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Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and the Special Education Workforce: A Critical Overview
Abstract
The need for special education teachers from culturally and/or linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds has become a national concern. The majority of school districts nationwide list the recruitment and retention of teachers from diverse backgrounds as a priority. Many cite difficulties with finding adequate personnel, a problem that is complicated by current special education teacher shortages. The authors of this article synthesize research findings on the current demographics of diverse teachers and the impact on student outcomes. They also summarize qualities of teacher preparation programs that successfully prepare CLD teachers according to the following themes: recruitment, retention, alternative certification, and post-teacher preparation. Recommendations for future research are provided.
... Students of color are further marginalized when their school staff does not include teachers who share their racial/ethnic background (Villegas & Irvine, 2010) as Rogers-Ard et al. (2012) allude to above. The racial/ethnic diversity of the teacher workforce communicates a potent message to students about how power is distributed in U.S. society (Kozleski et al., 2014;Tyler et al., 2004;Villegas & Irvine, 2010). In addition, studies consistently indicate students benefit academically from having some teachers who share their race/ethnicity; these benefits are especially strong among students of color (Dee, 2004;Eddy & Easton-Brooks, 2011;Egalite, Kisida, & Winters, 2015;Grissom, Kern, & Rodriguez, 2015;Grissom & Redding, 2016). ...
... Yet, due to extensive and increasing racial/ethnic segregation in housing (e.g., Ayscue & Orfield, 2015), White students often have limited contact with people of color. Schools may be the only place many White students have opportunities to see people of color in leadership, and schools staffed exclusively by White educators may perpetuate, rather than combat, implicit biases about people of color (Tyler et al., 2004). ...
... a long-standing challenge for leaders and teacher-educators (Cochran-Smith et al., 2016;Ingersoll & May, 2011;Tyler et al., 2004). An analysis by Villegas et al. (2012) Special Educators of Color Are Underrepresented r r teacher diversity, 10 states have articulated agreements between 2-and 4-year colleges or paraprofessional recruitment, six states have recruitment centers, and two states have alternative preparation programs specifically designed to recruit teachers of color (Villegas et al., 2012). ...
• Students benefit from having teachers who reflect their own background and the full racial/ethnic diversity of the US population.
• Nationally, only 18% of special educators were teachers of color, while almost half of students with disabilities are students of color; however, there is marked variation in teacher and student racial/ethnic diversity across states.
• Using the Teacher-Student Parity Index (TSPI), a standardized metric for comparing representation across states with different demographics, we calculated the extent to which teacher and student racial/ethnic diversity are aligned in all 50 U.S. states.
• We found that teachers of color are under-represented in all but one state.
• We provide specific recommendations for cultivating a racially/ethnically diverse special education teacher workforce, including how states, districts, and schools can use the Teacher-Student Parity Index to assess changes in parity over time.
... The complex conditions that undergird these patterns of disparate school supports and outcomes have been associated with a number of influences (Artiles et al., 2010;Kea & Trent, 2013;Klinger et al., 2005;Rueda & Stillman, 2012;Townsend, 2002). One such influence is the pervasive disproportionate placement of inexperienced, early career, and under or uncertified teachers in schools that support children from predominantly minority and/or low socioeconomic communities (Blanton et al., 2011;Carlson, Lee, & Schroll, 2004;McLeskey et al.;2004;Tyler et al., 2004). This is further mitigated by findings which have described the population of non-English speaking students as the fastest growing subgroup of students in the United States (McCardle et al., 2005;Snyder & Dillow, 2013). ...
... Despite these encouraging findings, the present study also illustrates the need for the field of bilingual special education to maintain its attention on a number of enduring concerns that were well described in the literature dating back to the 1980s (for example, Chavez, 1989;Trent & Artiles, 1998). These include an urgent need to clarify the professional competencies that should be expected of bilingual special education teachers (Gay, 2010;Townsend, 2002); increased inclusion of comprehensive coursework and field experiences in the context of formal teacher preparation, with specific emphasis on multicultural and bilingual training, sensitivity, and instructional approaches (Blanton et al., 2011;Gay, 2010;Villegas, 2012); and active recruitment of bilingual and ethnically diverse preservice K-12 teachers and teacher educators to disrupt and offset longstanding disproportionate representations of minorities in the teacher workforce (McCardle et al., 2005;Rueda & Stillman, 2012;Tyler et al., 2004). The importance of these interrelated issues is further strengthened by findings in the present study as well as reports that teachers continue to experience difficulty distinguishing between students' language learning versus disability influenced needs; creating learning environments that maximize all students' strengths, experiences, and learning histories; and including and communicating with students' families (Casey, Dunlap, Brister, Davidson, & Starrett, 2014;Ochoa, Brandon, Cadiero-Kaplan, & Ramírez, 2014;Paneque & Rodríguez, 2009;Rodríguez, 2009). ...
... These included lack of financial resources, competing demands from work and family, unfamiliarity with university procedures, and a lack of proficiency in English reading and writing skills commensurate with those expected at the graduate level and/or to pass standardized state teacher licensure and credential exams. Tyler et al. (2004) reported that individuals from CLD backgrounds experience high familial pressure to choose financially lucrative and prestigious professions rather than teaching. In addition, these same individuals are aggressively recruited by competing fields such as business, health, and life sciences, and are offered enticing financial incentives. ...
Teachers represent the largest school impact on student learning, yet the national professional teacher workforce has been described as inadequately prepared to meet the academic, linguistic, social, and other educational needs of the majority of the nation’s public school student population. Moreover, youngsters from diverse linguistic, cultural, and ability backgrounds continue to be overrepresented in specialized school settings. These interrelated phenomena are influenced by multiple complex sociocultural and other factors (i.e., historical, economic, political). Among these are reported steady growth in the population and enrollment of students from non-English speaking, diverse cultural backgrounds in the nation’s public schools, perennial low representation of teachers who are themselves members of diverse cultural backgrounds, and teachers who are competent in the languages spoken by the students assigned to their classrooms. These conditions represent significant challenges for all students, but especially those who, in addition to language or cultural differences, also experience unique learning or social challenges as a function of disability conditions. Researchers have consistently emphasized the need for children who are English Language Learners and those who have disabilities to be taught by teachers who are knowledgeable about and competent in the critical bilingual and special education pedagogies identified by the professions. This study examined the current state of bilingual special education teacher preparation programs and their inclusion of components identified as critical to these teachers’ professional competence. Findings suggest that the integrated model of bilingual and special education teacher preparation is the most frequently used model. Implications and future research directions were also presented.
... The growing diversity of America's public school students and the need to recruit and retain highly qualified teachers from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds continue to remain one of the critical issues in the field of education (Ayalon, 2004;Lau, Dandy, & Hoffman, 2007;Villegas & Davis, 2007). The lack of ethnic diversity among the teaching workforce is exacerbated in urban and rural settings, and particularly in the field of special education (Bradley & Loadman, 2005;Howard, 2003;Prater, 2005;Strosnider & Blanchett, 2003;Sundeen & Wienke, 2009;Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004). The implications of failing to provide an ethnically diverse teaching workforce that is prepared to effectively meet the unique needs of ethnic minority students are far-reaching. ...
... Also, because CLD teachers may be more committed to issues related to social justice and have experiences similar to their CLD students which can impact the teaching and learning process for these students (Haberman, 2000;Sleeter, 2001). Tyler et al. (2004) synthesized research on teacher demographics and its impact on student outcomes and found that although many teacher education programs profess a commitment to diversity, structural barriers such as entrance and exit policies, institutional and state standardized assessments, and lack of culturally responsive content and programming contribute to difficulties in recruiting and retaining teacher candidates from diverse backgrounds. In addition, many faculty members in teacher education programs lack the knowledge and experience to embed the curriculum with the cultural competence skills necessary to effectively prepare culturally responsive future teachers (Ladson-Billings, 2005). ...
... Research on preparing special education teachers from CLD backgrounds has traditionally focused on preparing these individuals to work in settings where CLD students and students living in poverty are the majority culture (Campbell-Whatley, 2003;Kea & Utley, 1998;Prater, 2005;Tyler et al., 2004). In preparation for these challenging settings, teacher preparation programs have developed specialized recruitment and retention strategies aimed at preparing teachers who have the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to work effectively with students and families from CLD populations. ...
In light of the current challenges in addressing the achievement gap between minority and non-minority students, the persistent problems of disproportionality in special education, and the dismal post-school outcomes for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students and those living in poverty, it is critical that successful models of teacher recruitment and retention are developed and implemented. In this article we review current literature on multicultural issues in special education that underscore the need for a more diverse teaching workforce and look at the recruitment trends described in the retention of teachers who are prepared to effectively serve PK-12 students and their families from diverse backgrounds. We also share preliminary data on our efforts to recruit and retain graduate students in an advanced special education program at a Hispanic-serving institution of higher education. To further guide the efforts of others, we provide recommendations for program development and future research.
