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It's Not How Much; It's How: Characteristics of Practice Behavior and Retention of Performance Skills
Abstract
We observed 17 graduate and advanced-undergraduate piano majors practicing a difficult, three-measure keyboard passage from a Shostakovich concerto. Participants' instructions were to practice until they were confident they could play the passage accurately at a prescribed tempo in a retention test session the following day. We analyzed the practice behaviors of each pianist in terms of numeric and nonnumeric descriptors and ranked the pianists according to the overall performance quality of their retention tests. Results indicated no significant relationship between the rankings of pianists' retention test performances and any of the following variables: practice time, number of total practice trials, and number of complete practice trials. There were significant relationships between retention test rankings and the percentage of all performance trials that were performed correctly, r = —.51, the percentage of complete performance trials that were performed correctly, r = —.71, and the number of trials performed incorrectly during practice, r = .48. The results showed that the strategies employed during practice were more determinative of performance quality at retention than was how much or how long the pianists practiced, a finding consistent with the results of related research.
... Algunos investigadores han destacado el importante papel de la práctica sostenida como un factor determinante en el desarrollo de conocimientos, destrezas y habilidades (Ericsson et al., 1990;Sosniak, 1990;Sloboda et al., 1996). Sin embargo, las investigaciones también revelan que el logro y el crecimiento en la interpretación musical no sólo están relacionados a la cantidad de tiempo dedicado a la práctica de una pieza, sino también a la efectividad de la misma (Bonneville-Roussy y Bouffard, 2014;Da Costa, 1999;Duke et al., 2009;Hallam, 2001, Hallam et al., 2012Kostka, 2002). Como Bonneville-Roussy y Bouffard (2014: 686) afirman: "[...] a pesar de que la mayoría de los investigadores coinciden en que el tiempo dedicado a la práctica formal, juega un papel importante en el logro musical, las investigaciones empíricas no han podido demostrar asociaciones sólidas entre tiempo de práctica y logro". ...
... Ensayar lentamente y con metrónomo son estrategias relacionadas con el logro y el crecimiento musical (Duke, Simmons y Cash, 2009;Hallam et al., 2012;Miksza, 2007Miksza, , 2011Nielsen, 2001). ...
... En un estudio con tres estudiantes de órgano de tercer año, considerados por sus profesores como muy talentosos y poseedores de un alto nivel técnico, Nielsen (2001) encontró que los estudiantes utilizaban esta estrategia como recurso de autorregulación para vencer los retos de velocidad de la obra a aprender. Adicionalmente, en otros estudios se encontró que practicar lentamente está relacionado con el logro y el crecimiento musical (Duke, Simmons y Cash, 2009;Miksza, 2011). ...
Este libro, tiene el propósito de contribuir modestamente al conocimiento de la práctica musical efectiva, desde la perspectiva de la investigación empírica. El primer capítulo proporciona un panorama de las investigaciones que sobre práctica efectiva se han llevado a cabo en los últimos años, y que podrían ser de
gran beneficio para los jóvenes estudiantes de música, así como para los maestros. El segundo, comparte los resultados obtenidos a través de un estudio que involucró seis escuelas de música, de seis universidades de la Región Centro Occidente de la Asociación Nacional de Universidades e Instituciones de Educación Superior (anuies), con respecto a la práctica efectiva, el sentido de autoeficacia de los estudiantes y su nivel de satisfacción con las sesiones de práctica. El tercer capítulo ofrece un modelo de práctica efectiva que podría ser de utilidad para
los estudiantes de música, sobre todo para aquéllos que tienen poca experiencia y que requieren de una guía para establecer una rutina de práctica diaria, sana y productiva. Finalmente, el capítulo número cuatro concluye con una reflexión sobre la responsabilidad que deben asumir instituciones, maestros y estudiantes
en atender este vital aspecto de la formación del músico profesional.
... Deliberate practice, defined as the implementation of effective strategies for improving performance, is the means for acquiring expertise (Ericsson et al., 1993;Sloboda et al., 1996). While time on task is important, the content of musical practice has a greater impact on performance achievement, including a connection between strategic practice and time spent practicing (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011. Researchers have examined, in detail, what accomplished instrumental musicians do when practicing. ...
... The first section asked participants to describe their time and material resource usage and to rate their attitudes toward practice planning and structure using Likert-type scales. The second portion of the VPS asked participants to indicate the frequency of strategy use, which was modeled on survey studies of instrumental musicians regarding strategy usage (Austin & Berg, 2006;Barry, 1991;Barry & McArthur, 1994;Miksza, 2011), using strategies derived from instrumental practice studies (Araújo, 2016;Chaffin et al., 2003;Duke et al., 2009;Hallam, 2001;Mieder & Bugos, 2017;Miksza, 2011;Prichard, 2021;Rohwer & Polk, 2006;Summitt, 2017;Weidner, 2021) and vocal practitioner articles (Ali, 2010;Baughman, 2016;Gaston, 2003;Maxfield, 2018). Participants were asked to identify the frequency with which they used each of 35 strategies. ...
... The third group of strategies involved external resources for practice and simplification of rhythm and pitch. While these strategies are among the most common strategies for instrumentalists (Barry, 1991;Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2007), our participants used these strategies with limited frequency. While strategies in the first and second groups emphasized holistic practice, the limited use of the strategies in the third group suggested limited practice by vocalists of music concepts in isolation. ...
This study investigated expert vocalists’ approaches to practice in terms of planning, time, and strategy usage. Participants were 79 university voice professors and members of professional choirs. The researchers sent each participant the Vocal Practice Survey (VPS)which collected data on the participants’ professional backgrounds, attitudes toward specific practice strategies, and personal practice habits. Results indicated variety in expert vocalists’ approaches to practice, including number of practice sessions per week, length of practice sessions, and structure of practice sessions. Most participants reported using practice resources, especially a piano and a mirror. Participants reported a broad range of frequency in strategy use, with holistic practice strategies dominating. Comments from participants indicated that group rehearsals also served as individual practice opportunities, that there were differences between students’ and experts’ practice, and that an important role of practice was facilitating vocal health. The findings of this study provide a point of reference for comparing vocal practice to instrumental practice and for further development of research of vocal musicians at varying levels of expertise. The researchers also provide recommendations for music educators regarding the instruction and promotion of effective individual vocal practice.
... In order to measure the efficacy of practice strategies, it is essential to link them to performance success. Few studies directly linked practice to performance quality amongst tertiary students (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011Pike, 2014) and found that successful students correct errors effectively (Duke et al., 2009), employ specific strategies (Miksza, 2006(Miksza, , 2011Pike, 2014), change their tempo systematically (Duke et al., 2009;Pike, 2014), and do not engage in unnecessary repetitions (Pike, 2014). However these studies were often conducted in short sessions (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011 or used short excerpts as the set piece (Duke et al., 2009;Pike, 2014). ...
... In order to measure the efficacy of practice strategies, it is essential to link them to performance success. Few studies directly linked practice to performance quality amongst tertiary students (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011Pike, 2014) and found that successful students correct errors effectively (Duke et al., 2009), employ specific strategies (Miksza, 2006(Miksza, , 2011Pike, 2014), change their tempo systematically (Duke et al., 2009;Pike, 2014), and do not engage in unnecessary repetitions (Pike, 2014). However these studies were often conducted in short sessions (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011 or used short excerpts as the set piece (Duke et al., 2009;Pike, 2014). ...
... In order to measure the efficacy of practice strategies, it is essential to link them to performance success. Few studies directly linked practice to performance quality amongst tertiary students (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011Pike, 2014) and found that successful students correct errors effectively (Duke et al., 2009), employ specific strategies (Miksza, 2006(Miksza, , 2011Pike, 2014), change their tempo systematically (Duke et al., 2009;Pike, 2014), and do not engage in unnecessary repetitions (Pike, 2014). However these studies were often conducted in short sessions (Duke et al., 2009;Miksza, 2006Miksza, , 2011 or used short excerpts as the set piece (Duke et al., 2009;Pike, 2014). ...
Self-regulated practice is critical to musicians’ development, but it is unclear what components of practice contribute to performance quality. This study aimed to explore tertiary music students’ practice using performance evaluations as indicators of practice efficacy. Five tertiary piano students prepared a quick study task of two pieces for a mock performance, in 2 hours over 2 days. An expert panel evaluated the mock performances and performers were ranked accordingly. Practice session recordings and interview transcripts were analysed according to the three phases of Self-Regulated Learning (forethought, performance, self-reflection) and linked to the pianists’ final performance evaluations. Successful pianists planned their practice and set interpretative goals, while their less successful peers practiced reactively without planning. The highest-ranked pianist’s self-regulation was facilitated by non-play practice which involved taking long pauses and using strategies such as score study, mark score, and listen to own recording. The lowest-ranked pianist failed to identify problems or self-evaluate effectively. Future studies should explore the use and content of non-play practice strategies, especially self-recording, to empower music students to develop and self-regulate their practice. The quick study task provided an effective practice assessment tool and could be used to diagnose and track practice approaches.
... Even among professional musicians, such stable traits (that could collectively be called "talent") play a role in determining individual performance levels (Campitelli & Gobet, 2011;Hambrick & Meinz, 2011a;. Across time ranges spanning single practice sessions to a college semester to a career, the amount of time that musicians spend practicing appears not to be the only, or sometimes even the greatest, predictor of their achievement (Duke et al., 2009;Jørgensen, 2002;Madsen, 2004). ...
... Practice has been a topic of growing attention within the music education research literature. Duke et al. (2009) found no correlation between total practice time and performance level on a retention test the next day; instead, the highest performing individuals exhibited a common suite of behaviors found in its entirety among no lower scoring participants. Professional and graduate students appear more prone to target particular problematic sections than undergraduates, and experience level also correlates positively with the use of sophisticated practice strategies that reflect individuals' awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses (Hallam, 2001a(Hallam, , 2001bMaynard, 2000Maynard, , 2006. ...
