenes/g to the lettuce and cucumbers. The surfaces of the cutting board and hands were treated with antibacterial agents after cutting the meat, and counts of E. aerogenes on the cutting board and vegetables (lettuce and cucumbers) were determined. Results revealed that use of the disinfectant reduced the population of E. aerogenes to almost nondetectable levels on the cutting boards. The average counts after treatment were < 20 CFU/g of vegetable and ranged from < 20 to 200 CFU per cm2 or g on the cutting board and subsequently on the vegetables. These results indicate that bacteria with attachment characteristics similar to Salmonella spp. can be readily transferred to cutting boards during food preparation and then cross-contaminate fresh vegetables if the boards are not cleaned. Application of a kitchen disinfectant can greatly reduce bacterial contamination on cutting boards.
Food safety is an important part of public health linking health to agriculture and other food production sectors. For over a century, developments in food production and new control philosophies have contributed to food safety systems in most developed countries perceived by many to be efficient in the prevention of foodborne disease. Nevertheless, a number of problems still remain dominant, one of these being the high level of foodborne microbiological diseases which seem, for some pathogens, to have increased over the last decades. Although there is an urgent need for better foodborne disease data in most countries, the paper attempts an analysis of the background to these problems using available data to illustrate the developments for some of the major foodborne pathogens. Some of the shortcomings of present food safety systems are discussed, as are new principles to improve food safety strategies. A new paradigm for the integration of research data, food-control monitoring, epidemiological investigations and disease surveillance in a renewed effort to manage and lower foodborne risk is presented. Within this paradigm, the development of an interdisciplinary approach with direct interaction between surveillance and risk analysis systems is described as a potential basis for improved foodborne disease prevention. Specific consideration is given to the situation in developing countries, suggesting a leap forward past the experience of noncollaboration between the disciplines in many developed countries. Today, food safety is one of WHO's top 11 priorities and the Organisation calls for more systematic and aggressive steps to be taken to significantly reduce the risk of microbiological foodborne diseases. Dealing with this challenge is one of the major challenges for the 21st century in regard to food safety, implying a significant redirection of food microbiology efforts in many parts of the world.
Microbial resistance to antimicrobial agents continues to be a major problem. The frequent use and misuse of disinfectants based on quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) in food-processing industries have imposed a selective pressure and may contribute to the emergence of disinfectant-resistant microorganisms. A total number of 1,325 Gram-negative isolates (Escherichia coli, other coliforms Vibrio spp., and Aeromonas spp.) and 500 Enterococcus spp. from food and food-processing industries and fish farming were screened for natural resistance to the QAC-based disinfectant benzalkonium chloride (BC). Of the 1,825 isolates, 16 strains, mainly from meat retail shops, showed low-level resistance to BC. None of the Enterococcus spp. from broiler, cattle, and pigs, the antibiotic-resistant E. coli from pig intestine and fish pathogens Vibrio spp. and Aeromonas spp. from the Norwegian fish farming industry were resistant to BC. The BC-resistant strains were examined for susceptibility to 15 different antibiotics, disinfectants, and dyes. No systematic cross-resistance between BC and any of the other antimicrobial agents tested was detected. Stable enhanced resistance in Enterobacter cloacae isolates was demonstrated by step-wise adaptation in increasing concentrations of BC. In conclusion, BC resistance among food-associated Gram-negative bacteria and Enterococcus spp. is not frequent, but resistance may develop to user concentrations after exposure to sublethal concentrations of BC.
Our knowledge of diseases caused by biologically and chemically contaminated food varies considerably between developing countries. While in Latin America and the Caribbean some information regarding foodborne hazards, high-risk foods and the extent of any resulting disease is available, in many other developing countries little is known about the nature and extent of such diseases. Systematic foodborne surveillance activities, including epidemiological studies, are rarely undertaken. Public health authorities and the public frequently learn about the more dramatic disease outbreaks from news media. A good indication of the importance of food contamination for health and well-being is the information available about infant diarrhoea, infant/child and adult malnutrition. Both conditions are closely related to contaminated food and drinking water, and are particularly important public health problems in most developing countries, as is cholera. With regard to chemicals, little information is available in developing countries on the occurrence of food contamination. Without such information, the health of hundreds of millions of people may be threatened. Improving the safety of the food supply and reducing foodborne diseases requires the concept of shared responsibility to be adopted. All of society needs to accept that food is not only an agricultural and trade commodity but a public health issue. Consequently, Ministries of Health in all countries must integrate food safety as an essential public health function into their work.
Food poisoning is becoming a very important health problem both internationally and in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Salmonella species (spp) is the most important pathogen, but due to the extensive effort carried by the health authorities to prevent or eradicate communicable diseases, new pathogens are now emerging such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Norwalk like viruses. This review paper highlights the magnitude and determinants of food poisoning internationally and in KSA, and proposes some recommendations on its prevention. Clearly, there is a steady increase in the food poisoning accidents in KSA, especially during the summer months and Hajj season. These accidents are seen in other countries such as England, United States of America and Japan. Meat and chicken are the main items incriminated in these accidents. Knowledge on food safety in the food preparation process and the risk factors that can lead to food poisoning is low. Training and proper health education messages are needed to raise the awareness of food handlers as well as the public in general.