... If criticism can be interpreted as racial bias, majority group educators may be reluctant to provide comments or emphasize positive feedback. This "feedback withholding bias" may be amplified in special education, where districts regularly monitor racial disparities and the teacher workforce is predominantly White (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004). Educators are also likely more aware of racial disparities in special education now than before (Donovan & Cross, 2002). ...
... This suggests that although teacher perception of student disability is informed to an extent by these factors, teachers may need additional assistance in detecting disabilities among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Indeed, research shows that cultural mismatch in behavior and expectations between teachers and students can contribute to racial disparities in special education (Tyler et al., 2004). Part of the challenge for educators is to openly discuss broader racial disparities in education (Skiba et al., 2006) and recognize how race, class, and culture can serve as barriers to educational opportunities for students (Blanchett, Klingner, & Harry, 2009). ...
Background/Context
The overrepresentation of some minority groups in special education in the United States raises concerns about racial inequality and stratification within schools. While many actors and mechanisms within the school system may contribute to racial disparities in special education, the role of teachers is particularly important given that teachers are often the first ones to refer students for services. Previous studies examining biases in teacher perception of student disability have used simulations and vignettes that lack information on how teachers may perceive their own students.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined whether teachers disproportionately perceive minority students as having a disability based on survey information from teachers about their students. The study provides additional insight into teacher perception of student disability by accounting for student background, teacher traits, and school characteristics.
Research Design
The study used data on a nationally representative sample of high school sophomores from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002. The dataset included surveys that asked teachers about their students, including whether they perceived them to have a disability. Logistic regression models were used to model the relationship between teacher perception of student disability and student race, controlling for background factors relevant to identification for a disability.
Results
The findings show that while teachers were more likely to perceive Black, Hispanic, and Native American students as having a disability compared to White students, controlling for individual background characteristics and school contextual factors often resulted in underidentification. The exception is Asian Americans, who were consistently less likely to be perceived to have a disability.
Conclusions/Recommendations
Since teachers were less likely to perceive certain racial minority students as having a disability when accounting for student background characteristics, the finding provides a different perspective on how teachers may contribute to disproportionality in special education. The results also raise concerns about whether racial minority students are appropriately identified for services, especially Asian Americans who were consistently less likely to be perceived to have a disability, even when their achievement and behavior were similar to those of other students. Policies and practices should focus on using culturally and linguistically appropriate methods to identify students who may have disabilities.
... Cultural and racial diversity within the SET workforce is important given demographic changes in the school population and the persistent racial disparities in special education enrollment (Tyler et al., 2004). Our results indicate that while the percentage of teachers of color with special education credentials (29%) is still much lower than the minority special education student population (74%), this gap is a reflection of the concurrent decrease in the number of White special education students and increase in minority special education students, rather than a failure to increase teachers of color in special education. ...
... In response to national calls for more SETs of color over the last decade (Cambell-Whatley, 2003;Tyler et al., 2004), schools in California have seen an increase in the supply of teachers of color with special education credentials that exceeds the growth in special education students of color. While our results indicate that efforts to diversify the SET workforce have been successful, concerns still remain about how teachers are distributed. ...
The shortage of special education teachers (SETs) is a persistent challenge in the United States, but less is known about two other important issues that affect students with disabilities: racial diversity within the SET workforce and the distribution of SETs. Using administrative data on all teachers in California from 1997 to 2014, we examine the racial composition and distribution of teachers with special education credentials. Our results from descriptive and regression analyses show that while teachers with special education credentials remain majority White, the number of teachers of color with special education credentials has increased at a rate more than twice that of general education teachers and special education students of color. We also find that much of the distribution of teachers with special education credentials occurs across districts within the same regional county, while disparities in teacher qualifications are larger by school poverty, racial composition, and student achievement. The results have policy implications for improving diversity and educational equity within the special education workforce.
... In addition, appropriate intervention with ELLs requires training nonspecial education teachers to recognize risk factors in students and to have proficiency in a range of strategies for providing remediation for at-risk learners. Often, teachers' beliefs, expectations for students, skills sets, and efficacy are challenged at levels that they are not prepared for in their teacher preservice preparation program (Tyler et al., 2004). This situation may contribute to the disproportionality in special education noted earlier in this article. ...
... They concluded that often referrals are more a reflection of teacher stress and inadequate training than a result of the students they teach having an identified learning disability. Tyler et al. (2004) suggest that general education teachers often interpret culturally diverse students' performance through European American middle-income normative parameters of competence. Because culturally diverse students' performance does not always align with such parameters, it is often regarded as deficient. ...
This article discusses issues associated with placement and services for English language learners in special education systems and provides recommendations for improved assessment practices and service provisions. These issues represent a range of factors, including inappropriate assessment and psychometric issues, overrepresentation in special education programs, ambiguities in special education categorization, questionable pre-referral intervention practices, inadequate practitioner preparation related to language and cultural factors, and ineffective instructional practices both within and outside of the special education system. Possible solutions discussed include increased attention to culturally and linguistically appropriate approaches, response to intervention practices, and improved teacher qualifications and education.
... The shortage of special educators. The "chronic and increasing shortages" in special education complicates providing qualified teachers to all schools (Billingsley, 2000b;McLeskey, Tyler, & Flippin, 2003;Tyler et al., 2004). ...
... The proliferation of ARC programs to fill vacancies in special education calls into question the limited research base regarding their effectiveness and the inconsistent standards found among programs (Rosenberg, Boyer, Sindelar, & Misra, 2007;Rosenberg & Sindelar, 2005). Proponents point to the large number of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) teachers who enter through ARC programs and to the easing of shortages nationwide, especially in urban schools with high concentrations of CLD students (Shen, 2001;Tyler et al., 2004). At the school level, a major concern is the number of students taught by participants in an ARC program who enter the classroom with little to no initial preparation and who leave the local system upon gaining full certification, choosing to move to schools considered more appealing. ...
... Concerns about the whiteness of the SET workforce are longstanding (e.g., Tyler et al., 2004); yet, to our knowledge, no prior research has documented how the SET workforce has been changing. Thus, we examined how the ethnoracial diversity of the SET workforce changed from 2012 to 2021, in relation to the growing ethnoracial diversity of students with disabilities. ...
Teachers of color are critical for improving students’ educational experiences and outcomes, especially for students of color. Yet, more than 80% of special education teachers (SETs) in U.S. public schools are white. Thus, we examined how the ethnoracial diversity of the SET workforce changed over time, from 2012–2021, in relation to the increasingly ethnoracially diverse population of students with disabilities. Analyzing multiple waves of several nationally representative datasets, we found that any growth in the number of SETs of color nationally is wholly insufficient to keep pace with growth in the population of students of color with disabilities. With growing ethnoracial disparities between the SET workforce and the population of students with disabilities, race-evasive recruitment and retention initiatives are not justifiable. Instead, coordinated, race-conscious policies and practices are needed across policy, teacher education, and in-service school districts, to foster a SET workforce that is representative of the student population.
... In a study of 11 urban districts in California, the more language supports (bilingual education being the most supportive) provided prior to fifth grade the lower the risk that an EL would be placed in special education from sixth through twelfth grades (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, & Higareda, 2005); ELs who were in English Immersion (English-only) programs prior to fifth grade were almost three times as likely to be placed in special education, compared to ELs who had been in bilingual programs by the time they reached twelfth grade (Artiles et al, 2005); ELs with limited proficiency in both their first language (L1) and second language (L2) were the most vulnerable (most likely) subset of ELs to be placed in special education (Artiles, Klingner, Sullivan, & Fierros, 2010); ELs with disabilities are more likely to be placed in the most restrictive and segregated programs (de Valenzuela, Copeland, Qi, & Park, 2006); Once placed in special education, ELs are less likely to receive supplemental language supports and are more likely to receive instruction only in English (Zehler, Fleischman, Hopstock, Pendzick, & Stephenson, 2003); and Schools with the highest percentages of ELs are more likely to place such students with novice teachers or teachers without bilingual education or English as a second language (ESL) certification (Kushner, 2008;Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Saunders Flippin, 2004). Moreover, with regard to New York specifically, the most recent report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (USDOE, 2011) reported that Latinos with disabilities were almost twice as likely to be placed in more restrictive environments (i.e., under 40% of the day in general education classrooms) in New York State than Latinos across the special education population in the United States. ...
In this brief report, we shed light on how educators can reimagine quality education for Latina/o English learners at the crossroads of language acquisition and disability. We begin by providing an overview of the landscape of Latina/o learners at risk and placed in special education; we then provide a description of the Response to Intervention framework and essential considerations for designing language and literacy programming at the universal Tier I as well as Tier II and III levels for Latina/o ELs within various types of instructional programs (biliteracy, transitional bilingual, and English-only). Research suggests that this critical mass of learners has unique instructional needs that must be addressed by providing them with optimal language supports across instructional programs.
... The first challenge, defining what kind of student growth to use, is confounded because of the heterogeneous populations typically served in special education . Even small groups of students typically present a varying spectrum of academic, social, and behavioral needs (Stough & Palmer, 2003;Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004). For example, an extended resource room might serve students representing a range of disabilities including cognitive impairment, autism, behavioral disorders, and other health impairments. ...