... While beginning musicians seem to know few practice strategies and to use them infrequently, their use among experienced musicians has been found in some cases to correlate more strongly with age and experience than with performance scores (Christensen, 2010;Hallam, 2001a;Pitts & Davidson, 2000). Experienced, high-performing musicians also incorporate musical interpretive details earlier in practice than others (Chaffin & Imreh, 2001;Duke et al., 2009;Hallam, 2001a). ...
The pedagogical literature strongly suggests that when a musician works on a specific piece of repertoire, one should choose practice strategies tailored to the challenges presented by that material. Such a behavioral choice could represent an instantiation of focused and deliberate practice, a critical aspect of the relationship between experience and the acquisition of expertise. However, most of the literature investigating individual practice has used a single stimulus for all participants, or else has employed surveys or other proxy measures of practicing behavior. In this study, participants of three different experience levels (high school, collegiate, or professional violinists) practiced three excerpts, each featuring a different signature challenge. Results suggest that practice is highly idiosyncratic, that participants do adjust their approaches to the challenges of the material, but that individuals of differing experience levels identify remarkably similar problems within the material.
... Así, la música con textura polifónica de los siglos XVII y XVIII, quizá más que ninguna otra, requiere de un estudio más profundo que apela a un conocimiento más experto, así como a una mayor concentración. Por consiguiente, no basta con que los maestros se centren en los aspectos técnicos y expresivos de las piezas que están tocando los estudiantes (Duke, 2009;Gaunt, 2008;Kostka, 2002;Young et al., 2003;Koopman et al., 2007;Laukka, 2004), sino que deben involucrarse en los procesos de aprendizaje y apoyar a los estudiantes para que desarrollen ese conocimiento experto del que hemos hablado (Benavides Sotomayor, 2008;Cheng, 2019). ...
... Así, diversas investigaciones confirman que el éxito en la ejecución de una pieza es resultado de una metodología adecuada y bien trazada que se pone en práctica desde que el estudiante inicia el aprendizaje de una obra. (Bonneville-Roussy y Bouffard, 2014; Duke et al.;Hallam, 2001;Kostka, 2002). En ese sentido, Bernstein (1981, p. 262) explica: ...
Este artículo presenta los resultados de un estudio que tuvo como objetivo identificar las áreas de oportunidad que exhiben los estudiantes de piano a nivel superior en el estudio e interpretación de las obras con textura contrapuntística del Periodo Barroco. Para tal propósito se implementó una metodología de corte mixto representada por un cuestionario integrado por preguntas cerradas y abiertas, que fue aplicado a través de la técnica de la encuesta a los estudiantes de piano de tres programas académicos de México. Los resultados indican que los estudiantes gustan de esta música, sin embargo, exhiben áreas de oportunidad que incluyen un desconocimiento importante de compositores, obras e intérpretes de este estilo, así como un manejo limitado de estrategias de práctica musical efectiva y una falta de información importante acerca de aspectos estilísticos que les permitan llevar a cabo una interpretación satisfactoria. En conclusión, los autores consideran que se deben promover procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje más holísticos que contribuyan a la formación integral del futuro pianista profesional.
... Statik bir kuruluş değil, bunun yerine bir eğitim önerisi girişimidir. Öğretmen ve öğrencinin beklentilerine, dersin gerçekliğine ve pratik uygulamasına göre her zaman eleştirel değerlendirme altında olmalıdır (Stenhouse, 1986, Duke, 2009). Öğrencilerin kendi çalışma zamanlarını planlamaları ve bu süre zarfında doğru öğretim yöntemleri kullanmaları da oldukça önemlidir. ...
... A curriculum can be predicated on the implements and experiences of both teachers and learners, since it is not a statical formation but instead it is an educational advice attempt. On the other hand, the created curriculum should always be under consideration in terms of the expectations of both teachers and learners, the authenticity of the lessons and its practical implementations (Stenhouse, 1986, Duke, 2009. Motivation can be defined as the driving force on the behavior. ...
Bu çalışmada; piyano eğitimindeki yetişkin öğrencilerin özellikleri dikkate alınarak; mesleki anlamda başlangıç piyano eğitiminin yöntemsel olarak teorik temellerinin, yetişkin öğrencilerin psikolojik özelliklerinin, pedagojik sorunlarının ve yetişkin öğrencilerin karşılaşmış oldukları problemlerin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Nitel veri analizi tekniklerinin kullanıldığı bu araştırma betimsel türdedir. Veriler çeşitli dokümanların incelenmesi yöntemiyle toplanmıştır. Yetişkin öğrencilere piyano öğretmek, yüksek yaratıcı sonuçlara ulaşmayı amaçlayan belirli teknikleri ve yöntemleri kullanarak eğitim sürecinin özel bir organizasyonunu öngörür. Yetişkin öğrencilerin psikofizyolojik özelliklerinin incelenmesi, çalışılan pedagojik süreç ile ilgili çocukların eğitimi arasındaki temel farkları belirlemeyi mümkün kılmıştır. Yetişkin öğrenciler için başlangıç piyano eğitiminin amaçlarının, hedeflerinin ve özelliklerinin analiziyle, bu sürecin kapsamlı bir şekilde organize edilmesinin, teorik ve metodolojik desteğin geliştirilmesinin önemli olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır.
... In a comparative study of collegiate music faculty and undergraduate music majors, Barry (1991) found that faculty participants were more likely than undergraduate students to focus on trouble spots, use mental rehearsal, scan the music before playing, play slowly, and use a metronome when practicing (Barry, 1991). In another study, Duke, Simmons, and Cash (2009) found that the top pianist students were better able to identify, pinpoint the source, rehearse and correct errors; vary tempo of problem segments systematically; and repeat practice targets until errors were fixed (Duke, Simmons, & Cash, 2009). ...
... In a comparative study of collegiate music faculty and undergraduate music majors, Barry (1991) found that faculty participants were more likely than undergraduate students to focus on trouble spots, use mental rehearsal, scan the music before playing, play slowly, and use a metronome when practicing (Barry, 1991). In another study, Duke, Simmons, and Cash (2009) found that the top pianist students were better able to identify, pinpoint the source, rehearse and correct errors; vary tempo of problem segments systematically; and repeat practice targets until errors were fixed (Duke, Simmons, & Cash, 2009). ...
The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the deficiencies and capabilities of high school string players in the practice room, through a mixed methods within-subjects experiment exploring the impact of digital scaffolds on pitch and rhythmic accuracy growth, self-assessment, self-correction, and other self-regulatory behavior during independent music practicing. Sixty high school string students individually completed a 30-minute practice session divided into four practice conditions with the order randomly assigned (1.Model, 2.Model+Playback, 3.Model+Playback+Feedback, and 4.Control). During each practice condition, performances at sight-read (pretest), during practicing (formative), and after practicing (posttest) were assessed for pitch and rhythmic accuracy by computer software SmartMusic. While participants practiced, they spoke their thoughts out loud, self-assessed their progress, and answered questions about their experiences. A two-factor mixed ANOVA revealed significantly greater accuracy gains when students practiced with the aural model (Model) and with the visual evaluative feedback (Model+Playback+Feedback). Integration of qualitative and quantitative data illuminated deficiencies in audiating an aural goal image from written notation, detecting errors by ear, and self-assessing performance deterioration; capabilities included strategy use and technique adjustment.
... Furthermore, to develop expertise, musicians have to engage in thousands of hours of deliberate practice (i.e., effortful, focused, goal-directed) (Ericsson and Harwell, 2019). Such prolonged periods of practice are associated with a number of additional challenges, including practice efficiency (Duke et al., 2009), motivational constraints (Ericsson, 2008), decreased psychological well-being (Kenny et al., 2014;Kegelaers et al., in press), and overuse injuries (Bird, 2013;Baadjou et al., 2016). Many of these challenges might be aggravated or intensified by an enduring focus of music education on high volumes of practice (i.e., quantity) rather than on quality of practice (Hatfield, 2016;Pecen et al., 2016). ...
... Many of these challenges might be aggravated or intensified by an enduring focus of music education on high volumes of practice (i.e., quantity) rather than on quality of practice (Hatfield, 2016;Pecen et al., 2016). In contrast, evidence suggests that quantity of practice in itself may sometimes be unrelated (Williamon and Valentine, 2000;Duke et al., 2009) or even inversely related to musical performance (Bonneville-Roussy and Bouffard, 2015). Performance psychology could, therefore, also provide insights into more effective practice and performance preparation strategies for musicians (Clark and Williamon, 2011;Pecen et al., 2016). ...
The present study presents a process evaluation of a performance psychology intervention for transitioning elite and elite musicians. The goal of the intervention was to provide participants with an amalgamation of evidence-informed principles, aimed to improve their quality of practice and performance preparation. The intervention consisted of an educational session followed by four workshops. In total, eight transitioning elite and seven elite musicians participated. Process measures included quantitative and qualitative workshop evaluations, monitoring logs, and semi-structured interviews. Overall, the intervention was evaluated positively by the participants. However, differences were present between the groups, with the elite musicians typically evaluating the intervention more favorably compared to the transitioning elites. Specific positive outcomes included an increased awareness and re-examining of current practice strategies, more structured and goal-directed practice, increased practice efficiency and focus, a more proactive approach to performances, and increased attention for the physical aspects of playing. Moreover, a number of contextual considerations and implementation challenges became evident. Important implications for performance psychology interventions and practitioners in music are discussed.
... In the context of learning western classical music, developing musicians undertake a vast amount of practice that they mostly regulate by themselves to attain excellence on a musical instrument (Hallam, 2013;Miksza, 2011). Many studies on musical self-regulation have focused on the identification of efficient and less efficient self-regulated practice behaviours of musicians at different levels of advancement (Bartolome, 2009;Duke et al., 2009;Hallam, 2001Hallam, , 2013Leon-Guerrero, 2008;McPherson & Renwick, 2001;Mornell et al., 2020;Nielsen, 2001;Nielsen, 2015;Pike, 2017). A salient component of the efficacy of self-regulated music learning highlighted in the results of these studies is the musician's capacity to effectively self-evaluate their playing during practice. ...