Household food safety education is needed to minimize the risk of exposure to foodborne pathogens. The Latino population in the United States is growing at a fast rate and has become the largest minority group in this country. However, little research has been done to identify the food safety behavioral risks faced by Puerto Ricans. Ten in-depth household observations and a quantitative survey on food safety knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors (n = 100) were conducted to understand food-handling techniques among Puerto Rican caretakers of young children. This was followed by two focus groups (n = 12) to further characterize food safety knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors and the proper media channels for the delivery of food safety education. Even though 97% of survey participants reported washing their hands with soap and water before preparing foods, only 1 of the 10 participants in the household observations actually did it. About 60% of the household participants washed the cutting boards with soap and water compared with 89% of survey participants who claimed to do it. In the survey, 5% reported to know the meaning of cross-contamination, and 71% (n = 80) to use the same cutting board for meats and vegetables. Overall, 96% of survey participants did not use a thermometer to check if meats were cooked properly and only 10% defrosted their meats in the refrigerator. Statistically significant relationships (P < 0.05) were found between speaking English and knowing the meaning of cross-contamination and how to use a meat thermometer. Employed individuals and those with higher education were also more likely to be familiar with the term pasteurization. These results fully justify the delivery of culturally appropriate food safety education in this community.
In a previous risk factor study in Jakarta we identified purchasing street food as an independent risk factor for paratyphoid. Eating from restaurants, however, was not associated with disease. To explain these findings we compared 128 street food-vendors with 74 food handlers from restaurants in a cross-sectional study in the same study area. Poor hand-washing hygiene and direct hand contact with foods, male sex and low educational level were independent characteristics of street vendors in a logistic regression analysis. Faecal contamination of drinking water (in 65 % of samples), dishwater (in 91 %) and ice cubes (in 100 %) was frequent. Directly transmittable pathogens including S. typhi (n = 1) and non-typhoidal Salmonella spp. (n = 6) were isolated in faecal samples in 13 (7 %) vendors; the groups did not differ, however, in contamination rates of drinking water and Salmonella isolation rates in stools. Poor hygiene of street vendors compared to restaurant vendors, in combination with faecal carriage of enteric pathogens including S. typhi, may help explain the association found between purchasing street food and foodborne illness, in particular Salmonella infections. Public health interventions to reduce transmission of foodborne illness should focus on general hygienic measures in street food trade, i.e. hand washing with soap, adequate food-handling hygiene, and frequent renewal of dishwater.
Microbial contamination levels at broiler slaughter plants were investigated at three major slaughter plants in Taiwan during the summer and winter. The microbial contamination levels in chicken carcasses and on food contact surfaces were examined using the swab method. The results indicated that the bacterial counts were affected by the slaughter processing plant, processes, and season (P < 0.05). The bacterial counts on food contact surfaces of the equipment before operation were not significantly lower than those after processing. Regardless of the bacterial type, bacterial counts of chicken carcasses generally decreased from the scalding step to the washing step before evisceration and then increased. The cleaning procedures for food contact surfaces should be evaluated, and special attention should be given to utensils used during processing, such as gloves, baskets, and hand tools.
To evaluate the current practices of segregation approaches, storage arrangements, collection and disposal systems in the teaching hospitals of Karachi.
A cross-sectional survey was conducted in eight teaching hospitals of Karachi, using convenient sampling technique. The instrument of research was a self administered questionnaire, with four sections, relating to the general information of the institution, administrative information, information regarding Health Waste Management personnel and a check-list of Hospital Waste Management activities.
Out of eight hospitals visited 2 (25%) were segregating sharps, pathological waste, chemical, infectious, pharmaceutical and pressurized containers at source. For handling potentially dangerous waste, two (25%) hospitals provided essential protective gears to its waste handlers. Only one (12.5%) hospital arranged training sessions for its waste handling staff regularly. Five (62.5%) hospitals had storage areas but mostly it was not protected from access of scavengers. Five (62.5%) hospitals disposed off their hazardous waste by burning in incinerators, two (25%) disposed off by municipal landfills and one (12.5%) was burning waste in open air without any specific treatment. No record of waste was generally maintained. Only two (25%) hospitals had well documented guidelines for waste management and a proper waste management team.
There should be proper training and management regarding awareness and practices of waste disposal. Research must be undertaken to seal existing gaps in the knowledge about hospital waste management. The hospital waste management guidelines enacted on 7th June 2004 should be followed and regulated by law enforcement agencies rigorously.