... Diverse educators, enriched by their varied lived experiences, possess an intrinsic ability to comprehend and navigate the multifarious challenges faced by students from diverse backgrounds. Such adeptness ensures that instruction is tailored to individual nuances, fostering an inclusive educational ambiance (Gide et al., 2022;Tyler et al., 2004). This not only fortifies the learning process but also fosters a school environment that acknowledges and respects cultural multiplicities. ...
Insufficient wages and unequal pay create challenges in attracting and retaining highquality early educators, critical for young children’s success in early care and education (ECE) programs. While ECE professional wages are already lower than similar workers, there may be wage disparities based on race/ethnicity and gender within the workforce. To examine whether hourly wages were associated with race/ethnicity and gender after considering demographic and professional characteristics, this study used a nationally representative sample of 5,192 ECE professionals in the 2019 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) workforce survey. Multivariate regression analyses showed that compared to their White counterparts, Black, Asian, Hispanic/Latino, and other races, educators earned lower hourly wages. Additionally, this study revealed that the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender has a compounding effect on pay equity among early childhood educators. For example, the wage gap between Black/African American male and female educators is significant, with male educators earning higher hourly wages. Moreover, the study found that women of color, including Black, Hispanic/Latina, Asian, and other races, had the lowest average hourly wages compared to other ECE workers. Additionally, the study’s results indicate that Black and Hispanic/Latino men had higher average hourly wages than women of color but lower average hourly wages than white women. The study explored possible reasons for these findings and their implications for policies and support.
... While several scholars have acknowledged the need to diversify the SET workforce and examined the issue theoretically (e.g., Tyler et al., 2004), few researchers have conducted studies from an empirical lens (for exceptions, see Author, 2020aAuthor, , 2020bBettini et al., 2018;Valle-Riestra et al., 2011). Limited research focuses on SETOCs. ...
Attracting, supporting, and retaining special education teachers of color (SETOCs) is critical in shaping a diverse special education teacher workforce in the United States. However, efforts to diversify this workforce are fraught with challenges at the federal, state, and local levels. This paper reviews what is currently known about efforts to attract, support, and retain SETOCs, and provides guidance for policy makers and researchers regarding what still needs to be done to realize a more diverse special education teacher workforce in the US. Four critical domains serve as the foundation for our guiding considerations: funding priorities, strategies to attract SETOCs, the role of educator preparation programs, and strategies to retain SETOCs.
... For example, it was found that in school contexts, minority students performed better academically if they were taught by minority teachers (Meier & Stewart, 1992). Possible explanations include reduced negativity around discipline issues, increased student comfort levels in the classroom, and the perception on the part of students that the minority teachers were strong role models (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004). Therefore, there may be an opportunity for role models to have a protective influence on deaf individuals as they navigate barriers to full access at school and in the workplace. ...
Although deaf role model projects have existed for some time and their benefits and outcomes for deaf children/young people and their parents have been recorded, almost no attention has been paid to the experiences of the deaf people who take on these roles. Additionally, the experiences of being a deaf role model have been little explored in the literature. This paper explores available literature on role models for supporting families of deaf children and hearing practitioners. Most deaf people (about 95%), all over the world, have hearing parents and do not meet deaf adults and sign language before the age that formal primary education starts. The majority of hearing parents do not come in touch with deafness even after their child is diagnosed of being deaf. But it's really crucial for families to have resources that allow them to help their child develop language and have full interaction with their family. Additionally, deaf role models can play a vital role in the development of deaf children's knowledge, skills, and perceptions. Further work would be also required to understand the longer-term benefits and further developments that deaf role models may wish to initiate.
... These essential issues are worthy of the attention they have received. With a few notable exceptions (e.g., Kozleski, Artiles, McCray, & Lacy, 2014;Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004), however, our field has not fully examined the ways that a predominantly White workforce relates to equitable opportunities, or obstacles to these, for students and their teachers. ...
This special issue of Remedial and Special Education is a collection of theoretical and empirical research addressing equity in the preparation of a diverse special education teaching force, with a focus on racial/ethnic diversity. The purpose of this special issue is to open a conversation about equity as it pertains to special education teachers, including both students’ equitable access to special education teachers who share their racial/ethnic and/or cultural background and prospective special educators’ equitable access to the profession.
... Overall, the current SET shortage of 3% is projected to grow to almost 8% in the next 10 years. Consistent with historical trends (Berry, Petrin, Gravelle, & Farmer, 2012;Tyler, Yzquierdo, LopezReyna, & Flippin, 2004), the projected shortage is greatest in highpoverty urban districts and rural areas (Levin et al., 2015). ...
Although there is growing evidence that teachers are important to student achievement, recruiting, preparing, and keeping a sufficient supply of qualified special educators continues to be a major challenge. This chapter provides a broad review of what is known about factors that impact special education teacher quality and effectiveness including: (a) shortages and surpluses (supply, demand, and retention); (b) professional knowledge and skills (initial preparation, induction, and continuing professional development); and (c) conditions of service (work context and assignment). Critical issues, future research questions, and implications for policy-makers and leaders are considered.
... In order to facilitate the retention of CD special education teacher candidates, Tyler et al. (2004) encourages several strategies. First, CD college students are often the first of their family to attend college. ...
An unfortunate, yet persistent, truth in U.S. public schools is the large achievement gap existing between children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and their White, middle-class counterparts. The potential for cultural dissonance between contemporary teachers and their students necessitates that educators must persistently seek culturally responsive practices. Much has been written regarding strategies for culturally responsive pedagogy; therefore, this article moves beyond a review of culturally responsive pedagogy. Rather than providing teacher candidates with more suggestions for culturally responsive teaching activities, the authors provide teacher educators with specific resources for facilitating the development of cultural competence among preservice teachers.
... The availability of SETs from historically underrepresented groups is another aspect of the supply problem and obtaining a diverse teaching force has been an on-going challenge for school districts. In a review of teacher diversity and the special education teacher workforce, Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, and Flippin (2004) emphasized that while roughly a third of individuals in the United States are from historically underrepresented groups, only 14% of early career SETs were from such groups. As they indicate, the fact that 38% of students with disabilities are from underrepresented groups demonstrates ...
... For example, it was found that in school contexts, minority students performed better academically if they were taught by minority teachers (Meier & Stewart, 1992). Possible explanations include reduced negativity around discipline issues, increased student comfort levels in the classroom, and the perception on the part of students that the minority teachers were strong role models (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004). The National Collaborative on Diversity in the Teaching Force (2004) advocates greater representation of minority teachers in schools as a way of increasing attendance rates, reducing truancy, providing access to mentoring, solving problems, and, in general, improving academic achievement of diverse student populations. ...
in a variety of contexts, deaf individuals often must navigate multiple societal, psychological, and physical barriers. It is frequently proposed that role models meet an important need for successful navigation in such contexts. The present article, a research synthesis, explores available literature on role models for deaf individuals, drawing from social capital theory to conceptualize how individuals in social networks can facilitate the development of resources necessary for navigating various settings. Four key themes were identified, two being that role models (a) address a critical need and (b) contribute to important developmental processes. In addition, (c) key elements appear to be necessary for effective role modeling, and (d) multidimensional cultural affiliations are important considerations within the role model process. Though more research is needed, the findings suggest that role models play an important role in how deaf individuals build social capital.
... Students served in special education reflect a very diverse population (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004) that requires not only individualized instruction but also, often times, individualized goals and outcomes. Defining student achievement through one universal measure, or even through a set of accepted predetermined measures, poses methodological problems for SWD (Baker et al., 2010). ...
There is currently little consensus on how special education teachers should be evaluated. The lack of consensus may be due to several reasons. Special education teachers work under a variety of complex conditions, with a very heterogeneous population, and support student progress toward a very individualized set of goals. In addition, special education is marked by historical rates of attrition, with a lack of highly qualified teachers entering the field, and a number of special education teachers completing alternate certification programs, leading to a combined effect that impacts overall professional quality. In this article, we first review the challenges associated with evaluating special education teachers, describe and analyze current approaches, and present a conceptual framework for an approach to special education teacher evaluation. We then provide an overview of the Recognizing Effective Special Education Teachers (RESET) tool as a possible alternative to measure special education teacher effectiveness. Given the current zeitgeist of teacher evaluation systems that fail to address the unique circumstances related to special education teachers, it is hoped that the information in this article will contribute to the small but growing body of research on special education teacher evaluation and effectiveness.
... Special education teachers work under a variety of conditions (Stempien & Loeb, 2002), serve a heterogeneous population with diverse needs (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004), and historically have not entered the profession well prepared (Connelly & Graham, 2009;McLeskey & Billingsley, 2008). In addition to the professional challenges the field of special education faces, it has steadily seen a decrease in classroom instructional quality and time due to growing systemic demands (Russ, Chiang, Rylance, & Bongers, 2001;Vannest & Hagan-Burke, 2009). ...