The ability to identify weaknesses and improvements in performance without a teacher's feedback, conceptualised here as efficient self-evaluation, is an important aspect of self-regulated music practice. However, the concurrent efforts required to perform and monitor the performance for feedback represent a challenge for any learner. Videotaping the performance and watching it after-wards (video feedback) could constitute a solution to this problem by allowing the learner to concentrate fully on each task. In addition, focusing on the result of a performance (sound produced, interpretation) would yield more musical and technically accurate performances than focusing on technical matters while performing. Nonetheless, musicians seem to naturally focus on their technique while playing, possibly because of the feedback they receive from their teachers. Studies in sports and in music demonstrated that using video feedback would modify the athletes' or musicians' perspective on their performance. In our study, we explored how video feedback could affect the topics addressed in the self-evaluation of a performance by intermediate-advanced musicians (n = 8). In comparison with reflections made after performing, after watching a recording of that same performance musicians made more self-evaluative comments about interpretation and instrumental execution, and fewer comments about performance flow or learning stages. We concluded that musicians may self-evaluate different aspects of their performance while using video feedback, as compared with self-evaluations immediately following live performances.
... Com o intuito de entender quais estratégias de prática poderiam predizer a qualidade da performance de uma passagem musical considerada desafiadora, Duke et al. (2009) analisaram uma sessão de prática e performances de estudantes de pós-graduação e graduação de uma universidade americana considerados avançados. Os resultados indicaram que determinadas estratégias e comportamentos de prática se mostraram fatores mais importantes para a alta qualidade da performance do que o tempo despendido durante a prática. ...
O presente artigo tem por objetivo analisar o emprego do estudo de mãos separadas e juntas durante a prática e sua relação com o desenvolvimento da performance em termos de andamento e aquisição de fluência. Em delineamento quasi-experimental e longitudinal, o estudo acompanhou pianistas profissionais e estudantes de graduação que aprenderam a Sonata K. 271 de D. Scarlatti ao longo de um mês. Os resultados mostraram que a prática de mãos juntas e mãos separadas estiveram presentes no aprendizado de todos os participantes, sendo que o separar mãos constituiu uma forma de simplificar a passagem praticada. A constância da prática de mãos separadas ao longo do tempo esteve associada a maiores níveis de fluência e de andamento de performance. A intensidade de tal estratégia mostrou-se relacionada à dificuldade da peça e à expertise do indivíduo, sendo que, quanto maior a carga cognitiva intrínseca para o praticante mais relevante a sua presença e frequência de utilização durante a prática.
... Analizirajući potrebe učenika i njihova ponašanja u procesu učenja i poučavanja glazbe, važna činjenica za svakog nastavnika nije samo spoznati i razumjeti kako se kod učenika razvija autonomija i samostalnost u vježbanju, nego razviti i testirati specifične strategije za učenje. Stoga je potrebno vršiti pedagoška istraživanja glede učenja i poučavanja glazbe kako bi se rasvijetlila važnost osviještenog vježbanja koje nastaje kao produkt višestrukih aktivnosti na putu glazbenog ostvarenja (Austin i Berg, 2006;Bartolome, 2009;Christensen, 2010;Duke, Simmons i Cash, 2009;Jorgensen, 2004Jorgensen, , 2008Leon-Guerrero, 2008;McPherson i Renwick, 2011, McPherson i Zimmermann, 2011Miksza, 2007;Nielsen, 2001). Hallam (2001) ističe kako upotreba strategija za učenje doprinosi učinkovitom učenju čija je posljedica utjecaj na individualan glazbeni razvoj. ...
Postoje različiti pristupi, postupci i razmišljanja oko pitanja orguljske nastave te o tome koji su preduvjeti potrebni za kvalitetu njezinog uspješnog ostvarenja. Shodno tome „nameće“ se pitanje Kad je podobno vrijeme za početi s nastavom ovog instrumenta? U ovom radu literarno-empirijskim istraživanjem kroz analizu i tumačenje različitih pristupa i praksi nastavnika pokušat će se doprinijeti razjašnjavanju te problematike. Ovim istraživanjem iskazat će se mišljenja nastavnika koji predaju orgulje u glazbenim školama republike Hrvatske te kako o određenoj temi i problematici pišu glazbeni pedagozi u znanstvenim publikacijama. Na temelju istražene literature i provedenog empirijskog istraživanja možemo zaključiti kako je prethodno klavirsko znanje potrebno da bi se orguljske tehnike i vještine mogle lakše i uspješnije usvajati te je shodno tome srednjoškolsko vrijeme najproduktivnije za učenje orgulja. Doduše, u povijesti postoje slučajevi kada su talent/nadarenost, okolnosti i ustrajnost rezultirali uspješnošću. No, i dalje je neosporno kako klavirsko (pred)znanje pospješuje uspješnost, a time i kvalitetu nastave na orguljama. Nadalje, klavirsko znanje koje će učenik „donijeti/unijeti“ u srednjoškolsku nastavu orgulja pomoći će u uspješnijoj izgradnji njegovih znanja i umijeća potrebnih za ovladavanje tim kompleksnim instrumentom.
... Tertiary music students (i.e., students in higher education) typically spend 20-30 hr per week on private practice (Jørgensen, 2004;Macnamara & Maitra, 2019) but many of these students do not know how to use this time effectively (McPherson et al., 2019;Miksza et al., 2018;Mornell et al., 2020). This is a concern, since quality of practice is paramount to performance quality and achievement (Duke et al., 2009;Suzuki & Mitchell, 2022;Williamon & Valentine, 2000). Furthermore, the development of effective practice methods forms an important component of holistic care for musicians' physical and psychological health (Bird, 2013;Kegelaers & Oudejans, 2020;Matei et al., 2018;Perkins et al., 2017;Yang et al., 2021). ...
Over recent years, many researchers have developed and tested interventions to help music students practice and prepare for performances effectively. While these interventions have led to positive outcomes, their scalability is currently limited. To address this challenge, we developed PractiseWell, an online intervention to equip tertiary piano students with skills and strategies for effective practice. We used a theory- and evidence-based approach to develop the content. In designing the intervention (i.e., how the content is delivered), we drew on the person-based approach and the literature on design features from the field of healthcare. This article reports the development of PractiseWell in three parts. Part I reports a systematic review that was conducted to inform the content of the intervention. Part II reports the development of PractiseWell using the Guidance for Reporting of Intervention Development (GUIDED) checklist. Part III describes the intervention using the Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDieR). We discuss implications and future directions for intervention research in the context of performance psychology for musicians.
... This practice technique allows them to focus on the challenge (Maynard, 2006) and even promotes the memorization of the passage (O'Brien, 1943;Nielsen, 2001;Miklaszewski, 1989). Of course, this strategy may be combined with other ones, like practicing slowly and/or practicing with metronome (Duke, et al., 2009;Hallam et al., 2012;Miksza, 2007 andNielsen, 2001). ...
By showing their musical achievements in concerts, auditions, competitions and the like, music students are not only executing notes, but they are exhibiting their aspirations and exposing their affective dimension. Many times, their personal dreams, as well as their own professional future are put at a stake with the resulting
social and affective consequences. This represents a great responsibility for teachers since, as educators, they must provide their students with the necessary tools to succeed in their endeavor. In this essay, the author provides an overview on different music practice strategies whose effectiveness have been tested in rigorous research studies or proved by experienced teachers. The author expects they may be helpful to teachers and students to overcome the musical challenges the learning of music and its public performance entails.
... Diversos estudios empíricos dan cuenta de los benefi cios de todas esas estrategias de práctica efectiva (Capistrán Gracia, 2018). Sin embargo, es responsabilidad del alumno utilizarlas de manera diligente y disciplinada y autoevaluarse de forma continua para ponderar los logros, refl exionar acerca de los retos, seleccionar las estrategias más adecuadas para lograr los objetivos establecidos y hacer los cambios que se consideren pertinentes en la ejecución de la práctica (Bugos y High, 2009;Duke et al., 2009;Hallam, 1995Hallam, , 1997Hallam, , 2001Jorgensen, 2000Jorgensen, , 2002Young et al., 2003). ...
Por siglos, la falta de una didáctica especializada en la enseñanza
instrumental y de una metodología adecuada, promovió numerosos fracasos educativos y dio origen a la idea de que el aprendizaje musical estaba reservado únicamente a aquellos que poseían ese don (Capistrán Gracia,2017; Jorquera Jaramillo, 2002). Afortunadamente, hoy en día se considera que, al igual que cualquier otra asignatura, la educación musical es un proceso
de enseñanza y aprendizaje pedagógicamente estructurado, en el que todos podemos incursionar y tener éxito (Pimentel, Coutinho y Guimarães, 2011). Para lograrlo, el maestro de instrumento debe ser un verdadero profesional de la educación musical, es decir un artista-pedagogo capaz de construir su práctica docente sobre los fundamentos epistemológicos de la didáctica y la pedagogía musical (Jorquera Jaramillo, 2002) y promover un proceso
formativo caracterizado por la observación, la reflexión, el cuestionamiento, la hipotetización, la investigación y el debate (Oldfather, Bonds y Bray, 1994).
... Given the nature of choir singing, it is also possible that, in the present study, those with a longer experience were not more skilled singers. Consistent with these notions, Duke, Simmons, and Cash (2009) showed that, among a sample of 17 adult pianists, the strategy employed during practice was more predictive of their retention test performances than was how much or how long they practiced. In sum, the present finding suggests that, to reach their optimal transfer potential, singing activities would not have to last for decades. ...