Our objective was to investigate the Salmonella and Campylobacter contamination of traditional ready-to-eat street-vended poultry dishes and to assess the association of some restaurant characteristics and cooking practices with the contamination of these meals. One hundred and forty-eight street-restaurants were studied from January 2003 to April 2004 in Dakar. A questionnaire was submitted to the managers, and samples of ready-to-eat poultry dishes were taken. Salmonella spp. was isolated in 20.1% of the 148 street-restaurants studied and in 10.1% samples of poultry dishes. The most prevalent serovars isolated were Salmonella hadar, Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella brancaster. Campylobacter jejuni was detected in only 3 restaurants and 3 poultry dishes. Not peeling and not cleaning vegetables and other ingredients during meal preparation (OR=3.58), dirty clothing for restaurant employees (OR=4.65), reheating previously cooked foods (OR=5.2), and no kitchen and utensils disinfection (OR=3.47) were associated with an increasing risk of Salmonella contamination. Adequate cooking procedures decreased the risk of Salmonella contamination (OR=0.15).
The effectiveness of food hygiene training for a group of retail butchers was evaluated with the aim of verifying whether the butchers modified their behavior in the light of knowledge gained and whether their acquired knowledge or behavior change was sustained over a period of time. Microbiological analysis (enumeration of mesophilic and coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli) of a raw semiprocessed product (stuffed rolled beef) was conducted, and an inspection checklist was issued before the training course (T0). Initial results were later compared with results obtained 1 month (T1) and 6 months (T6) after the training. The checklist comprised 89 items classified into five categories: A, approved suppliers and product reception; B, storage conditions and temperature control; C, flow process, food handling procedures, and conditions of the window display unit; D, facility design and proper cleaning and sanitizing of equipment, utensils, and work surfaces; and E, pest control system, water supply control, and garbage disposal. The inspection results were recorded as "yes" or "no" for each item. Compliance with food safety procedures was recorded as the percentage of "yes" answers. The bacterial counts were significantly higher at T0. At T6, there was no significant increase in bacterial counts. There was a significant improvement in food safety practices at T1 and T6 compared with T0 for all categories. When comparing T0 and T1, the largest increases in the compliance scores were seen within categories C and D. No significant decrease in scores for compliance with food safety practices was observed at T6. Supervision and refresher activities may be necessary to maintain behavioral changes for a longer period of time.
To explore the relation between safety climate (workers' perceptions regarding management's attitudes towards occupational safety and health) and workers' behaviour at work.
Cross sectional survey of workers at the pottery industry in Castellon, Spain. Sampling was stratified by plant size and workers' gender, according to data on the working population at this setting. A total of 734 production workers were interviewed. Information was collected on safety climate and workers' behaviour towards occupational risks with a specific questionnaire. A safety climate index (SCI, scale 0-100) was constructed adding scores for each item measuring safety climate in the questionnaire. Workers' unsafe behaviour was analysed for the different safety climate index levels.
Mean score for SCI was 71.90 (SD 19.19). There were no differences in SCI scores according to age, gender, education, children at charge, seniority at work, or type of employment. Small workplaces (<50 workers) showed significantly worse SCI (mean 67.23, SD 19.73) than the largest factories (>200 workers). Lower levels of SCI (SCI <50) were related to workers' unsafe behaviours (full/high accord with the statement "I excessively expose myself to hazards in my work", adjusted odds ratio ORa 2.79, 95% CI 1.60 to 4.88), and to lack of compliance with safety rules (ORa 12.83, 95% CI 5.92 to 27.80).
Safety climate measures workers' perception of organisational factors related to occupational health and safety (for example, management commitment to risk prevention or priorities of safety versus production). In this study these factors are strongly associated with workers' attitudes towards safety at work. Longitudinal studies can further clarify the relation between safety climate and workers' behaviour regarding occupational safety and health.
Current meat inspection activities exclude overtly diseased animals and carcasses from human consumption, and prevent grossly unhygienic meat production practices. However, they have signally failed to reduce the incidence of enteric pathogens on meat although the transmission of such organisms from asymptomatic animals is recognized as the major health risk associated with meat. The general hygienic condition of meat will be improved only if effective Hazard Analysis: Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems can be developed for meat production, preparation and distribution processes. The development of effective HACCP systems is impeded by the uncertain commitment of managements to product improvement, the lack of defined procedures for the objective identification of hazardous practices, and the persistence of the subjective assessment of the hygienic condition of product. The development of objective procedures for hazard analysis could precipitate the resolution of the other impediments to HACCP implem...
Sheep muscle tissue removed aseptically from control carcasses, from uneviscerated carcasses held at 20 degrees C for 24 h, and from carcasses of sheep subjected to stress before slaughter was examined for the presence of bacteria. All samples from a total of 68 carcasses were sterile. Whole-body autoradiography of mouse carcasses showed that 14C-labeled fixed bacteria injected after death remained in the lumen of the intestine. Live bacteria did not penetrate the mucosal surface until the tissue structure had been disrupted by proteolytic enzymes. Bacteria were unable to penetrate sections of intestine longitudinally until considerable structural breakdown had occurred, indicating that blood and lymph vessels do not normally offer a pathway for microbial invasion from the intestine. Clostridia, which have been reported to be responsible for deep spoilage of meat, reached maximum numbers 24 to 28 h after death in the intestines of guinea pig carcasses stored at 20 degrees C, but did not invade carcass tissues until the stomach ruptured as a result of proteolysis between 2 and 3 days after death.