This study used generalizability theory to measure reliability on the Recognizing Effective Special Education Teachers (RESET) observation tool designed to evaluate special education teacher effectiveness. At the time of this study, the RESET tool included three evidence-based instructional practices (direct, explicit instruction; whole-group instruction; and discrete trial teaching) as the basis for special education teacher evaluation. Five raters participated in two sessions to evaluate special education classroom instruction collected from two school years, via the Teachscape 360-degree video system. Data collected from raters were analyzed in a two-facet "partially" nested design where occasions (o) were nested within teachers (t), o:t, and crossed with raters (r), {o:t} x r. Results from this study are in alignment with similar studies that found multiple observations and multiple raters are critical for ensuring acceptable levels of measurement score reliability. Considerations for the feasibility of practice should be observed in future reliability and validity studies on the RESET tool, and further work is needed to address the lack of research on rater reliability issues within special education teacher evaluation.
... After all, the culture of the classroom is constructed by the interaction of the cultural repertoires that teachers and students bring to the classroom and the institutional arrangements of schools (Gallego et al., 2001). Unfortunately, special educators tend to lack these competencies to work with students from minority backgrounds (Tyler et al., 2004). ...
This study presents an activity theory analysis of how special educators learn about culturally responsive practices amidst school-university partnerships. Particular attention was paid to how culturally responsive pedagogy was privileged and appropriated by an in-service and a pre-service teacher in a boundary-zone activity. Findings demonstrate how culturally responsive pedagogy was appropriated in light of previous pedagogical artifacts that preexisted in the activity system of the classroom and as a result it became a covert form of instructionism
... There were a few limitations in this study including a lack of diversity among participants, the absence of observational data, and lack of validation from family members. Despite efforts to recruit participants with diverse characteristics, most practitioners in special education tend to be Caucasian and from a middle income socioeconomic status (Tyler et al. 2004) and this was evident in our participants. It is possible that participants of varying income status or ethnicities not represented in these findings may have other perspectives and experiences regarding empathy with families. ...
Empathy is a trait and skill necessary for teachers working with children and for partnering with families. This qualitative study focused on how teachers expressed empathy in the context of early childhood education. Diversity has increased in the United States and as diversity increases, the need for teachers to be able to empathize with children and families who are different from themselves also increases. Empathy in early childhood education partnerships is valued; however, the role of empathy in parent–teacher partnerships in early childhood is not well understood. Eighteen inclusive preschool teachers participated in interviews to understand teachers' values, beliefs, and language in relation to empathy and parent–teacher partnerships. Teachers whose statements conveyed empathy described their relationships with families in a positive way. One theme, expressing sincere empathy, and four sub-themes emerged that described how teachers express empathy with children and families in early childhood education. The sub-themes included (1) embrace inclusion as a philosophy, (2) be relaxed and balanced, (3) accept and respond to family culture, and (4) engage in meaningful communication with families. The interpretations of these themes provide an understanding of the complexities of empathy in parent and teacher partnerships. Implications for the development of empathy in preservice and in-service professional development are discussed.
... In order to facilitate the retention of CD special education teacher candidates, Tyler et al. (2004) encourages several strategies. First, CD college students are often the first of their family to attend college. ...
Changing demographics in American school systems necessitate edu-cators to better prepare themselves to work with students from diverse back-grounds. Moreover, culturally diverse (CD) students are disproportionately represented in special education, indicating a need to investigate assessment for identification purposes. We, the authors, believe that examining current research in higher education will highlight the need for effective special education teachers prepared to teach CD learners with challenging behaviors. This article is a review of existing literature related to educating CD students with challenging behaviors and preparing special education teacher candidates for this population.
... Alternative certification (AC) programs were designed initially to recruit individuals to hard-to-staff schools or in high-demand content areas (including math, science, and special education). Proponents of AC programs in special education point to the large number of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) teachers who enter through AC programs and to the easing of shortages nationwide , especially in urban schools with high concentrations of CLD students (Shen, 2001; Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004 ). At the same time, the significant variation in the structure and length, delivery mode, and the background of the participants in AC programs draws criticism and concern ( Sindelar et al., 2012). ...
This study profiles the qualifications and preparation of special educators from the 2003-2004 Schools and Staffing Survey and investigates their relationship with teaching in a high-poverty school. Based on Berne and Stiefel's (1984) equal opportunity standard, students with disabilities in high-poverty schools are not provided an equitable education. The results echo state accountability reports that document a shortage of special education teachers meeting the highly qualified teacher standards in high-poverty schools and other research studies on the uneven distribution of teachers. Policies such as alternative certification programs, economic incentives, and induction programs aimed at recruiting and retaining qualified, prepared special educators are considered along with ideas for future research.
... Unfortunately, most general and special education teachers do not have extensive coursework or teacher preparation program related to educating students who have culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Ortiz & Yates, 2001). Because the lack of teacher education of instruction for this population of students, the lack of appropriate to endorse teacher certification in this area, and the severe shortage of teachers who have diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, ELLs with and without disabilities are often taught by teachers with inadequate experience and qualifications (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, & Flippin, 2004). Additionally, there is currently a shortage of fully certified teachers in general and special education (Boe, Cook, & Sunderland, 2008). ...
English-language learners (ELLs) with special needs consistently languish in the American school system. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) included ELLs as a minority group and required to hold schools accountable for reducing the achievement gap between ELLs and their white peers, however the act did not provide a specific direction for educators on how to help these students in the school context. A conceptual review was conducted to compiles information on critical issues and challenges ELLs with special needs face as well as useful tips for assessment and instruction. Critical issues and challenges include assessment and identification, teacher preparation and professional development, and legal and policy issues. The useful tips discussed rely on the utilization of guidelines for assessment, Response to Intervention (RTI), and the support of all stakeholders.
... It is interesting to study the way in which public organisations adapt to societal diversity, because of the scope of their impact: their potential "customers" are all citizens. It is not surprising that much has been published on diversity in, for example, organisations in the health sector (Cohen, Gabriel & Terrell, 2002;Smedley, Butler & Bristow, 2004), organisations in the educational sector (Smith, 1995;Cochran-Smith, 2004;Tyler et al, 2004), and political organisations (Pitkin, 1967;Mansbridge, 2000;Preuhs, 2006). Another public sector is the security sector, which includes institutions such as the army, the police, and prisons. ...
This dissertation consists of three papers on diversity and diversity policy within organizations in general and within police forces in Europe in particular.
The first paper provides an analytical framework that identifies fundamental choices in the definition of diversity (ontological dimension), in the motivation for diversity within organisations (deontological dimension), and in diversity policy as an organizational strategy (instrumental dimension).
The second paper provides an overview of empirical data on diversity within police forces in Europe, identifies important research gaps in the field, and proposes a comprehensive view to structure future comparative research.
The third paper compares two regional police forces (the Mossos d‟Esquadra and the Politie Utrecht) and shows similarities in definitions and motivations for diversity, but differences in approach. It also demonstrates the academic potential of the empirical application of the analytical framework, and confirms that diversity and diversity policy are multilayered concepts in theory and in practice.
Very few studies have examined how to culturally and linguistically (CL) adapt professional development (PD) programs in assistive technology (AT) for Latinx teachers serving young children with disabilities. The purposes of this article are (a) to present an iterative design of a CL-adapted PD program, (b) to examine the impact of this program on teachers’ use of AT practices to support young children with disabilities in early childhood classrooms, and (c) to evaluate the usefulness of program adaptations through the lens of bilingual Latinx practitioners. The Ecological Validity Model (EVM) was used as a framework for both the development and assessment of the program’s CL adaptations. Quantitative results indicated significant changes in teachers’ AT use pre- to post-intervention, while qualitative findings revealed the program’s alignment with the language, persons, metaphors, and context dimensions of the EVM. In addition, three themes provided rich descriptions of the program’s responsiveness to practitioners and classrooms. This study supports the CL adaptation of AT interventions as an equitable practice, supporting young children across a range of disabilities, cultures, and contexts while empowering the diverse practitioners who serve them.
Recent data indicates the growing diversity rift between student populations and teaching faculty as over 86% of current faculty are White, female, and under 40 years of age. This rift presents challenges to new teachers attempting to meet the needs of diverse students, including the delivery of rigorous academic content to individuals who are emerging bilinguals, designing appropriate supports to address challenging behaviors, and distinguishing cultural/linguistic differences from genuine disability indicators in struggling students. This chapter will review the establishment of the special education system and examine outcomes associated with traditional assessment practices, discuss the conceptualization of disability categories under federal legislation, and offer recommendations teachers can implement to better understand and address learning/behavioral needs in diverse populations.
The field of special education continues to grapple with the presence and implications of disproportional representation related to race and ethnicity. While research focuses mostly on disproportional representation of students, there remains long-standing acknowledgment that too few students of color populate our special education university doctoral programs. The present study, therefore, surveyed current special education faculty members at doctoral degree granting institutions to understand the practices used to recruit and retain doctoral students of color and perspectives on their programs’ climate related to racial and ethnic diversity. In addition, the research team conducted a series of exploratory analyses to examine whether responses depended on respondent race or whether the respondent worked at a minority-serving institution. Results suggest a general commitment to increasing doctoral student diversity; however, there appears a lack of formalized plans and culturally relevant coursework. Findings of the exploratory analyses suggest that programs within minority-serving institutions may provide important leadership in this area. We conclude with limitations and recommendations for doctoral programs.