The notion that lifestyle factors, such as music-making activities, can affect cognitive functioning and reduce cognitive decline in aging is often referred to as the mental exercise hypothesis. One ubiquitous musical activity is choir singing. Like other musical activities, singing is hypothesized to impact cognitive and especially executive functions. Despite the commonness of choir singing, little is known about the extent to which singing can affect cognition in adulthood. In this cross-sectional group study, we examined the relationship between age and four auditory executive functions to test hypotheses about the relationship between the level of mental activity and cognitive functioning. We also examined pitch discrimination capabilities. A non-probabilistic sample of 147 cognitively healthy adults was recruited, which included 75 non-singers (mean age 52.5 ± 20.3; 20–98 years) and 72 singers (mean age 55.5 ± 19.2; 21–87 years). Tests of selective attention, processing speed, inhibitory control, and working memory were administered to all participants. Our main hypothesis was that executive functions and age would be negatively correlated, and that this relationship would be stronger in non-singers than singers, consistent with the differential preservation hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis - preserved differentiation – predicts that the difference between singers and non-singers in executive functions is unaffected by age. Our results reveal a detrimental effect of age on processing speed, selective attention, inhibitory control and working memory. The effect of singing was comparatively more limited, being positively associated only with frequency discrimination, processing speed, and, to some extent, inhibitory control. Evidence of differential preservation was limited to processing speed. We also found a circumscribed positive impact of age of onset and a negative impact of singing experience on cognitive functioning in singers. Together, these findings were interpreted as reflecting an age-related decline in executive function in cognitively healthy adults, with specific and limited positive impacts of singing, consistent with the preserved differentiation hypothesis, but not with the differential preservation hypothesis.
... The improvement in the performance of the quaver beat by the experimental group, after applying the analytic strategy, may support studies that show that conscious awareness and attention are required for sensorimotor synchronization in time changes (Repp and Keller 2004). Therefore, improving rehearsal strategy is a higher priority than spending more time on rehearsals, as shown by the results of studies that found that the strategies used during piano practice have a greater effect on the quality of the performance than the time pianists spend practicing (Duke, Simmons, and Cash 2009). Consequently, teachers must invest in their teacher training and the strategies they use in their teaching practice since, just as musicians must learn to play, teachers must learn to teach (Robinson 2012) using the analytic strategy and rhythmic education. ...
Flamenco is widely practiced around the world, both in its musical and dance forms. It has been taught and studied through formal, non-formal, and informal teaching processes. Traditionally, it is taught through imitation and repetition and learned by ear. Zapateado is the percussive element of the dance. This study aimed to investigate whether a change in teaching strategy and resources could improve motivation and rhythmic precision when performing zapateado. The research used a quasi-experimental approach. Twelve professional flamenco dancers participated. The most significant results show that a change in methodology can encourage motivation and improve the rhythmic precision of zapateado.
... Intuitively, it would seem that practice would be highly linked with success and comfort in both lessons and practice. However, using practice quantity as indicative of practice success may be a flawed premise (Duke et al., 2009;McPherson & Renwick, 2001;Williamon & Valentine, 2000). One wonders whether a measure of practice quality, which might also be associated with the self-perception of competence, might yield more information on this front. ...
Solo performance is a common experience for children learning to play an instrument, yet the research literature on these experiences is limited, with a focus on older children and adolescents. The purpose of this study was to examine younger children’s feelings about performance over the course of a year of study. Forty-one children were interviewed about their piano lessons and performance experiences at the end of two consecutive semesters of study. They also responded to a pictorial scale on their feelings about performance at each interview and again at two piano recitals. Results indicate that children are remarkably consistent in their feelings about performing in piano recitals, with few significant changes over time and context. Correlation analyses indicate changes in the relationships between feelings about performance and certain study variables over time—in particular age, liking of lessons, liking of performing, practice time, and perception of being good at piano. In the fall term, gender and age are significant predictors of feelings about performance, with younger children and boys feeling most positive. In the spring, the findings shift and the only significant predictor is children’s liking of piano lessons. Implications and directions for further research are discussed.
... Conventional physical practice, with prolonged repetition of certain movement patterns, may also carry the risk of a negative effect. In a study measuring the effect of different practice strategies on learning a difficult passage in piano literature, Duke et al. (2009) demonstrated that the strategies employed during practice determined more performance quality at retention, than frequency and duration of the pianists' practice. Several studies have also pointed to the importance of differential practice, such as flexible, goal-oriented practice strategies (Shea and Morgan, 1979;Hall et al., 1994;Rohrer and Taylor, 2007;Rankin et al., 2009;Stambaugh, 2011). ...
Classical musicians face a high demand for flawless and expressive performance, leading to highly intensified practice activity. Whereas the advantage of using mental strategies is well documented in sports research, few studies have explored the efficacy of mental imagery and overt singing on musical instrumental learning. In this study, 50 classically trained trumpet students performed short unfamiliar pieces. Performances were recorded before and after applying four prescribed practice strategies which were (1) physical practice, (2) mental imagery, (3) overt singing with optional use of solfege, (4) a combination of 1, 2 and 3 or a control condition, no practice. Three experts independently assessed pitch and rhythm accuracy, sound quality, intonation, and musical expression in all recordings. We found higher gains in the overall performance, as well as in pitch accuracy for the physical practice, and the combined practice strategies, compared to no practice. Furthermore, only the combined strategy yielded a significant improvement in musical expression. Pitch performance improvement was positively correlated with previous solfege training and frequent use of random practice strategies. The findings highlight benefits from applying practice strategies that complement physical practice in music instrument practice in short term early stages of learning a new piece. The study may generalize to other forms of learning, involving cognitive processes and motor skills.
... Researchers investigating music practice have generally confirmed the anecdotally derived beliefs of many musicians, in that many studies have shown that practice is necessary for skill acquisition and, ultimately, the achievement of expertise (e.g., Hambrick et al., 2014;Jørgensen & Hallam, 2016). Moreover, researchers have also established that quality of practice, as opposed to quantity alone, is especially vital for efficient musical skill acquisition (Duke et al., 2009;McPherson et al., 2018). ...
We employed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) method to systematically review research on music practice from 1928 until June 2020 and identified a total of 3,102 records using our inclusion criteria, of which a total of 296 were eventually selected for the final analysis. We tabulated percentages and frequencies of (a) publications in ten-year periods, (b) type of publications, (c) sampling by geographical location, (d) methodologies used, (e) the top tenth percentile of the most highly cited research, and (f) topics covered. Our analyses reveal that particularly strong growth occurred in the literature between 2000 and 2020. In the literature we retrieved, the most commonly sampled research participants were those in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom and Australia. Quantitative research designs were most prevalent, accounting for two-thirds of all studies reviewed (66.2%), with questionnaires and recordings being the most common methods of data collection. Non-empirical papers (17.5%) as well as studies incorporating qualitative (13.5%) and mixed-methods designs (3.1%) were much less prevalent. Ericsson et al.'s (1993) seminal study of deliberate practice, Driskell et al.'s (1994) review of the research literature on mental practice, and Sloboda et al.'s (1996) study of young musicians were by far the most often cited. Overall, the most common topics addressed were deliberate practice, practice strategies, mental practice, the benefits of practice, metacognition, self-regulation, and self-efficacy, suggesting that music practice is a rich, multifaceted, and complex activity. In light of the findings, recommendations for practice and implications for future research are provided.
... So, while it is perhaps true that, e.g., focusing on the location at which the golf club head stops its path through space is harmful for golf performance it is still a distinct possible that, e.g., thinking through and anticipating the exact sequence of notes and specific finger movements required to play a particularly difficult piano passage helps one perform it better. This is, after all, exactly the kind of thing that has actually been shown to be beneficial for piano playing (Duke et al. 2009). Moreover, it is certainly not clear that thinking about higher-order, aesthetic, or strategic features of the performance is detrimental to the skilled action. ...
This paper provides an account of the strategic control involved in skilled action. When I discuss strategic control, I have in mind the practical goals, plans, and strategies that skilled agents use in order to specify, structure, and organize their skilled actions, which they have learned through practice. The idea is that skilled agents are better than novices not only at implementing the intentions that they have but also at forming the right intentions. More specifically, skilled agents are able formulate and modify, adjust and adapt their practical intentions in ways that are appropriate, effective, and flexible given their overall goals. Further, to specify the kind of action plans that are involved in strategic control, I’ll rely on empirical evidence concerning mental practice and mental imagery from sports psychology as well as evidence highlighting the systematic differences in the cognitive representations of skills between experts and non-experts. I’ll claim that, together, this evidence suggests that the intentions that structure skilled actions are practical and not theoretical, that is, that they are perceptual and motor and not abstract, amodal, or linguistic. Importantly, despite their grounded nature, these plans are still personal-level, deliberate, rational states. That is, the practical intentions used to specify and structure skilled actions are best conceived of as higher-order, motor-modal structures, which can be manipulated and used by the agent for the purpose of reasoning, deliberation, decision-making and, of course, the actual online structuring and organizing of action.
... Another support to that idea is that quality of practice [48] and the quantity of daily practice [23,49,50] have been shown to correlate with improvement in performance. However, in the case of musical expertise, we assessed only the level of proficiency in terms of years of playing an instrument and self-reported hours per week, both the average time throughout the years and the average during the last year, before the experiment but did not measure the intensity of practice. ...
Brain plasticity in the somatosensory cortex and tactile performance can be facilitated by brain stimulation. Here, we investigated the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on tactile perception in musicians and non-musicians to elucidate how tDCS-effects might depend on tactile expertise. On three separate days, 17 semi-professional musicians (e.g., piano or violin players) and 16 non-musicians aged 18–27 years received 15 min of 1 mA anodal (a-tDCS), cathodal (c-tDCS) or sham tDCS in a pseudorandomized design. Pre and post tDCS, tactile sensitivity (Touch Detection Task; TDT) and discrimination performance (Grating Orientation Task; GOT) were assessed. For further analysis, the weekly hours of instrument-playing and computer-typing were combined into a “tactile experience” variable. For GOT, but not TDT, a significant group effect at baseline was revealed with musicians performing better than non-musicians. TDT thresholds were significantly reduced after a-tDCS but not c-tDCS or sham stimulation. While both musicians’ and non-musicians’ performance improved after anodal stimulation, neither musical nor tactile expertise was directly associated with the magnitude of this improvement. Low performers in TDT with high tactile experience profited most from a-tDCS. We conclude that tactile expertise may facilitate somatosensory cortical plasticity and tactile learning in low performers.