Foodborne diseases, i.e. illnesses due to contaminated food, are one of the most widespread problems of the contemporary world. They are toxic or infectious by nature and are caused by agents which enter the body through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. These agents can be chemical like pesticide residues and toxic metals or biological like pathogenic microorganisms. Foods contaminated by biological agents are, however, the major cause of foodborne disease. Data recorded in different countries show that the incidence of some of these diseases has increased dramatically over the past few years, but because of under-reporting the data are of limited value and cannot be compared between countries. In most countries, individual cases of illness are usually not reported. A sentinel surveillance system, started as a pilot study in the Netherlands, was shown to be feasible for the registration of some foodborne infections. Based on this study, it can be estimated that each year Salmonella and Campylobacter cause respectively about 12,000 and 25,000 cases of acute enteritis per million. Case-control studies clearly implicate poultry products as an important source of acute enteritis. New developments in food production and changing trends in food consumption lead to the emergence of new hazards. Additionally, because the population is aging and there has been an increase in the number of individuals with underlying diseases, the state of public health is deteriorating. Campylobacter, Salmonella enteritidis and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli are examples of microorganisms that have the opportunity to increase as a consequence of intensive husbandry. Listeria monocytogenes is an example of an organism that causes disease in immunosuppressed individuals.
Counts of salmonellae were performed by the most probable number technique on steels, aprons, scabbards and on structures within the abattoir with which carcases made accidental contact. Counts on steels ranged from 0-153 salmonellae per steel; aprons from 0-14 per 100 cm2; scabbards from 0-greater than 3667 per scabbard; and carcase bump points from 0-40 per 100 cm2. Contamination rates were highest for the equipment of workers whose job functions brought them in contact with the hide.
The hand woundings among the meat industry workers are the main cause of high rates of work accident-related sick absenteeism. That can be proved by comparing sick absenteeism rates in other production plants. An increased work accident-related sick absenteeism results from the fact that a knife is the main tool used by workers employed in such kind of production. Protective gloves used in the past did not decrease the number of hand woundings because of their poor quality. The change in salaries of the sick because of hand wounding decreased considerably the number of accidents. However, that can contribute to harmful dissimulation from the hygienic and epidemiological points of view.
To estimate the medical costs that are attributable to the health effects of meat consumption.
The prevalence of hypertension, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, gallstones, obesity, and foodborne illness among omnivores and vegetarians are compared in studies that have controlled for other lifestyle factors, and the corresponding attributable medical costs are calculated in 1992 dollars.
Direct health care costs attributable to meat consumption are estimated to be +2.8-8.5 billion for hypertension, +9.5 billion for heart disease, +0-16.5 billion for cancer, +14.0-17.1 billion for diabetes, +0.2-2.4 billion for gallbladder disease, +1.9 billion for obesity-related musculoskeletal disorders, and +0.2-5.5 billion for foodborne illness. The total direct medical costs attributable to meat consumption for 1992 are estimated at +28.6-61.4 billion.
Health care costs attributable to meat consumption are quantifiable and substantial.
During harvesting, processing and handling operations food may become contaminated with a wide range of microorganisms. Subsequently, during distribution and storage only a small fraction of these will develop and cause serious deteriorations. Which microorganisms will develop or what (bio)chemical reactions occur is dependent upon food derived or environmental factors. This paper will describe the main mechanisms involved in the loss of food quality for the most important food commodities. Food spoilage may be caused by a wide range of reactions including some that are mainly physical or chemical, others due to action of enzymes or microorganisms. The primary factors associated with food spoilage are associated with intrinsic food properties (e.g., endogenous enzymes, substrates, sensitivity for light, oxygen) and (cross)contamination during harvesting, slaughter and processing in combination with temperature abuse. For fresh foods the primary quality changes may be categorized as (i) bacterial growth and metabolism resulting in possible pH-changes and formation of toxic compounds, off-odours, gas and slime-formation, (ii) oxidation of lipids and pigments in fat-containing foods resulting in undesirable flavours, formation of compounds with adverse biological effects or discoloration. Although interrelated with the microbial spoilage, the last category is 'purely' chemical in nature and will, all other things being equal, increase in importance with decreasing temperature. Little is known about the relationship between microbial activity and (bio)chemical spoilage parameters under different packaging and storage conditions. Although there is much progress in the characterisation of the total microflora and metabolites developing during spoilage, not much is known about the identification of specific microorganisms in relation to food composition. Despite the fact that food spoilage is a huge economical problem world wide, it is obvious that the mechanisms and interaction leading to food spoilage are very poorly understood.