The purpose of this chapter is to use mini case studies as a method to explore how diversity in race and gender can affect the work-lives and career trajectories of African American women, and to suggest individual and organizational strategies to facilitate career growth of individuals whose identities intersect with multiple forms of diversity. This chapter will begin with a discussion of Black feminist thought and then proceed to discussions of research regarding African American women in the American workforce, personality type differences and linguistic diversity, and then proceed to a mini case study-based discussion of how these various forms of difference can dynamically interact to form highly nuanced sets of obstacles for African America women and other protected class categories whose identities intersect with one or more intersectional identities. Finally, the authors conclude with a discussion of coping and resistance strategies to improve the career trajectories of African American women.
The purpose of this chapter is to use mini case studies as a method to explore how diversity in race and gender can affect the work-lives and career trajectories of African American women, and to suggest individual and organizational strategies to facilitate career growth of individuals whose identities intersect with multiple forms of diversity. This chapter will begin with a discussion of Black feminist thought and then proceed to discussions of research regarding African American women in the American workforce, personality type differences and linguistic diversity, and then proceed to a mini case study-based discussion of how these various forms of difference can dynamically interact to form highly nuanced sets of obstacles for African America women and other protected class categories whose identities intersect with one or more intersectional identities. Finally, the authors conclude with a discussion of coping and resistance strategies to improve the career trajectories of African American women.
Élaboré par Gray et Garand (1993), le scénario social™est une méthode d’intervention utilisée auprès des enfants ayant un trouble du spectre de l’autisme (TSA). Cette courte histoire lue à ou par l’enfant lui apprend comment se comporter dans un contexte spécifique. Plusieurs recherches rapportent des résultats positifs associés aux scénarios sociaux. Toutefois, celles-ci se concentrent en milieu scolaire ou clinique et impliquent peu les parents. Cette étude exploratoire vise à appliquer un programme de formation concernant le scénario social à l’intention des parents d’enfants ayant un TSA. Quatre mères ont participé au programme de formation et ont réalisé un scénario social pour leur enfant. Les résultats montrent que les mères sont satisfaites de leur expérience et estiment avoir appris les étapes de rédaction et d’application du scénario social. Cet article décrit les modalités d’application du programme de formation concernant le scénario social, les perceptions des mères sur les effets de ce dernier et leurs recommandations quant à l’amélioration du programme.
Students benefit from a teacher workforce that represents the full racial/ethnic diversity of the U.S. We examine racial/ethnic composition of general education teacher (GET) and special education teacher (SET) workforce using the Schools and Staffing Survey. We find that the teacher workforce continues to be primarily White. In 2011-12, 18% of SETs and GETS were people of color; however, 47% of students with disabilities were students of color. Among teachers of color, the majority identify as Black or Hispanic, with a smaller proportion of Hispanic SETs than GETs. Early-career SETs are racially/ethnically similar to experienced SETs, while early-career GETs are somewhat more diverse. There were dramatic differences across regions, type of districts, and schools; higher percentages of teachers of color taught in high-poverty and urban schools as well as in schools with higher enrollments of students of color. Results have important implications for education policy and teacher preparation.
The shortage of highly qualified special educators is most pronounced in rural schools serving populations characterized by poverty, low achievement, disability, and cultural diversity. The result is often untrained teachers serving students with the greatest education needs. This article describes efforts by a university in rural middle Georgia to address the training needs of uncertified teachers through a high quality alternative route certification (ARC) program leading to both special education and content certification. Key program components, including blended instruction, extensive field-based assessments with supervision, learning community supports, and content training, are described along with implementation challenges and training outcomes.
This chapter provides an overview of the literature on diversity in teacher education, which underscores the growing diversity of America's public schools and the complexities of teaching and learning in such settings. The key elements of diversity are addressed through National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) accreditation standards. The promise of diversity in special education teacher education lies in the ability of faculty to develop meaningful partnerships in an effort to develop inclusive programming that acknowledges the interconnectedness of race, language, class, and disability, along with the influence of contextual variables on teaching and learning in P-12 settings. The chapter interrogates the challenges inherent in systemic change through an examination of vignettes of teacher preparation programs engaged in self-studies associated with national accreditation reviews. It attempts to interrogate the opportunities and challenges inherent in engaging in transformative work in teacher education, which results in sustainable changes.
As part of a four-year professional development program centered on increasing special education faculty members’ cultural responsiveness, the faculty members interviewed culturally and/or linguistically diverse (CLD) teacher candidates nearing completion of the special education program at a large Western university. The interviews, which focused on the candidates’ experiences during their time in the program, were conducted in the candidates’ homes. Each interview was audio and/or videotaped and transcribed verbatim, then analyzed using the inductive analysis design for qualitative research. The CLD candidates described types of learning activities and professor behaviors that had helped them to be successful. They also contributed suggestions to benefit future CLD candidates, including recommendations for professors and for the program as a whole.
Today we begin in earnest the work of making sure that the world we leave our children is just a little bit better than the one we inhabit today. President Barack Obama Individuals involved in the education of children with special needs are concerned about the shortage of personnel in higher education in the field of exceptionality. This has been true for the past quarter century. In the early 1990s, researchers had noted that for over a decade, authorities in the field of special education have been shouting out loud about the shortage of, and need for, personnel in special education (Sindelar, Buck, Carpenter, and Wantanabe 1993; Smith and Pierce 1995). Calls for attention to this issue continue today. Wasburn-Moses (2008) stated: “despite the growing demand for professionals with doctoral degrees in special education, doctoral programs are not producing enough graduates to fulfill this need” (p. 259). Addition–ally, educators are equally concerned about the quality and design of doctoral special education programs across the United States. As the number of children with special needs continues to increase, school districts must respond to the needs of teaching and preparing these young individuals for society.
In the September, 2000, issue of Focus on Exceptional Children, we, along with several colleagues, examined school violence and related disorders through. ecological and other perspectives (Leone, Mayer, Malmgren, & Meisel, 2000). That article attempted to move beyond a discussion limited to child-centered characteristics and toward the contexts of children's lives. Our analysis of school violence examined family structure and poverty, exposure to violence in popular media, access to guns, and influences in the education system (e.g., accountability, zero tolerance) that might help to explain school violence and disorder. After presenting data on the extent of school violence and disorder, we closed with a discussion of promising approaches to preventing school violence. Now, with the benefit of hindsight, we reexamine the issues raised in the 2000 Focus on Exceptional Children article and related developments in school violence reporting and prevention since that time. We begin with a review of current reports on school violence and related research. Next we revisit and update information on several key issues discussed in the original article, including (a) data collection and interpretation, (b) family structure and supervision of children, (c) poverty and income inequity, (d) exposure to violence in the media, (e) media coverage of school violence, (f) access to guns, (g) accountability and high-stakes testing, and (h) zero tolerance policies. We then revisit key areas of school violence prevention, legislative developments, the nexus of students' social skills, mental health, bullying, school exclusion, and tradeoffs between educational rights and maintaining a safe and orderly environment. The article concludes with suggestions for a balanced approach to prevention.
Introduction: teachers' thought processes on learning difficulties are a way to analyze and reinterpret their conception of diversity. The present study is aimed at exploring the opinion of the Intercultural Educational Programme (IEP) co-ordinators in relation to the learning difficulties of Hispanic immigrant students. The following questions were addressed in this study: a) to know the co-ordinators' points of view about the presence or absence of LD in the Hispanic immigrant student; and b) to analyze the interpretation of the nature of LD and their relationship with the educational response to LD. Methods & procedure: thirty-three IEP co-ordinators and teachers in Primary and Secondary Education, with a high immigrant student rate, took part in this experiment. Data were collected through a Discussion Group technique. Five focus groups were set up, three for Primary Education and two for Secondary Education, each one with 6 or 7 co-ordinators. We made use of two different criteria for the formation of groups: a) the educational stage in which the teachers co-ordinated the IEP, and b) the Hispanic student rate in each centre. Results: the results reported in this study show that the co-ordinators attribute the presence of LD to differences in the country of provenance, differences between the educational systems and the social disadvantages suffered by their families. Furthermore, a discrepancy has been found between what the centre does and what the centre ought to do. Another outcome of this study is the need to look for alternatives based on diversity rather than on inequality. Conclusions: our results confirm that teachers believe that the causes of LD in Hispanic children lie outside the school and are more related with their social disadvantages than with their cultural origins. There are, however, other interpretations outside the adaptative models.
Three factors are critical to maintaining a qualified workforce in special education: an adequate supply of personnel, requisite professional knowledge and skills, and appropriate conditions of service. Personnel shortages or surpluses shape the workforce by allowing employers to be less or more selective. The magnitude of shortages or surpluses is defined by supply, demand, and retention. Members of a qualified workforce must possess the requisite knowledge and skills gained through initial preparation, induction, and continuing professional development. Conditions of service, including work context and compensation, play a critical role in maintaining workforce quality, performance, and unexpected turnover.