... It turns out, in fact, that the quality of the practice matters just as much as quantity. That is, sheer repetition is not sufficient for sustained improvement and skill development (Ericsson et al. 1993;Duke et al. 2009). In fact, according to this line of research, improving your level of skill requires not the mere repetition of things you already know how to do, but continually striving to do things that you currently cannot do. ...
One of the hallmarks of virtue is reliably acting well. Such reliable success presupposes that an agent (1) is able to recognize the morally salient features of a situation, and the appropriate response to those features and (2) is motivated to act on this knowledge without internal conflict. Furthermore, it is often claimed that the virtuous person can do this (3) in a spontaneous or intuitive manner. While these claims represent an ideal of what it is to have a virtue, it is less clear how to make good on them. That is, how is it actually possible to spontaneously and reliably act well? In this paper, we will lay out a framework for understanding how it is that one could reliably act well in an intuitive manner. We will do this by developing the concept of an action schema, which draws on the philosophical and psychological literature on skill acquisition and self-regulation. In short, we will give an account of how self-regulation, grounded in skillful structures, can allow for the accurate intuitions and flexible expertise required for virtue. While our primary goal in this paper is to provide a positive theory of how virtuous intuitions might be accounted for, we also take ourselves to be raising the bar for what counts as an explanation of reliable and intuitive action in general.
... improve the current level of performance" (Lehmann & Ericsson, 1997, p. 368). While practice time is important for developing expertise (Ericsson et al, 1993;Jørgensen, 2002), the quality of that time is of equal or greater importance (Bonneville-Roussy & Bouffard, 2015;Duke et al, 2009). Practice method is a primary dimension of self-regulation, defined as "the `how' of practicing and performing music" including the "task-specific strategies that musicians use to enhance their own musical abilities" (McPherson, Nielsen, & Renwick, 2013, p. 361). ...
This quasi-experimental study investigated the transfer of learning for effective practice strategies from large ensemble to individual rehearsal. Five middle school bands were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. Two treatment conditions had teachers use an iterative, explicit instruction protocol to teach a targeted practice strategy during a sight-reading activity on a novel piece of music over a series of six lessons. The control condition included non-specific sight-reading activities. A sample of students from each band (N=66) participated in a cycle of pre-test/post-test/delay-test observations that involved a ten- minute practice session followed by a performance on a new piece of music similar to those used in the treatment sessions. Student practice sessions were analyzed for frequency of usage of the targeted strategies, and performances were rated for pitch and rhythmic accuracy. A 3x2x3 ANOVA identified a significant effect for strategy used within groups (F(1,63)=122.388, p<.001, η2=.660), but no significant effect or interactions were found between groups. The results of a 3x3 ANOVA identified a moderate-sized main effect for test cycle on performance scores (F(2,63)=2.192, p<.001, η2=.414), leading to a series of repeated measures t-tests that demonstrated significant changes in performance scores from pre- to post-test in both treatment conditions
... Allowing students to set their own learning goals can keep them more engaged in the learning process (Miksza, 2012). Still, focusing on the quality of practice, rather than the amount of practice time, is likely a more efficient path for improvement (Duke, Simmons, & Cash, 2009). Conducting textbooks authors (Green & Gibson, 2004;Hunsberger & Ernst, 1992;Labuta & Matthews, 2017) do recommend certain practice strategies, such as practicing with a mirror or singing musical lines. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine undergraduate conductors’ personal approaches to conducting practice, practice time allocation, and beliefs about their conducting abilities. Participants ( N = 126) were undergraduate conductors enrolled in basic conducting courses at 17 NASM (National Association of Schools of Music)–accredited institutions. Our findings indicated that “patterns” and “dynamics” were the most practiced conducting behaviors. “Sing or hum musical lines” and “silent conducting practice” were the most used practice strategies. Through responses to open-ended items, participants shared that hand independence was the most challenging conducting skill and wished that it was discussed more by their conducting instructor, while “conducting patterns” was the skill that came most naturally. Undergraduate conductors practiced an average of 48 minutes per week across 2 to 3 days, and during practice sessions they used a score almost three fourths of the time. Implications for conducting practice and curricula are discussed.
... Consequently, it stands to reason that skills such as rhythm reading or playing scales contribute to a musician's ability to solve musical problems as presented in sight-reading examples more efficiently. In the practice of music education, teachers in rehearsal and knowledgeable students in their own practice often isolate pitch and rhythm in a process of decontextualization/recontextualization (Duke, Simmons, & Cash, 2009). Presumably by building more automaticity, through playing scales, recognizing various pitch patterns, and isolating rhythm patterns, students will be able to use that knowledge while sight-reading unfamiliar music. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of pitch and rhythm priming tasks on sight-reading accuracy and fluency. High school wind instrumentalists (N = 182) were assigned to one of four experimental groups: pre-/posttest rhythm, pre-/posttest pitch, posttest-only rhythm, or posttest-only pitch. Participants sight-read selected stimulus exercises from the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale and completed two priming treatments and a control condition as part of a repeated-measures design. A three-way repeated-measures MANOVA, with rhythm accuracy, pitch accuracy, and fluency accuracy as dependent measures, revealed a significant main effect due to priming condition. Rhythm accuracy scores were significantly lower after both perceptual and conceptual priming than after a control condition. No significant differences in pitch accuracy or fluency existed based on priming condition. No significant differences were found in rhythm, pitch, or fluency accuracy based on treatment condition (pitch or rhythm) or exposure condition (pre-/posttest or post only). Two-way repeated-measures MANOVAs revealed significant main effects based on time. Pitch accuracy and fluency each significantly improved between pre- and posttest and from the first to third study tasks. Results suggest that performing rhythm alone or pitch alone requires different cognitive processes than does performing both together.
A national survey was completed of elementary, middle school, and high school instrumental music teachers ( N = 398) assessing the individual practice requirements those teachers have of their students. A majority of respondents ( n = 263) required outside-of-rehearsal practice for at least one class that they taught, including 55% of elementary/middle and 49% of high school teachers. The reasons for requiring or not requiring individual practice were teacher-, program-, and student-dependent. The demographic variables Private and Urban schools, in addition to Years Taught, all predicted higher odds of requiring practice. The requirements Pass-offs and Regular Submissions were the most common, although Time requirements still played a large role. High school teachers required more weekly practice time but fewer days per week compared with elementary and middle school teachers. The main role of practice requirements was to support student learner behaviors, whereas those who did not require practice thought that other methods were more productive.
This study investigated the effects of a practice checklist on performance achievement, practice time, focal practice areas—the key musical elements students focused on during practice—and practice strategies among non-music major South Korean college students learning the Danso, a traditional Korean wind instrument. Ninety-six students participated, with 46 in the experimental group using a practice checklist and 50 in the control group without the checklist. All participants attended a 50-min weekly class for 7 weeks. At the end of the 7-week period, both groups were surveyed to measure their average weekly practice time and focal practice areas. Performance achievement was assessed through a test focusing on key musical elements, and practice strategies were evaluated using a modified version of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). The results revealed that using a practice checklist significantly improved performance in specific areas such as rhythm, tempo, and breathing but did not increase overall practice time. The checklist also helped students maintain a balanced focus on key musical elements, preventing an overemphasis on sound production. However, the checklist did not significantly promote the use of metacognitive strategies, indicating a need for additional instructional support.
The purpose of this study was to examine pre-college piano students’ practice habits and their teachers’ perceptions of their practice performance in Eastern China. Data collected for this qualitative descriptive study included video recordings of five students’ individual practice sessions. Additionally, students ( n = 5) and their teachers ( n = 3) completed questionnaires and accepted semi-structured interviews. Findings indicated that pre-college piano students organized their habitual practice routines with task-oriented principles. Moreover, practicing hands separately was the most frequently applied strategies used by student participants. Given the intense peer competition within the Chinese education system, students not only learned practice strategies from their teachers but also acquired support from their parents and other external resources, such as practice tutors and apps, to improve their practice efficiency. However, noticeable differences were perceived between teachers’ expectations and their students’ performance. Teacher participants expected their students to apply practice strategies with flexibility, actively solve problems, and set specific practice goals during at-home practice. The findings can help piano instructors gain a better understanding of their students and use specific teaching approaches to address individual issues.
In a series of three video-recorded assignments over a 6-week period, undergraduate music education students ( N = 16) enrolled in an instrumental methods course described aloud what they were thinking about as they practiced a three-note melody on a secondary brass instrument. Later, I completed a content analysis of the students’ practice verbalizations (PVs) captured in their assignment videos. Brass primary students ( n = 3) described thinking about predominantly external components of performance (the effects their physical actions produced). Non-brass primary students ( n = 13) described thinking about internal (parts of the body) and external components in relatively equal proportion, often focusing their attention on paired action-outcome (i.e., internal–external) relationships. After the final assignment, non-brass students reported higher levels of satisfaction with their progress than the brass primary students and expressed confidence in their ability to guide their own practice independently and effectively toward the accomplishment of meaningful goals.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of three schedules of practice on high-level violinists’ learning. The contextual interference (CI) effect occurs when two or more tasks are practiced in an interleaved manner, which has been shown to impair initial learning but improve retention. How a musician alternates between tasks during practice can have a great impact on learning. This study was designed to explore how an increasing schedule of CI within a practice session would compare to the traditional blocked and random schedules. Sport research has shown a dynamically adaptive schedule to be advantageous, yet this area is relatively unexplored in music. Twenty advanced violinists at a music school practiced three sets of musical excerpts under three practice schedule conditions: blocked (pieces practiced one at a time), increasing contextual interference (blocked and then random), and interleaved (pieces randomly alternating). Recordings were taken at the stages of sight-reading, acquisition (immediately after practice sessions), and retention (24 hours later). Expert ratings of each musician’s recordings revealed no effect at the acquisition stage. However, at the delayed retention test, the blocked condition proved to be most effective. Fifty percent of participants perceived blocked practice to be the most effective.