Acute foodborne disease infections and intoxications are much more of a concern to governments and the food industry today than a few decades ago. Some of the factors that have led to this include the identification of new agents that have caused life-threatening conditions; the finding that traditional agents are being associated with foods that were of no concern previously: an increasing number of large outbreaks being reported; the impact of foodborne disease on children, the aging population and the immunocompromised; migrant populations demanding their traditional foods in the countries of settlement; the ease of worldwide shipment of fresh and frozen food; and the development of new food industries, including aquaculture. However, to meaningfully monitor increases or decreases in foodborne disease requires an effective surveillance system at the local, national and international levels. To date, resources have been limited for most countries and regions to do this, and our current knowledge is based, for the most part, on passive reporting mechanisms. Laboratory isolation data and reports of notifiable diseases have some value in observing timely changes in case numbers of some enteric diseases, but they usually do not indicate the reasons for these trends. Special epidemiological studies are useful for the area covered, but it is often questionable whether they can be extrapolated to other areas or countries. Outbreak investigations tell us that a certain set of circumstances led to illness and that another outbreak may occur under similar but not necessarily identical conditions. Control programmes have often been triggered by the conclusions from investigations of specific outbreaks. Unfortunately, the agent/ food combination leading to illness in many of the reported incidents were not predicted from existing databases, and no doubt foodborne agents will continue to surprise food control agencies in the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, data from around the world do show some common elements. Salmonella is still the most important agent causing acute foodborne disease, with Salmonella enteritidis and S. typhimurium being of most concern. Foods of animal origin, particularly, meat and eggs, were most often implicated. Desserts, ice cream and confectionery items were products also mentioned, but some of these would have egg as a raw or incompletely cooked ingredient. Incidents most frequently occurred in homes or restaurants, and the main factors contributing to outbreaks were poor temperature control in preparing, cooking and storing food. Clostridium botulinum, Salmonella and VTEC are more frequently documented in industrialized than in developing countries. ETEC, EPEC, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae and parasites are the main scourges in developing countries, but it is uncertain how many cases are attributed to food, to water or to person-to-person transmission. The apparent decrease of S. aureus and C. perfringens outbreaks in industrialized countries may be related to improved temperature control in the kitchen. An increasing number of illnesses are international in scope, with contamination in a commercial product occurring in one country and affecting persons in several other countries, or tourists being infected abroad and possibly transmitting the pathogen to others at home. For Salmonella, a rapid alert and response coordination is being encouraged through Salm-Net and other international programs. However, unless such a network is worldwide, tracking clusters of illnesses is going to fall on the countries where the first cases occur, and some of these have very limited resources for investigation and control. It was heartening to see funds recently being allocated to foodborne disease surveillance and control in several industrialized countries, but the same commitment is required by the World Health Organization for the international community.
Microbiological risk assessment aimed at devising measures of hazard management, should take into account all perceived hazards, including those not empirically identified. It should also recognise that safety cannot be "inspected into" a food. Rather hazard management should be the product of intervention strategies in accordance with the approach made mandatory in the EU Directive 93/43 and the USDA FSIS Pathogen Reduction HACCP system; Final Rule. It is essential too that the inherent variability of the biological attributes affecting food safety is recognised in any risk assessment. The above strategic principles may be conceptualised as a four-step sequence, involving (i) identification and quantification of hazards; (ii) design and codification of longitudinally integrated ("holistic") technological processes and procedures to eliminate, or control growth and metabolism of, pathogenic and toxinogenic organisms; (iii) elaboration of microbiological analytical standard operating procedures, permitting validation of "due diligence" or responsible care, i.e. adherence to adopted intervention strategies. This should be supported by empirically assessed reference ranges, particularly for marker organisms, while the term "zero tolerance" is refined throughout to tolerable safety limit; (iv) when called for, the need to address concerns arising from lay perceptions of risk which may lack scientific foundation. In relation to infectious and toxic hazards in the practical context the following general models for quantitative holistic risk assessment are presented: (i) the first order, basic lethality model; (ii) a second approximation taking into account the amount of food ingested in a given period of time; (iii) a further adjustment accounting for changes in colonization levels during storage and distribution of food commodities and the effects of these on proliferation of pathogens and toxin production by bacteria and moulds. Guidelines are provided to address: (i) unsubstantiated consumer concern over the wholesomeness of foods processed by an innovative procedure; and (ii) reluctance of small food businesses to adopt novel strategies in food safety. Progress here calls for close cooperation with behavioural scientists to ensure that investment in developing measures to contain risk deliver real benefit.
A study was made to evaluate the use of a marker organism for assessing whether hygienic slaughter practices were being followed at red meat abattoirs. The organism, a nonpathogenic strain of Escherichia coli K12 that was resistant to nalidixic acid, was detected and counted on a highly specific isolation medium. With beef carcases, the practice of bagging the excised anus reduced, but did not prevent the spread of the organism from an inoculum applied in the anal region before the hide was removed. The carcases of sheep that were processed at a low-throughput abattoir, were contaminated with the marker after the fleece had been inoculated at a single site. The contamination was significantly reduced (P<0.001) when the operative responsible for flaying had cleaned his hands, arms and apron before and during the handling of each carcase, and used a knife which was freshly pasteurised on several occasions. However, the subsequent washing of carcases had little or no effect on the levels of the marker organism. It was concluded that the marker may be of value in assessing hygiene control, improving present practices, and training abattoir staff.
To examine the study design of, and the practice of causal inference in, investigations of bacterial foodborne disease outbreaks occurring in the United States and to summarize agents and vehicles identified.
Retrospective study.