We used teacher data from the Study of Personnel Needs in Special Education (SPeNSE) to compare the credentials, preservice preparation, self-efficacy, and induction of early career special educators in high- and low-poverty schools using a framework adapted from Carlson, Lee, and Schroll (2004). We found significant differences in the credentials and preparation of teachers working in high poverty versus more affluent districts, with those in high-poverty schools having fewer credentials and less preparation. In contrast, the two teacher groups reported similar induction opportunities and gave themselves comparable ratings on both self-efficacy and in skillfulness in various work tasks. Our findings dramatize the critical need to recruit and prepare qualified teachers for high-poverty schools.
The Needs Of Students From Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds have become a growing concern in United States. As an even greater challenge, educators are looking at effective interventions to provide appropriate education for CLD students with disabilities. The Social Story technique is a practical behavioral intervention which has been regarded as an individualized intervention since the student's needs, background, and learning style should be taken into consideration when using this technique. This research study used an ABA design to compare the modified Social Story technique with and without culturally familiar components. Three students with exceptional needs who came from CLD backgrounds and live in this southwestern city of United States participated in this study. Findings are discussed in relation to study results, limitations, and applications for future research.
Nontraditional educator preparation programs have given individuals the opportunityto earn teacher certifi cation in a structured program while concurrently teaching in a classroom with support and supervision. Nontraditional programs capitalize on the participants’ prior work and life experiences. As with traditional educator preparation programs, nontraditional preparation programs cannot be described by a specific model; they vary significantly from state to state, within
states and within institutions. This chapter was authored by members of the National Association for Alternative Certification (NAAC), a professional organization that advocates for standards-based and research-driven best practices and policy related to nontraditional routes for educator recruitment, selection, preparation, and support. The organization focuses on effective staffing of educators who enter—and are retained in—PK–12 schools via nontraditional routes. This
chapter will describe the clinical practices of five nontraditional programs for obtaining certification in five different states along with how the training and/or coursework align with those clinical experiences.
Similar to other urban centers, many of the school districts located in California State University Dominguez Hills's (CSUDH) geographic region struggle to provide their K-12 students with quality teachers. This is particularly true in the areas of Special Education, Math, and Science (California Department of Education, 2012; United States Department of Education, 2013). In CSUDH's efforts to produce quality teachers, mitigate severe teacher shortages and assist school districts in meeting federal legislative mandates stemming from The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) and The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004), an Alternative Certification Credential Route program based upon precepts of the Professional Development School model was developed, implemented, and funded through a Transition to Teaching (TTT) Federal Grant. These authors hold that this unique TTT SPED program is a viable means of easing SET shortages where they are greatest urban centers. In doing so, these authors suggest a model that other universities striving to meet the needs of K-12 students in urban centers can implement. As such, this program overview seeks to add to the extant teacher preparation and ACR literature, specifically in the context of SPED teacher preparation. © 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
The need to increase teacher diversity in deaf education has been a national concern over the last decade. The ethnic, racial, cultural, and linguistic composition of the teaching force has remained relatively unchanged; White, hearing, females make up the majority of the teaching force. In sharp contrast, the K-12 student population has become increasingly diverse which creates a chasm that is unlikely to change during the next decade without focused effort. This study considered group demographics and implications for culturally-responsive recruiting practices. The need for improved recruitment of Deaf professionals and diverse professionals is discussed, along with other associated challenges. Findings of a national study of recruitment priorities of preservice deaf educators are reported. Causal-comparative analyses revealed statistically significant recruitment priorities among groups of students as a function of hearing status and diversity status. The article provides suggestions for improved recruiting practices for deaf education teacher preparation programs.
This study describes special education alternative route (AR) teacher preparation programs. The authors developed a national database of programs and collected information on program sponsorship, length and intensity, features, and participant demographics. Most of the 235 programs in the database were in states that had significant shortages of special education teachers, and the authors received 101 responses to the survey. Active collaboration and use of professional standards in program development were commonplace. Most programs required full-time teaching, although the length of preteaching preparation varied dramatically, as did overall program length. Although many participants were general education teachers or recent degree recipients, the largest subgroup consisted of midcareer changers. This article discusses these findings and provides recommendations far additional research.
Eight faculty members at rural colleges and universities who received funding from the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) to support personnel preparation efforts in their special education programs were surveyed regarding the impact of those funds. The faculty taught at minority institutions of higher education and the students supported with the grant funding were from historically underrepresented groups. A total of 117 African American, Hispanic/Latino, and American Indian students had graduated from these programs at the time of the survey, and were currently employed in 42 rural school districts. Strategies on recruiting and retaining diverse students in rural areas are provided, as well as a summary of the impact of technical assistance efforts with minority institutions nationwide.
Multidisciplinary team members were surveyed to identify the frequency with which they use recommended assessment practices, how they interpret assessment information, and their confidence working with English Language Learners (ELLs) for the purpose of determining possible eligibility to receive special education services. Results of this study support the idea that recommendations from the literature are being increasingly put into practice by professionals working directly with students. Findings also indicate that professionals benefit from higher education and in-service trainings that focus specifically on issues relating to the assessment of ELLs for the determination of possible provision of special education services. Furthermore, results support the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration.
This article examines the peer-reviewed literature on alternative teacher certification programs in the United States to see what can be concluded about who participates in these programs, where participants teach, how long participants stay, how participants’ teaching is evaluated, and how well participants are able to promote student learning.
The purpose of this article is to present an overview of the overrepresentation of students of color in special education programs. For this purpose, we outline background history on the problem and discuss its magnitude. We also identify several forces that shape this problem such as poverty, structural factors, instructional and assessment issues, and the cultural discontinuity between teachers and students. We conclude with a brief discussion about ways to address overrepresentation.
As a journalist, historian and novelist born into a family that included two past presidents of the United States, Henry Adams was constantly focused on the American experiment. An immediate bestseller awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1919, his The Education of Henry Adams (1918) recounts his own and the country’s education from 1838, the year of his birth, to 1905, incorporating the Civil War, capitalist expansion and the growth of the United States as a world power. Exploring America as both a success and a failure, contradiction was the very impetus that compelled Adams to write the Education , in which he was also able to voice his deep scepticism about mankind’s power to control the direction of history. Written with immense wit and irony, reassembling the past while glimpsing the future, Adams’s vision expresses what Henry James declared the ‘complex fate’ to be an American, and remains one of the most compelling works of American autobiography today.
The shortage of trained professionals in special education has given rise to varied initiatives in the area of personnel preparation. Increasingly, alternative certification programs are being considered as an option by state departments of education. Under the auspices of the Council for Learning Disabilities' Standards and Etlgics Committee, a survey was conducted of all states concerning the use of such programs to train teachers of students with disabilities. A total of 50 states (and the District of Columbia) were contacted with 51 responses received, for a 100% return rate. Over 76% of all states had alternative certification programs, with the majority having them available across early childhood, middle, and secondary education. Over 62% indicated that such programs addressed the needs of students with disabilities. A total of 24 states offered alternative cert fication programs for special education teachers in general, with a like number for learning disabilities teachers specifically. A discussion focusing on some of the issues related to alternative certification programs for the field of special education is provided.
The overrepresentation of African American children and youth in special education programs for students with learning disabilities, severe emotional or behavioral disabilities, and mental disabilities has remained a persistent reality even after more than 20 years of recognition. After reviewing these recurring patterns, a critical-theory mode of inquiry is used to discuss how certain basic assumptions, worldviews, beliefs, and epistemologies used by some special education knowledge producers serve to perpetuate the disproportionality drama. The author concludes by suggesting that the voices of qualitatively different knowledge producers, who are culturally and interculturally competent, are needed to bring resolution to this persistent challenge.
The limited presence of talented African Americans in the teaching profession has been and continues to be a serious problem confronting the education profession and the African-American community in the United States. This review summarizes what is known from the research literature. It explores the reasons that African-American teachers are important as well as overall demographic, entry, and retention trends and the distinctive factors that influence the limited presence of African-American teachers. Finally, a suggested research agenda is presented.
A longitudinal, 3-year study investigated the participation of African-American parents of 24 preschoolers in special education programs in a large urban school district. Data were collected through ethnographic interviews with parents and professionals, observations of conferences, and examination of students’ documents. Despite current perceptions of low levels of participation by African-American parents, the data show consistent initial efforts by families to support their children's schooling, eventually giving way to disillusionment with the separations created by special education placements and the lack of avenues for parental influence. The article explores ways for professionals to move from preoccupation with compliance to true communication.
A statistical methodology relatively new to education—survival analysis—is used to describe the career paths of over 6,600 special education teachers newly hired in Michigan and North Carolina between 1972 and 1983, following them for up to 13 years, or until they stopped teaching in the state. Beginning special educators in both states continue to teach for an average of 7 years. They are most likely to leave teaching during the first few years after hire; those who survive this initial “hazardous” period typically teach for many years to come. Young women are particularly likely to leave, as are those special educators who provide support services or teach students with speech, hearing, or vision disabilities. Teachers with high test scores are at greater risk of leaving as are teachers paid comparatively low salaries.