RESUMO______As I Jornadas em Estudos da Criança, realizadas em julho de 2016, inauguraram um espaço de partilha e reflexão dos investigadores em Estudos da Criança, especialmente de investigadores juniores, que se encontram a desenvolver trabalhos de investigação no âmbito do Doutoramento em Estudos da Criança. Os estudos da criança são, por definição, uma área multidisciplinar, e em certos casos interdisciplinar, que assume como pressuposto principal compreender a criança enquanto sujeito de análise e a partir da qual se pode construir conhecimento acerca do grupo social que integra – a infância. São também pressupostos fundamentais desta área, promover processos de pesquisa nos quais os pesquisadores desenvolvam competências para recolher e analisar informação relevante, sendo a mobilização de técnicas de pesquisa que permitam a recolha da voz e a participação das crianças uma dimensão central. ______ABSTRACT______
The I Conference in Child Studies, held in July 2016, inaugurated a space for sharing and reflection of researchers in Child Studies, especially junior researchers, who are developing research work within the scope of the PhD in Child Studies. Child Studies is, by definition, a multidisciplinary, and in some cases interdisciplinary area, which assumes as main assumption to understand the child as the subject of analysis and from which knowledge can be built about the social group he/she integrates - childhood. It is also a fundamental assumption of this area to promote research processes in which researchers develop skills to collect and analyze relevant information, with the mobilization of research techniques that allow the voice and participation of children being as a central dimension.
The purpose of this descriptive research study was to examine collegiate instrumentalists’ applications of practice strategies and their motivation orientations to practice. Respondents ( N = 128) were music majors who enrolled in concert band or orchestra. Results indicated that pianists spent more time in practice followed by percussionists, brass, other instrumentalists (e.g., organ), woodwind, and string players. Collegiate instrumentalists used systematic practice strategies most frequently, followed by error correction techniques, using a metronome and listening to recordings, concentration control, analytic strategies, and the organization of practice sessions. In addition, collegiate instrumentalists were more motivated by intrinsic factors than extrinsic factors. Weekly practice hours were negatively correlated with Extrinsic Motivation: Avoid Failure, but positively correlated with Intrinsic Motivation: Growth. Implications for instrumental teaching and learning are discussed.
Volume 1 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Performance is designed around four distinct parts: Development and Learning, Proficiencies, Performance Practices, and Psychology. Chapters cover a range of topics dealing with musical development, talent development, and chapters dealing with learning strategies from a self-directed student learning perspective and high-impact teaching mindframes. Essential proficiencies include coverage of effective practice habits, through to the abilities of being able to play by ear, sight-read, improvise, memorize repertoire, and conduct and chapters that detail the highly personalized forms of musical expression that go beyond the printed notation or stylistic convention of the repetoire being performed. Chapters within the Performance Practices part cover some of the most fundamental aspects of performance practices from Baroque through to New Music repertoire and include chapters dealing with how emotions might be generated as a form of historically informed performance practice, and how creativity unfolds in the real-time dynamics of musical performance. The Psychology part concerns characteristics and individual differences in human behavior, cognition, emotion, and wellness. Across chapters in this part, several common threads and themes are evident: our relationships with music itself and what it means to become and to be a musician, the tensions that can arise between the joy of music and the hard work required to develop musical skills, and the intimate connection between music performance and our social and emotional lives.
The purpose of this study was to examine graduate instrumentalists’ practice habits, motivation orientations, and the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on their instrumental practice. Data were collected for this qualitative descriptive study through four participants’ videotaped practice recordings ( N = 4), video-stimulated recall ( n = 4), semi-structured interviews ( n = 4), and a questionnaire ( n = 4) about practice strategies adopted and motivation orientations. Four themes were emergent including (a) task-oriented practice routines, (b) solution-oriented approaches, (c) mixed motivations, and (d) challenges faced during COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted graduate instrumentalists’ practice progress and psychological state. Their experience could be a reference for other instrumentalists in applying effective practice strategies and achieving strong and independent musicianship. The findings of this study also suggested that instrumental instructors may consider encouraging their students to flexibly plan practice routines and give priority to short-term goals.
Who is in charge of rehearsing music? Traditionally, it has been teachers who guide the music learning, but the National Core Arts Standards ask that students be the ones who identify and select rehearsal strategies to refine musical performances. However, these standards do not define what rehearsal strategies are, so this article digs into research on practicing and rehearsing to create a set of rehearsal strategies applicable to a general music classroom.
Throughout the learning process, it is common for students to transition to a new teacher, whether they relocate, decide to change teachers, or study at a summer program. During this transition, students must adapt to a potentially different pedagogical philosophy, language, and performance expectations. Using a multiple case study research design, we explored the perceptions of four adolescent violin students who experienced this transitional process while studying with Mimi Zweig at the four-week Indiana University Summer String Academy. We analyzed the interview data, observations, and external data sources through the lens of attribution theory. Results indicated that the participants not only acquired greater self-efficacy and motivation after studying with a new teacher but also endured performance anxiety. These findings inform studio instrumental instructors of the challenges students experience when studying with a new teacher and the physiological and emotional challenges that often accompany change.
This chapter goes beyond the boundaries of the classroom and emphasizes musical learning that also occurs in non-formal and informal educational settings. Based on cases that illustrate the comparison between 3 cultures of instrumental learning: a) the academic sphere of classical music of Western European tradition, b) at the opposite pole, the learning of flamenco in communities of oral tradition, and c) the culture of jazz learning halfway between the two poles, where the jam-sessions and the musical groups show structures with different intentions and regulation of the apprentices. Different types of learning and cognitive, bodily and technological tools will be shown according to the forms of musical production characteristic of each learning culture.
Practice occupies an essential and significant place in every musician’s life, yet the practice habits of highly experienced, professional musicians, remain under-researched. As such, this study sought to contribute to the emerging body of knowledge into professional musicians’ practice. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with six such musicians, and through the qualitative content analysis of the resulting transcripts, and an evaluation of the findings in relation to current literature, insights into professional musicians’ practice time, practice strategies, and motivation were uncovered. The analysis of participant transcripts revealed that, due to greater work and family responsibilities, as well as greater efficiency, the participants spend significantly less time practicing now as professional musicians than they did as university students. The practice strategies reported by participants to be the most helpful in their practice were listening to recordings, slow practice, and employing a mindset of focus and self-awareness. The analysis also revealed that each participant reported intrinsic motivation towards practicing, and used the strategies of taking breaks, and simply picking up their instruments, to increase their motivation. The findings from this study are useful to those who might seek to one day be a professional musician, as well as to professional musicians who might find it interesting to know how their own practice habits align with those of other professional musicians.
The purpose of this study was to investigate undergraduate choral conducting students’ conducting practice approaches, time allocation, and beliefs. A secondary purpose was to examine conducting instructors’ pedagogy and beliefs about their students’ practice approaches. Undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory choral conducting class ( N = 126) and their instructors ( N = 12) responded to separate questionnaires. Students and instructors agreed that technical skills came more naturally than expressive skills, and students reported practicing technical skills more often than expressive skills. Although instructors and students agreed to the frequent use of “singing or humming musical lines” as a practice strategy, they did not align regarding the importance of using video recordings within practice sessions. Based on our results, we recommend that instructors explicitly share their practice expectations with students and introduce an incremental approach to developing expressive conducting skills earlier in the curriculum.
The process of internationalizing a music appreciation class is discussed. The role of music appreciation in an internationalized curriculum is examined and a philosophy of music education is developed. Curriculum design, assessment practices, and teaching and learning activities are viewed through the framework of Fink's Taxonomy of Learning, including descriptions of specific practices and assignments and their relationship to the taxonomy of learning the philosophy of music education. Special consideration is given to the power of music, the arts, and aesthetic experiences to cultivate knowledge of the self and of the other.
We asked school- and college-aged instrumentalists ( N = 32) to imagine an ideal performance of a brief passage of music, record a performance of the passage, and describe discrepancies they noticed between their imagined and actual performances. The more experienced participants took at least as much time to imagine their idealized performances as it took to perform them; less experienced participants took less time to imagine what they were about to play. There were no differences among experience levels in the numbers or types of discrepancies identified. The differences between more and less experienced participants were also evident in a subsequent practice period. More experienced musicians’ practice included more frequent moments of pause, whereas school-aged participants seldom paused and tended to address performance issues other than those identified in their commentaries.
The purpose of this study was to provide a rich multi-dimensional view of expert musical collaborative problem-solving processes. I analyzed the collaborative problem-solving process during three subsequent rehearsals by a professional string quartet, applying Roesler’s (2016) model of musical problem-solving components. As Roesler observed with shared problem solving during one-to-one instruction, problem-solving components were enacted by and distributed among members of the quartet in any combination. In addition, quartet members prompted problem-solving behavior from one another in a similar way that teachers prompted problem-solving behavior from students (Roesler, 2017). Leadership roles shifted fluidly among quartet members from moment to moment. Domain knowledge and musical context were a critical component of their decision-making process. Additional observed rehearsal strategies are outlined. Suggestions for future research and applications of these findings are discussed, including the learning of collaborative problem-solving skill through participation in small musical ensembles.
Developing musicians are expected to accumulate many hours of self-regulated practice to attain expertise on a musical instrument. The ability to choose appropriate strategies based on the internal and external feedback obtained while performing in the absence of the teacher’s support constitutes an important aspect of self-regulated practice. Nevertheless, performing and simultaneously monitoring the performance for feedback represents a challenge for any learner, therefore possibly affecting the resulting choice of strategies. A possible solution to this problem might be to videotape the performance and watching it afterwards to fully concentrate on each task. Studies that have used video feedback in the domain of sports suggest that there may be many similar potential benefits of self-recording for musicians’ self-regulation practices. In our study, we examined how video feedback might affect the choice of strategies of intermediate–advanced musicians ( n = 16) while practising a new piece of music. To attain this objective, we compared the number of qualitative text entries coded against an observation framework derived from observations of a group of musicians who used video feedback four times over a period of ten practice sessions with the number of coding entries of a group of musicians who did not use video feedback. Our results indicated that musicians who used video feedback practised at a slow tempo more often and that they played longer segments of the piece earlier in the learning process than the musicians who did not use video feedback.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of music practice instruction on middle school band students’ ability to articulate and incorporate practice strategies. Participants were middle school band students at a large suburban middle school ( N = 105). Using a pretest–posttest quasi-experimental design, participants were divided into control ( n = 53) and experimental ( n = 52) groups. Participants in the experimental group received 3 weeks of practice strategy instruction during ensemble warm-up time, and the control group continued with their typical warm-up routine. Pretest and posttest data included self-reported practice strategy lists ( N = 105) and video of individual practice sessions ( n = 20). Both self-reported and video data were coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics as well as pretest–posttest within-groups comparisons. Thirteen hours of video data were further analyzed using an observational measure of self-regulation. Analyses revealed that experimental group participants identified and utilized significantly more practice strategies following the instructional intervention. Posttest experimental group practice sessions also revealed a more mature approach to practicing, including more strategic behaviors, greater variety in musical objectives, and longer periods spent focused on short excerpts of music. Implications for future research and middle school instrumental classroom practice are discussed.