An online medical reference database was searched for reports of bacterial foodborne disease outbreak investigations published between 1986 and 1995. Reports were retrieved and reviewed for use of 9 causal criteria in investigations. Information on etiologic agents, vehicles, seasonality, and primary study design from each outbreak was also retrieved.
82 reports were retrieved and reviewed. Coherence, consistency, temporality, and strength of association were the causal criteria most commonly used in foodborne disease outbreak investigations. Coherence was used in all investigations. The number of criteria used ranged from 3 to 7. Meat (n = 20) and eggs (12) were the most commonly implicated vehicles. Salmonella sp and Escherichia coli O157:H7 accounted for 55% of agents reportedly isolated. Cohort and case-control methods were the most common study designs.
Patterns were found in the use of causal criteria in foodborne disease outbreak investigations. These criteria can provide veterinarians and other public health practitioners with a means to effectively conceptualize, communicate, and summarize causal conclusions. The 4 most commonly used criteria may represent core criteria that investigators consider most useful in explaining food-borne disease outbreaks.
Information format can influence the extent to which target audiences understand and respond to risk-related information. This study examined four elements of risk information presentation format. Using printed materials, we examined target audience perceptions about: (a) reading level; (b) use of diagrams vs. text; (c) commanding versus cajoling tone; and (d) use of qualitative vs. quantitative information presented in a risk ladder. We used the risk communication topic of human health concerns related to eating noncommercial Great Lakes fish affected by chemical contaminants. Results from the comparisons of specific communication formats indicated that multiple formats are required to meet the needs of a significant percent of anglers for three of the four format types examined. Advisory text should be reviewed to ensure the reading level is geared to abilities of the target audience. For many audiences, a combination of qualitative and quantitative information, and a combination of diagrams and text may be most effective. For most audiences, a cajoling rather than commanding tone better provides them with the information they need to make a decision about fish consumption. Segmenting audiences regarding information needs and communication formats may help clarify which approaches to take with each audience.
The contamination of beef carcasses with coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS) was studied at three beef abattoirs (A, B and C). The incidence and the number of CPS were determined on cattle hides immediately after slaughter and on three carcass sites (brisket, flank and round) at different points during processing along the slaughter line. The incidence of CPS on cattle hides ranged from 20 to 68.6%. At abattoir A, 6.5% of the carcasses sampled before evisceration were contaminated with CPS, compared to 40% of the carcasses after evisceration. The incidence on carcasses changed little during further processing; however, after chilling for 72 h, the incidence increased to 83%. After evisceration, the brisket and flank areas were more often contaminated than the round. A similar pattern of contamination was observed at abattoir B. At abattoir C, 26.7% of the samples collected before evisceration were contaminated and this fell to 16.7% after evisceration. After chilling for 72 h, the incidence of carcass contamination with CPS increased to 46.7%. The average number of CPS on contaminated carcasses prior to and after overnight chilling was less than 50 colony-forming units (cfu)/cm2 and, after weekend chilling, increased to 64 and 112 cfu/cm2 in abattoirs A and B, respectively. Of the isolates tested, 71.4% produced staphylococcal enterotoxin and 21% could not be classified phenotypically. The hands of workers and environmental sites associated with the evisceration process were examined for CPS at abattoir A. Hands were heavily contaminated and were the likely source of CPS contamination at this abattoir.
The Dutch government, the meat producers organisation and the meat industry have recognised O157 VTEC as an important public health hazard, and agreed on the necessity to improve the hygiene in Dutch cattle- and calf-slaughtering establishments. This paper reports activities within a national action programme to achieve this objective, "Zero-tolerance for faecal contamination during slaughter of cattle and calves". The study included inspection of hygienic performances in slaughterhouses, and visual and microbiological (aerobic plate counts, Enterobacteriaceae counts and O157 VTEC presence/absence on visually clean cattle and calf carcasses) assessment of carcass cleanliness. Initial studies concluded that the hygienic performances in the Dutch cattle and calf slaughterhouses should be immediately improved. In 52% of the slaughterhouses inspected, carcasses were observed to be contaminated with hide, hair or faeces. Around 45% of the slaughterhouses had constructural deficiencies likely to lead to structural cross-contamination of carcasses, by direct carcass-carcass contact, or by indirect contacts with floors, walls or steps. In 39% of the slaughterhouses, cleaning and disinfection procedures were inadequate. Visual inspection of chilled carcasses found that in 11 of the 27 slaughterhouses visited, more than 10% of the carcasses were visibly contaminated. In 6 of the 27 slaughterhouses visited, more than 50% of the carcasses inspected were visibly contaminated. Microbiological analysis of visually clean carcasses noted contamination levels similar to those reported from other countries. O157 VTEC were not isolated during this study. Circulation of these findings lead to increased efforts by all parties to fulfil the requirements of the statutory "Zero-tolerance" programme. A follow-up study noted a significant decrease in the proportions of faecally contaminated carcasses, i.e., 7% of chilled carcasses were visibly contaminated with faeces, as opposed to 22% contamination during the initial study. The follow-up study also noted a greater awareness of the importance of good hygienic practices among slaughterhouse personnel and government meat inspectors.