Many students do not succeed in school because their cultural, social, and/or linguistic characteristics are unrecognized, misunderstood, or devalued. The continuing problem of disproportionate representation of multicultural students in special education programs is controversial. We believe that for teacher educators and practitioners to reach and teach multicultural students with and without disabilities, they must first know them. We propose three solutions to address the problem of disproportionate representation: (a) training of culturally and linguistically diverse teachers in teacher preparation programs, (b) the inclusion of multicultural education perspectives in special education, and (c) the implementation of culturally responsive instruction in classroom settings. These three solutions are key components to increasing the cultural competence of practitioners in special education teacher preparation programs.
The lack of qualified special education teachers threatens the quality of education that students with disabilities receive. Attrition plays a part in the teacher shortage problem, and efforts to improve retention must be informed by an understanding of the factors that contribute to attrition. Specifically, the author provides a thematic analysis of studies investigating factors that contribute to special education teacher attrition and retention. She addresses four major themes: teacher characteristics and personal factors, teacher qualifications, work environments, and teachers' affective reactions to work. Following this thematic review, a critique of definitional, conceptual, and methodological approaches used to study special education attrition is provided, as are priorities for future research.
This article describes a study conducted to gain insight into the factors that are most important to African American college students in deciding on a career course and the attractiveness of teaching as a career choice. The primary focus of the study was a comparison of education and non-education majors. Survey responses from 263 students were gathered. Findings indicated that non-education majors placed significantly more importance on salary, job security, and advancement in their career choices than did education majors. Regarding a career in teaching, both groups perceive salary and prestige as the least attractive aspects.
The study examined academic and interpersonal growth of peer mentors (N = 19) by analyzing comments in journals written during the mentors' first quarter of tutoring and mentoring within a minority engineering program at a large land-grant university in the Southeast. Although the intent of the program was to improve retention rates for the participants, the mentors experienced both academic and interpersonal growth. In addition, preliminary data regarding grades and retention status also indicate that the mentors benefited academically from the mentoring experience. The findings of the study suggest that, although the upper-class peer mentors are not the target population of the minority engineering program, they were positively impacted from their roles as mentors within the minority engineering program.
Using a sample of 3,549 public school teachers in a major Southwestern metropolis, the paper assesses changes in the class origin of three racial groups of teachers and, in turn, the variables associated with a desire to quit teaching. Younger black and white teachers significantly more often come from higher professional and white collar families than do their older cohorts, while younger Mexican-American teachers more often come from lower blue collar and farm backgrounds than their older counterparts. In general, teachers who plan to quit are white, under 35 years of age, come from higher class origins, and are assigned to schools with student racial distributions they define as undesirable. However, when class origin is introduced as a control, the race of teacher ceases to differentiate between those who plan to leave education and those who do not. The findings suggest that federal faculty desegregation mandates, which consider only the teacher's race, force school districts to replace teachers who resign from urban districts with individuals who are equally likely to quit teaching.
School disciplinary practices for students with disabilities and their peers without disabilities have long been questioned. Moreover, the school discipline of both dominant culture and ethnic minority children and youth has raised concerns. In that regard, school discipline has in general become a hotbed for litigation and debate. While suspect discipline practices have been used with students across ethnic backgrounds, they are disproportionately meted out to African American students, particularly males (Harry & Anderson, 1995). This article examines exclusionary discipline practices and their impact on African American students. Culturally responsive instructional and management strategies are identified that can mitigate school suspensions and expulsions of African American children and youth.
The overrepresentation of African American children and youth in special education programs for students with learning disabilities, severe emotional or behavioral disabilities, and mental disabilities has remained a persistent reality even after more than 20 years of recognition. After reviewing these recurring patterns, a critical-theory mode of inquiry is used to discuss how certain basic assumptions, world-views, beliefs, and epistemologies used by some special education knowledge producers serve to perpetuate the disproportionality drama. The author concludes by suggesting that the voices of qualitatively different knowledge producers, who are culturally and interculturally competent, are needed to bring resolution to this persistent challenge.
The severe and increasing shortage of personnel, particularly those from traditionally underrepresented groups, to teach students with mild and moderate disabilities has prompted teacher educators to explore alternative means of preparing certified and qualified special education teachers. Johns Hopkins University, in collaboration with two urban local education agencies and the Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE), developed a field-based, 2-year experimental program leading to certification and a Master's degree in special education. This program possessed several unique features: special recruitment procedures, intensive on-the-job university-based supervision, and local school mentoring. Efficacy data were collected from university supervisors, mentors, and building principals to assess the impact of the program. Direct observation instruments, interviews, and self-report questionnaires were used to collect dependent data. Comparisons were made with beginning special educators who had completed traditional programs. We found that (a) Alternative Certification (AC) teachers were performing at, or exceeding, satisfactory levels in their first year of teaching; (b) AC teachers demonstrated specific instructional and management competencies at better than satisfactory levels; and (c) there were no significant differences between ratings of AC teachers and those from the control group.
In this article, we introduce some of the issues that interact to produce the "leaky pipeline" we refer to in the title—a pipeline that results in a dearth of persons of color having professional jobs in special education. These issues serve to influence the entrée and flow of persons from diverse cultural and linguistic (CLD) backgrounds throughout the personnel pipeline feeding special education and related services careers. The issues discussed include factors affecting the availability of CLD persons for higher education degrees, the 2- and 4-year and graduate systems of professional induction and development, some of the contemporary dialogue regarding the problematic vision of special education, and the conceptual framework of special education in light of the ontological worldviews of some CLD persons. Finally, we review training trends and successful programs in order to highlight directions available for sensitively engaging not only demographic realities, but a more pluralistic outlook on teacher education and services to children. What these trends and successful programs show, given the leaks in the pipeline and lack of a shared vision for special education training and services, is that local people responding to local needs are the best at both repairing and redesigning the pipeline.
; This article is a broad and introductory overview of personnel supply/demand issues in special education. One premise is that matters of quality (competence, qualifications) interlock with matters of quantity (numbers) of personnel, and that many variables affect both personnel quality and quantity. Selected intervening variables are reviewed. We suggest that many complications in personnel supplyldemand are of relatively recent origin, and, thus, traditional policies and strategies for the development, recruitment, and retention of personnel may no longer be sufficient. Although national aggregate data are presented in order to clarify the status of special education supply/demand, it is emphasized that these problems are much more relevant as local issues than as statistical issues, and that shortages and causative factors occur in widely varying dimensions and degrees across states and districts. It is, therefore, recommended that supply/demand imbalances should be more clearly understood and cooperatively addressed at the local level, which is where these problems originate and where they can be solved. In order to plan solutions, however, it is necessary to achieve a vision of the directions special education should be taking as the 20th century draws to a close.
As the population of Hispanic children in the United States continues to grow, so does the demand for bilingual speech-language pathologists. However, to date the demand has far exceeded the supply of qualified personnel. Consequently, there currently exists a significant shortage of Bilingual speech-language pathologists in the nation to meet the communication needs of the rapidly growing population of Hispanic children (Council of Graduate Programs in Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 1995; Kayser, 1995; Rimac and Dominguez, 1995; ASHA, 1995). The end result is that Hispanic children and youth are not being adequately served in the nations' public schools. The dropout rate of Hispanic children is evidence of this fact. Thirty-four percent of Hispanics drop out of school by the eighth grade as compared to 11. 6 percent of the overall population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1991). In response to the growing demand for bilingual speech-language pathologists and its impact on the delivery of quality services to Hispanic bilingual children and youth, an intensive two-year master's degree program with a specialization in bilingualism was developed at the University of the District of Columbia. This graduate degree program is designed to prepare bilingual speecb-language pathologists to meet the communication needs of a diverse population of Hispanic children in the Washington metropolitan area. In the first part of this article, we describe the design of the program, including the curriculum, clinical practicum, recruitment, and retention activities. In the second part of the article, we discuss the recruitment of students, our selection process, and the challenges we faced during the implementation of the program, which is now in its second semester.
The Special Education Training Program (SETP) offers training for school administrators, focusing on bridging the gap between theory and practical application of knowledge needed to design, develop, effectively implement, and supervise programs for students with special needs in the least restrictive environment. In addition to the ten-hour field experience that was part of each course, students participated in an on-site practicum which emphasized special education administrative duties at the district or school. Student responses to openended questions related to the professional development program were positive, and that organizational and motivational strategies incorporated in the program contributed to its success.