In two experiments we examined the extent to which musicians identify discrepancies between their intentions and their playing during individual practice. In the first experiment, 60 musicians representing four levels of skill development practiced a familiar piece from their own repertoire for 5 min while being audio recorded. They then listened to their recorded practice and pressed a computer key to mark moments of discrepancy between what they had intended while practicing and what they heard on the recordings. The mean rates of key presses did not differ among the four participant groups, although there were large within-group variances. In the second experiment, 13 high school and 11 expert participants from Experiment 1 returned 2 years later and listened to their original recordings, this time marking moments of discrepancy between what would be their current intentions and what they heard on their 2-year-old recordings. High school participants marked significantly more discrepancies after 2 years than they had in Experiment 1, but the mean rate of key presses among experts did not increase between Experiment 1 and Experiment 2. These results support the notion that the precision of performance goals and the acuity of perceptual discrimination are central features of musical expertise.
Affect impacts people’s cognitive processes as well as provides the energy to pursue goals and engage in actions. Research suggests that affect might influence instrumental learning behavior. This review aims to summarize the existing literature concerning the relationship between affect and instrumental practice. In order to determine the role of affect in undertaking instrumental practice and in engagement in practice, we conducted a systematic search via electronic databases and reference lists; we also hand-searched the key journals. Studies were included in the review if they concerned both affect and practicing behavior in musicians and instrumental students across all age groups and if the relationships between the two constructs were investigated. We focused on individual instrumental practice in the classical repertoire. Eleven studies met our inclusion criteria. They reported quantitative relationships between affect and the amount of practice or qualitatively described the role of affect in practice engagement. The results of this systematic review show that practicing a musical instrument is associated with different types of affect—practice-related, performance-related, and context-free affect. Further investigation of affect in the context of music learning may inform future interventions for instrumentalists motivating them to practice.
Developing musicians typically engage in self-regulated practicing during the time that passes between lessons with their teachers. An important aspect of self-regulated practice is the ability to identify and correct areas of development in performance in the absence of a teacher’s feedback, but the effort required to perform as well as monitor a performance represents a challenge for any learner. Videotaping the performance and watching it afterwards to fully concentrate on each task could constitute a solution to this problem. In our study, we verified how video feedback could affect the self-evaluation of intermediate-advanced musicians while practicing a new piece of music. To attain this objective, we analyzed and coded the self-evaluative comments of 16 classical guitarists while practicing. We then compared the number of coding entries in each category of a group of participants who used video feedback (n = 8) on four occasions over a period of ten practice sessions with those of a group of musicians who did not use video feedback (n = 8). Our results indicate that musicians who used video feedback modified the way they formulated their self-evaluative comments while practicing, and that these changes were more marked with higher-performing musicians.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.
A concert pianist the second author videotaped herself learning J.S. Bach's Italian Concerto Presto , and commented on the problems she encountered as she practised. Approximately two years later the pianist wrote out the first page of the score from memory. The pianist's verbal reports indicated that in the early sessions she identified and memorised the formal structure of the piece, and in the later sessions she practised using this organisation to retrieve the memory cues that controlled her playing. The practice and recall data supported this account. Both were organised by the formal structure of the music. Practice segments were more likely to start and stop at boundaries of the formal structure than at other locations, and recall was higher for the beginnings of sections than for later portions. Like other forms of expert memory, pianistic memory appears to be based on use of a highly practised retrieval scheme which permits rapid retrieval of information from long-term memory.
Experts in many fields approach a new problem by identifying the general principles involved before starting work on details. Do expert musicians similarly begin work on a new piece with the big picture, an artistic image of the piece, in mind? To find out, a concert pianist recorded her practice of the third movement, Presto, of J1. S. Bach's Italian Concerto, commenting as she did so about what she was doing. The behavioral record of where playing started, stopped, and slowed down indicated the musical dimensions affecting practice, while the comments indicated the main focus of the pianist's attention. An artistic image for the piece was already evident in the initial sight-read performance, guided work on technique in sessions 1-6, and was transformed into a plan for performance by practice of performance cues in sessions 7-8. Interpretive details were added in sessions 9-10 and remaining problems touched up in session 11-12. Despite its pervasive effects on practice, the pianist's artistic image was mentioned only indirectly in comments about technique in sessions 1-6 and about structure, memory, and interpretation in later sessions.
A concert pianist recorded her practice as she learned the Italian Concerto (Presto) by J. S. Bach for performance, commenting on what she was doing as she practised. After the performance the pianist reported decisions made during practice on three basic dimensions (fingering, technical difficulties, familiar patterns of notes), four interpretative dimensions (phrasing, dynamics, tempo, pedal), and three performance dimensions representing features of the music attended to during performance (basic, interpretative, expressive). Number of features per bar served as predictor variables in regression analyses in which the predicted variables were number of starts, stops, and repetitions. Practice was divided into three separate learning periods. Practice was affected by basic dimensions in the first two periods and by interpretative dimensions in the last two periods, while performance dimensions affected practice throughout. The frequency of comments made while practising showed similar patterns, providing converging evidence for changes in the pianist's goals across the learning process. Practice and self-reports did not, however, entirely agree. Self-reports failed to mention practice of dynamics and indicated that selection of performance features occurred late in the learning process whereas practice data showed that both dynamics and performance features were practised right from the start. Practice sometimes provides information not available in self-reports. © 2001 by the Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music Education.
This article reports on a three-year longitudinal study with 157 children in school grades 3 and 4 (aged between 7 and 9 years), who commenced learning an instrument in one of eight school music programmes. The children were administered tests at the end of each school year to assess their abilities to perform rehearsed music, sight-read, play from memory, play by ear and improvise, and interviews were completed with the children's mothers in order to calculate how much practice they had accumulated on their instrument. Data were also obtained to help clarify the quality of mental strategies the children adopted when performing. Findings extend previous research on skill acquisition by proposing that conceptions based on the amount of practice undertaken or that focus exclusively on children's ability to reproduce rehearsed literature from notation are inadequate to understanding the early stages of instrumental development. It is proposed that a more coherent explanation comes from understanding the range of strategies children employ when performing and that the sophistication of children's mental strategies provides an important means for understanding why some progress effortlessly in contrast to others who struggle and fail. Conclusions highlight the importance of helping students to develop a repertoire of task-appropriate strategies that will enable them to think musically when performing challenging tasks on their instrument. Copyright
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 yrs. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Talents that selectively facilitate the acquisition of high levels of skill are said to be present in some children but not others. The evidence for this includes biological correlates of specific abilities, certain rare abilities in autistic savants, and the seemingly spontaneous emergence of exceptional abilities in young children, but there is also contrary evidence indicating an absence of early precursors of high skill levels. An analysis of positive and negative evidence and arguments suggests that differences in early experiences, preferences, opportunities, habits, training, and practice are the real determinants of excellence.
While it is known that repetition is a common strategy employed in the practice sessions of all musicians, very little is known about the extent to which musicians of high proficiency levels use repetition in their practice. The purpose of this study was to describe the role of repetition in the practice activities of musicians representing four levels of high musical proficiency. Specifically, this study examined in detail the process used to isolate, remediate, and recontextualize music in the subjects' practice sessions, and examined the number of consecutive performances of passages selected for repeated practice. Nineteen subjects were videotaped on two separate occasions practicing for a minimum of one hour. One extended segment during which each subject practiced a single work was selected for detailed analysis. Data were recorded graphically. The total number and mean durations of practice frames and performance trials per frame were then calculated. Based on 14 hours 54 minutes of practice time, 800 practice frames, and 8,527 performance trials, the results illustrate the extensive use of repetition in advanced performers' practice. The mean number of performance trials devoted to each target passage was 10.7, the mean duration of all performance trials was 6.3 seconds, and the mean duration of each practice frame was 1 minute 7 seconds.
This study examined the relative effectiveness of mental practice in improving trombone performance. The experiment involved 30 trombonists from three colleges. They were randomly assigned to one of five experimental practice conditions: (1) all physical practice, (2) all mental practice, (3) a combination of physical and mental practice, (4) mental practice with simulated slide movement, and (5) no practice (control). A short étude served as both a pre- and posttest. A one-way analysis of covariance and subsequent Scheffé's Test found three pairs of groups significantly different from each other: (1) combined practice and no practice, (2) combined practice and mental practice, and (3) physical practice and no practice. The results of the study suggest that the use of mental with physical practice can accrue many benefits for the skilled trombonist.
This paper examines the practice and performance of musicians in two separate studies. In the first, 22 pianists, classified into four levels of skill, were asked to learn and memorise an assigned composition by J.S. Bach (different for each level). From cassette recordings of the pianists' practice, values for the mean and standard deviation of ''segment lengths'' were obtained, as well as a derived coefficient of variation. Following the learning process, the pianists performed their composition in a recital setting and were interviewed about their performance strategies. In the second study, two expert pianists were asked to learn and memorise an assigned composition by Bach and to provide verbal protocols of their performance of the piece under two separate conditions. Analyses of the data from Study 1 revealed that pianists at all levels of skill used longer practice segments as practice progressed. Moreover, they increasingly interspersed short and long segments across the practice process. Analyses of the coefficient of variation revealed that this occurred most often for performers at higher levels of ability, supporting the notion that shifting the focus of attention between levels of musical structure is a salient characteristic of the practice of skilled performers and develops gradually as skill is acquired. The post-performance interviews suggested that the attentional shift was employed during performance and was highly individual-specific with regard to the locations and reasons for shifting. Data from Study 2 provided additional evidence to support the proposed process and demonstrated the use of one possible hierarchical system within which shifts in attentional focus can occur—the music's formal structure. The data are discussed with regard to their implications for furthering an understanding of performance preparation in music and in other domains.