A total of 523 chilled beef and lamb carcases were sampled from four abattoirs and 13 very small plants (VSPs) in South Australia during March 2002 in order to develop a microbiological profile of meat produced for domestic consumption within the State. Aerobic viable counts (AVCs) and Escherichia coli counts were obtained from samples taken by sponge-sampling the muscle-adipose tissue at sites designated for each species in the Microbiological Guidelines to the Australian Standard for Hygienic Production of Meat for Human Consumption (identical with those of the USA Pathogen Reduction: hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) systems: final rule). On beef carcases (n=159) mean log AVC/cm(2) was 1.82 and E. coli was detected on 18.8% of carcases (area sampled 200 cm(2)) for which the mean log of the positives was -0.34; for lamb carcases, on which 75 cm(2) was sampled (n=364), corresponding values were 2.59, 36.2% and log(10) 0.27, respectively. There was little difference in mean log AVC/cm(2) of carcases produced at abattoirs and VSPs, 1.72 versus 1.81, respectively, for beef, and 2.80 versus 2.44, respectively, for sheep. Prevalence of E. coli was lower at VSPs, however, with abattoirs having 28.4% for beef and 61.5% for sheep, compared with corresponding values of 4.7% and 18.5% at VSPs. In VSPs, the range of mean log AVC/cm(2) was 0.47-3.16 for beef and 1.63-3.65 for sheep carcases, data which will allow the Controlling Authority to assist plants to improve performance of slaughter and dressing techniques. The present survey is part of an assessment by the State meat authority of the effectiveness of co-regulation of meat hygiene between government and industry.
Meat inspection as applied science was born in the second half of the 19th Century due to research on intestinal parasites that can be carried over to man by pigs and bovine animals as well as to the study of tuberculosis. It was only during that period that meat inspection was taken over by the veterinarians from expert-butchers. During the industrialization and demographic increase in the urban areas bringing about a great need of meat, a group of professionals denied that meat coming from sick animals and especially from those infected by tuberculosis represents a danger to the population. Epidemiology and bacterial examination finally allowed to solve this problems as well as the development of modern chilling techniques assured a better conservation of the meat. At the end of the 19th Century an important legislation about meat inspection appeared throughout Europe.
The aim of this study was to investigate contamination of carcasses and abattoir environment with Escherichia coli O157:H7. Five abattoirs in Istanbul were visited between January 2000 and April 2001. During visits, sampling was performed and a total of 330 cattle were selected. Cattle were examined for the presence of faeces on the hide (abdomen and legs) before slaughter. The swabs from the carcasses and environmental samples (abattoir floor, benches including conveyors, knives, aprons, saws, hooks, hands) were taken at the abattoir immediately after slaughter using sterile cotton swabs. A sample from the wash water of the abattoir was also taken. Preenrichment, immunomagnetic separation and CT-SMAC agar were used for the isolation. The reaction of the isolates with anti-O157 and H7 antisera were also analysed. Twelve strains (3.6%) of E. coli O157 were isolated from the cattle carcasses and eight (2.4%) of them gave positive reaction with anti-H:7. Six strains of E. coli O157 were isolated from the environmental samples and all strains were positive for H7. The number of E. coli O157H:7 strains isolated from the environmental samples was two from the knife, two from the hands, one from the apron and one from the floor. No E. coli O157 was isolated from the abattoir water.
A comparison of Enterobacteriaceae, coliform and Escherichia coli counts in chicken carcasses with and without visible faecal contamination was conducted to evaluate the role of contamination as a vehicle for generic E. coli, coliform and other enterobacteria contaminating broiler chicken carcasses when processed under routine commercial operations.
Samples were removed from the processing line immediately after evisceration, inside-outside shower and chilling for microbiological analysis. After evisceration, mean counts were significantly different only for E. coli (P < or = 0.05) in chicken carcasses with and without visible faecal contamination. While the spray wash practice was not efficient enough for complete removal of the visible contamination from carcasses, leading to microbiological reduction percentages lower than expected, 25 ppm chlorinated water chilling did reduce the contamination level considerably in all samples.
Carcasses with and without visible faecal contamination harboured E. coli and other potentially hazardous enterobacteria. E. coli was the predominant strain isolated in all samples, Enterobacter cloacae being next most frequent.
The zero tolerance of visible faecal contamination requirement alone is not sufficient to assure safety and to improve the microbial quality of carcasses.