The increasing number of persons from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds in the population and the need to modify diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for these groups served as the basis for seeking funds to train speech-language pathologists with skills that meet the speech and language needs of these groups. Project Access was designed to recruit, retain, and train students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. In addition to the approved undergraduate and graduate speech- language pathology curricula that address diagnostic and treatment strategies for all groups, seminars that explore speech and language disorders of diverse populations were added as requirements. Financial and other support activities are provided as part of this project for all trainees. Financial support is provided in the form of tuition remission, monthly stipends, and book allowances. Other support activities are provided through mentoring and specialized academic support. This paper will describe the recruitment, retention, and training techniques being used to increase the number of speech-language pathologists with special training to meet the speech, language, and hearing needs of persons from diverse groups.
Addressing the needs of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds who have disabilities has become a growing area of concern, especially as the demographic composition of the nation's public schools continues to change. The challenge to provide appropriate educational opportunities for studsnts from diverse backgrounds is most directly addressed through personnel preparation programs. These programs need to be developed according to competencies that are specific to bilingual multicultural special education. In this article, the authors present guidelines for the development and implementation of a graduate program in bilingual multicultural special education. The program at New Mexico State University is described as a model.
This article looks at the issue of teacher preparation in light of changing demographics as a direct consequence of increased immigration. It begins by describing the current context in which many new teachers will find themselves. It then moves to a review of the teacher education literature over the past two decades to ascertain how the profession conceptualizes immigrant children and the education of those who will teach them. Using this review as a foundation, the article then outlines key issues that must be taken into account when preparing teachers to work effectively with immigrant children. The article concludes with recommendations for teacher educators.
The overall goal of this investigation was (a) to provide a cross-cultural understanding of young children's social behavior and adults' expectations for behavior and (b) to advance knowledge of interrater correlations for the Social Skills Rating System. The sample consisted of 50 Native American subjects and a matched sample (by age and gender) of 50 white subjects from Head Start programs in the U.S. Midwest. The results indicated that white preschoolers exhibited social skills more frequently according to the ratings of their teachers and parents, than did Native American preschoolers. In addition, low correlations were found between ratings of the importance of social behaviors by teachers of Native American and teachers of white preschoolers and between parents of Native American and parents of white preschoolers. Parents and teachers showed a moderate agreement in their ratings of the frequency of expression of social skills by Native American preschoolers, and in their ratings of the importance of social skills across the Assertion subdomain. This was unlike findings for ratings by the white parents and teachers of frequency of expression and importance of social skills, which exhibited low agreement. Explanations for these findings included cultural similarity, setting, and race commonalities within the Native American sample. The implications of this study for the assessment of preschoolers are provided and future areas to research are outlined.
Contemporary educational theory holds that one of the pivotal causes of inadequate school performance is the inability of schools to adequately staff classrooms with qualified teachers. Contemporary theory also holds that these staffing problems are primarily due to shortages of teachers, which, in turn, are primarily due to recent increases in teacher retirements and student enrollments. This analysis investigates the possibility that there are other factors that might have an impact on teacher turnover levels, and, in turn, the staffing problems of schools, factors rooted in the organizational characteristics and conditions of schools. The data utilized in this investigation are from the Schools and Staffing Survey and its supplement, the Teacher Followup Survey, a large, comprehensive, nationally representative survey of teachers and schools conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics. The results of this analysis show that, net of teacher effects, there are significant effects of school characteristics and organizational conditions on teacher turnover which have largely been overlooked by previous research. For example, the data show that while high-poverty public schools have moderately higher rates, contrary to conventional wisdom, neither larger schools, nor public schools in large school districts, nor urban public schools have especially high rates of teacher turnover. In contrast, small private schools stand out for their high rates of turnover. Moreover, the data show, again contrary to popular wisdom, that the amount of turnover accounted for by retirement is relatively minor, especially when compared to that resulting from two related causes – teacher job dissatisfaction and teachers pursuing other jobs. The data show that, in particular, low salaries, inadequate support from the school administration, student discipline problems, and limited faculty input into school decision-making all contribute to higher rates of turnover, after controlling for the characteristics of both teachers and schools. The results of this investigation suggest that school staffing problems are neither synonymous with, nor primarily due to, teacher shortages in the conventional sense of a deficit in the supply of teachers. Rather, this study suggests that school staffing problems are primarily due to excess demand resulting from a "revolving door" – where large numbers of teachers depart their jobs for reasons other than retirement. This study also suggests that popular education initiatives, such as teacher recruitment programs, will not solve the staffing problems of such schools if they do not also address the organizational sources of low teacher retention.
This study investigates the claim that pupil race affects the reading grouping decisions of elementary school teachers, causing black children to be overrepresented in lower ability groups. Analyses were carried out of teachers’ remarks made while engaged in the process of grouping children, and of the racial composition of the groups they actually formed. Taken together, these analyses failed to uncover evidence of conscious or unconscious racial bias, though black pupils were much more likely to be placed in the lowest groups.
This study assesses teacher behaviors as a factor in the quality of educational opportunity afforded students of different ethnic groups within the schools of the Southwest United States. Observers visited 494 classrooms. They used a slightly modified Flanders interaction coding system to code teacher verbal behaviors with reference to the ethnicity of the student to whom each behavior was directed. The results indicate a number of statistically significant, substantial, and pedagogically important disparities in the teacher behaviors that are directed toward Mexican American and Anglo students. Twenty-two teacher, student, classroom, and school characteristics were also investigated for their possible association with these disparities; a few significant relationships were found.
In the present investigation, 150 children in Grades 2 through 4 who had been recommended for prereferral interventions were compared on a number of cognitive/achievement and behavioral scales in order to test whether those children referred differed as a function of ethnicity and/or gender. Of interest was the hypothesis that the behaviors that prompt referral may differ by domain or by degree for children of different ethnicity or gender. Severe achievement deficiencies characterized children of all three ethnic groups. Differences that did emerge indicated that on average, referred White children evidenced significantly higher Verbal IQs and reading achievement scores. On measures of problem behaviors, our data suggest that referred Black children were more likely to have a higher incidence of behavior problems than were Hispanic children. Gender differences for this referred sample were most apparent in the problem behaviors more typically exhibited by males; however, differences did not emerge on cognitive and achievement measures. Nevertheless, teachers rated females higher on overall academic competence. Findings were interpreted as failing to support the notions that the systematic referral of children for academic and/or behavior problems was somehow discriminatory against male or ethnic minority children.
This study examined teachers' perceptions of African American males' aggression and achievement and the need for special education services based on African American students' cultural movement styles (i.e., walking). The participants, 136 middle school teachers, viewed a videotape and completed a questionnaire. To study interaction effects between student ethnicity and student movement and teachers' ratings of student achievement, aggression, and need for special education, a completely randomized factorial analysis of variance was employed. The results indicated that the teachers perceived students with African American culture - related movement styles as lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need special education services than students with standard movement styles. Implications for research are discussed.
Success in higher education for minorities and disadvantaged students may be more closely linked with their sociopsychological adjustments to an institution than was previously thought. At the same time, the culture of institutions of higher learning may facilitate the assimilation of minority students through an apparatus of services that assists them academically and socially. This article examines the institutional interaction processes in the Search for Education, Elevation, and Knowledge Program (SEEK) among students, staff, and faculty at Brooklyn College of the City University of New York (CUNY), and explores how assimilation into the institutional subculture may be enhanced. The research paradigm raises questions about how the school setting affects success or failure and how institutions offer their students resources that enable them to overcome the legacies of poverty and attitudes inimical to the culture of learning.
This paper focuses on nontraditional training programs that train recruits for mathematics and science teaching. These recruits include recent college graduates with degrees in mathematics or science, individuals in science-related fields who are retiring or who want to make a midcareer switch to teaching, and teachers who initially prepared to teach in areas other than mathematics or science. We find that not all programs are equally effective and that the quality and intensity of preparation make a difference in how well prepared recruits feel to teach. Our study also indicates that, for all their promise, nontraditional teacher preparation programs cannot fully overcome other attributes of teaching that make recruitment and retention of teachers difficult.
Three alternate routes to teaching (Los Angeles, New Jersey, and Connecticut) are described, and differences and similarities resulting from their unique contexts are explored. In comparing the design variations of the programs, special attention is given to four aspects: the policy con text ; program elements, such as admission criteria, the role of higher education, and course work; school-based support systems; and certification requirements. Considerable variation ex ists. These programs need to be judged in terms of their goals and context as well as their impact on students and the profession of teaching. Much can be learned from viewing alternate route programs as a variety of context-specific naturally occurring experiments rather than as an alter native to be extolled or dismissed.
The problem of attracting and retaining minority teacher candidates is particu larly acute at the present time. Given the competitiveness of the current job mar ket and the heavy emphasis on stan dardized testing for all teacher candi dates, the difficulties of attracting quality minority teachers are becoming more manifest. Is there anything that can be done to ameliorate the situation? Bell and Morsink suggest that solutions are emerging. They proffer and discuss two techniques for use by teacher educators in their efforts to increase the number of quality minority teacher candidates: developing testwiseness programs and providing minority students with men tors and role models.
Huling-Austin presents a number of ideas related to what can and cannot be accomplished through teacher induc tion programs. The author's intent is to help educators who are conceptualizing and designing induction programs for beginning teachers to identify reasona ble expectations for those programs.