Presentation format can influence the way target audiences understand risk-related information. Brochures or fish fact sheets are the methods traditionally used by state agencies to inform the public about fish consumption advisories and the risks from consuming fish. This study examines the efficacy of presenting information about the risks from consuming contaminated fish and shellfish in two different formats: a brochure and classroom presentation. The two instruments were developed and tested in Spanish and English, reflecting the local ethnic composition in the Newark Bay Complex. The instruments were tested on women of child-bearing age at the Women, Infants, and Children Center in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Detailed diagrams were used in both presentations, including contaminated fish species, fish preparation methods, and food chain bioaccumulation and transmission to the fetus. There were few language-related differences in the efficacy of the classroom lesson, and the main ideas were understood by both groups. Where there were significant differences in understanding about the risks from consuming fish or crabs from the contaminated waters of Newark Bay, in all cases the women exposed to the classroom lesson had a better understanding than those who read the brochure. Ninety-six percent of the women who heard the lesson understood that it was unsafe to eat fish from the port, compared to 72% of those reading the brochure. Both formats succeeded in imparting information to most women about the area under advisories, the fish species under advisories, and transmission of toxins to the fetus. Information on fish preparation was recalled less clearly, partly because women were asked to relate methods to reduce the risk from consuming fish from 11 presented, and most recalled only two or three of the list. The advantages and disadvantages of conducting short classes to women of child-bearing age are discussed.
The annual incidence of illness related to food consumption continues to present a challenge to environmental health management. A significant fraction of cases have been attributed to consumption of food in restaurants, and as the number of meals eaten away from the home continues to rise, the potential for large-scale foodborne-disease outbreaks will continue to increase. Food handlers in retail establishments contribute to the incidence of foodborne disease; therefore, it is essential that workers and management staff have a thorough understanding of safe food practices. Since the training, certification, and experience of food service managers vary greatly, it is also likely that managers' knowledge base may differ. In the study reported here, restaurant managers were administered a survey designed to measure their understanding of basic food safety principles. The sources of training, certification, and experience were found to significantly affect the level of food safety knowledge; however, increased hours of training did not increase knowledge. In addition, the time lapsed since training did not significantly affect the level of knowledge.
The practice of safety measures by the food service staff in hospitals is necessary for the prevention of food-borne outbreaks. Hospitalized patients are more vulnerable to potential hazards, and neglecting these principles can lead to increased morbidity and mortality.
We assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of food service staff regarding food hygiene in government and private hospitals in Shiraz, Iran. Two questionnaires were designed, one for food service staff and the other for supervisors. Thirty-one hospitals were approached, and the response rate was 99.5%. Four models were developed regarding knowledge, attitudes, and practices, and a multiple logistic regression analysis was performed. Comparison among the government and private hospitals was done.
This study showed that personnel had little knowledge regarding the pathogens that cause food-borne diseases and the correct temperature for the storage of hot or cold ready-to-eat foods. Older personnel had better attitudes and practices. Females practiced safety measures less often than did males. Personnel working in hospitals with fewer than 300 beds also had better practices. Most of the personnel had positive attitudes, but disparity between attitude and practice was noted.
There is a dire need for education and increased awareness among food service staff regarding safe food handling practices.
The purpose of this study was to identify perceptions of management safety practices from the viewpoint of union and nonunion construction workers. A complementary investigation was conducted with construction managers.
A semi-structured interview guide was used to elicit information from 64 workers (95% male) in ten focus groups. Questions were designed to elicit information about management practices that facilitate or discourage safe working conditions, including communication style, attitude, expectations, and unspoken messages. Data were analyzed using thematic content analysis.
Workers identified management commitment to safety, concern for workers, congruence between spoken messages and practice, professionalism, and communication skills as key qualities in successful managers. Workers provided vivid examples of excellent and poor management strategies.
Construction managers play a pivotal role in the definition and implementation of safety practices in the workplace and workers look to them for guidance and modeling. Given the high rates of injury in construction, deeply imbedded protective policies that rely on input from a broad range of stakeholders, including construction workers, should be developed.
To characterize micro-organisms isolated from Norwegian dairy production plants after cleaning and fogging disinfection with alkyl amine/peracetic acid and to indicate reasons for survival.
Microbial samples were collected from five dairy plants after cleaning and fogging disinfection. Isolates from two of these production plants, which used fogging with alkylamino acetate (plant A), and peracetic acid (plant B), were chosen for further characterization. The sequence of the 16S ribosomal DNA, fatty acid analysis and biochemical characteristics were used to identify isolates. Three isolates identified as Rhodococcus erythropolis, Methylobacterium rhodesianum and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa were isolated from plant A and one Sphingomonas sp. and two M. extorquens from plant B. Different patterns of resistance to seven disinfectants in a bactericidal suspension test and variable degree of attachment to stainless steel were found. The strains with higher disinfectant resistance showed lower degree of attachment than susceptible strains.
The study identifies and characterizes micro-organisms present after cleaning and fogging disinfection. Both surface attachment and resistance were shown as possible reasons for the presence of the isolates after cleaning and disinfection.
These results contribute to the awareness of disinfectant resistance as well as attachment as mechanisms of survival in dairy industry. It also strengthens the argument of frequent alternation of disinfectants in the food processing industry to avoid the establishment of resistant house strains.
Code of hygeinic practice for fresh meat
- Anonymous
Anonymous (1993) 'Code of hygeinic practice for fresh meat', Codex Alimentarius Commision
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Food safety-microbiological aspects of meat', Meat and Human Health, National Library Auditorium
- G Bell
Bell, G. (1996) 'Food safety-microbiological aspects of meat', Meat and Human Health, National
Library Auditorium, New Zealand, pp.89-93.