The effectiveness of various mental practice regimens in music performance was compared. Guitarists and vocalists who were college-level music majors learned short musical excerpts under four conditions: (a) continuous physical practice; (b) mental practice alternating with physical practice; (c) mental practice with a modeled recording of the music alternating with physical practice; and (d) a motivational control activity alternating with physical practice. Performances with the score and by memory were rated on various musical dimensions. Mental practice with a model resulted in superior performance on a number of dimensions for vocalists and on tonal quality and memory coding for guitarists. For guitarists, mental practice (without a model) and continuous physical practice also produced greater pitch accuracy than the control condition did. It was concluded that mental practice may facilitate cognitive coding and help to create optimal levels of attentional focus and arousal.
Two independent groups, one consisting of college-level studio music teachers (n = 127) and the other of music majors (n = 134), completed a written survey containing 10 questions about attitudes and expectations for practicing music. The questionnaire was designed to address four major areas of interest: (1) attitudes about specific music skills, (2) expectations concerning use of practice time, (3) expectations for routines and strategies for practicing, and (4) attitudes toward practice in general. Results indicated that teachers expected more weekly practice time to be taking place than was actually reported by students. Additionally, most teachers expected that students should follow a specific practice routine, but 55% of students indicated that they do not do so; and although nearly all teachers in the survey stated that they discussed practice strategies with students, 67% of students reported that practice strategies were not discussed in their studio lessons. Finally, teachers and students had widely differing views regarding their feelings about practice in general.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects that modeling, self-evaluation, and self-listening have on junior high school instrumentalists' music performance and attitude about practice. The pretest/posttest 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design involved a total of 82 woodwind, brass, and percussion students in the seventh (n = 36), eighth (n = 31), or ninth grade (n = 15). Data indicated that participants who listened to a model during self-evaluation improved more than those not listening to a model in the areas of tone, melodic accuracy, rhythmic accuracy, interpretation, and overall performance, but not intonation, technique/articulation, or tempo. When self-evaluation was not undertaken, modeling groups were no different in any performance subarea. Also, the main effects for modeling revealed that groups that listened to a model improved their performance more than did students who did not listen to a model in the areas of tone, technique/articulation, rhythmic accuracy, tempo, interpretation, and overall performance but not intonation or melodic accuracy. No statistically significant findings for self-listening or practice attitude were identified.
The purposes of the current study were to (1) determine the relationship between the number of practice strategies students could articulate and their performance improvement scores, (2) identify trends in students'5-minute practice behaviors, and (3) compare students' achievement based on their practice procedures. Participants were 65 eighth-grade students from five middle schools. Results documented a positive correlation between performance improvement and number of verbalized practice techniques. Based on the participants' 5-minute practice behaviors, four categories of practicers were determined: holistic, noncorrective practicers, who did not stop for errors in their run-throughs; holistic, corrective practicers, who stopped only for errors in their run-throughs; analytic, reactive practicers, who stopped to remediate sections of music; and analytic, proactive practicers, who jumped around in the music to fix errors. There were significant differences between the holistic and analytic practicers, as well as between the pre- and postperformances, and a significant interaction between practicers and performances. From the baseline to the final performance, the analytic practicers made significantly more gains than did the holistic practicers.
This study was designed to determine if adults are able to remember how much time they actually spent practicing during a past time period of their lives where detailed daily records were kept of actual number of minutes practiced. It also addressed how past practice time relates to their highest level of musical performance across the 30 years on a scale of top-level expert to competent. Responses were divided into six classifications: (1) professional, (2) semiprofessional, (3) free-lance musician/college instructor, (4) music teacher, (5) community musician, and (6) jury/senior recital. Results indicated that after a 30-year period, students are not accurate in assessing past amounts of applied music practice when comparing records of actual practice time to later perceptions of this practice time. Also, there is not a strong relationship between practice time and their highest level of performance, although most participants indicate that they believe that there is.
In this study, the author examined the effects of type of practice (physical, mental, I alternating physical/mental, and a motivational control) and aural knowledge of results on improving piano performance. Forty music education and music therapy majors participated in a pretest and posttest experiment using one of eight treatment conditions. The dependent variables were performance time, number of pitch errors, and number of rhythm errors. Results revealed that (a) all three practice conditions had significantly shorter performance times than did the control condition, (b) treatments using physical practice and alternating mental/physical practice yielded significantly shorter performance times than did the mental practice treatment alone, and (c) the physical practice treatment did not differ significantly from the alternating mental/physical practicel treatment in improving performance times. No other statistically significant differences were found among the three practice conditions.
This study examined the relative effectiveness of four modeling conditions on instrumentalists' musical performance. Independent variables were (a) guided model, a combined verbal and aural example of a complex musical selection; (b) model only, an aural model only; (c) guide only, a verbal explanation only; and (d) practice only. Forty-four college music education students were randomly assigned to one of the conditions. Dependent variables were instrumentalists' correct notes, rhythm, dynamics, tempo, and phrasing/articulation. Subjects in the model only group attained significantly superior scores from all other groups. Subjects in the guided model group scored significantly higher than subjects in the guide only and practice only groups.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effects of five practice conditions on instrumentalists' performance of a musical composition. The authors assigned 60 college music students to one of five practice conditions and asked them to perform the composition after a brief practice session. Practice conditions were modeling, singing, silent analysis, free practice, and control. The authors evaluated each subject's performance in terms of correct notes, rhythms, phrasing or dynamics, articulation, and tempo. The authors found significant differences among the practice techniques in subjects' performance of correct rhythms, phrasing or dynamics, and tempo and nonsignificant differences among subjects' performances of correct notes and articulation. Further analysis demonstrated that modeling and practice were most effective in facilitating mastery of the selection. Singing and silent analysis were, in general, no more effective than sight-reading, with the exception of subjects in the silent analysis group, who were more accurate in their performance of the rhythms of the selection.
Practice is of interest to music teachers and students since it is an essential aspect of motor skill acquisition and performance. The Music Practice In- struction Inventory (MPII) was designed to ascertain the extent to which studio music teachers teach certain practice strategies. The MPII consists of two sections. The first section requests information about the age level of students and. the type of studio setting. The second section contains 26 statements about teaching students to practice, each with a response scale ranging from 5 (Always) to 1 (Never). The MPII was administered to 94 members of the MTNA (Music Teachers National Association) in the USA. Frequencies were tabulated for all data, and means and standard deviations were calculated for responses to the 26 statements. Differences between college teachers' and pre-college teachers' responses were compared via Pearson Chi Square. Most teachers reported that they always or almost always discuss the importance of practice and specific practice techniques with students, but responses to other items varied among different teachers. Results indicate that teachers' approaches to practice are not always consistent with the literature and that practice strategies endorsed by college teachers often differ from those used by teachers of pre-college students.
Piano performance majors attempted to play short, unfamiliar selections from memory after practicing for 10 min by playing the score, visually inspecting it, or listening to a recorded rendition while examining the score. When practicing mentally, subjects were encouraged to make use of visual, acoustic, and kinesthetic imagery. Independent experts rated performance on four dimensions that were intended to reflect the musicality as well as the accuracy of the performances. Physical practice led to the best performance. Listening to a model of ideal performance provided some benefit over visual inspection alone.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of modeling conditions and tempo patterns on the performance of high school instrumentalists. The independent variables of this study were (a) model versus no model and (b) steady increase of tempo versus performance speed tempo versus alternating (slower and faster) tempos. Subjects (N = 60) were high school wind instrumentalists from the American Midwest and South. Subjects sight-read an étude and then practiced the same étude six times using one of six practice conditions that combined the two independent variables. Subjects then performed a posttest on the same étude. Dependent measures were pretest-posttest gain score comparisons (as percentages) of correct pitches and rhythms as well as overall percentages of tempo gains. Results demonstrated the with-model condition to be superior to the no-model condition in rhythm percentage gain and tempo percentage gain. Tempo patterns had no significant effect on results.
9 skilled adult pianists learned difficult selections by 3 methods. "The first introduced a four-minute period of mental rehearsal or 'imaginary' practice after five keyboard trials or midway in the learning, then continued the keyboard trials to the criterion of perfect memorized performance. The second carried the keyboard trials to the criterion, then added four minutes of mental rehearsal. The third, like the second, reached the keyboard criterion, then added extra keyboard trials for four minutes. The midway period of mental rehearsal or 'imaginary' practice proved reliably superior to the other time distributions. It not only reduced the required keyboard trials, but achieved retention as good as that offered by the four minutes of extra keyboard trials, which… resulted in an approximate one hundred per cent over-learning." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The social contexts in which people create, perform, perceive, understand and react to music have been neglected by psychologists. This book provides a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the social contexts in which people create, perform, perceive, understand, and react to music. It represents the first attempt to define the field since Farnsworth's book of the same title published in 1969, including the newer areas of medicine, marketing, and education in which the social psychology of music has direct applications in the real world. After an opening review chapter, the remaining 14 chapters are divided into six sections: individual differences; social groups and situations; social and cultural influences; developmental issues; musicianship; real world applications. Several of these chapters are ground-breaking reviews published for the first time. Aside from psychologists and music educators, The Social Psychology of Music will appeal to musicians, communications researchers, broadcasters, and commercial companies.
Since results from mechanical reading trials at the piano are inferior to those obtained from preliminary thorough study of the composition, the relative efficiency of study periods of varied length is important. This relative efficiency was examined by having skilful pianists study samples of unfamiliar music for 3, 6 and 9 minutes before continuing the memorizing to perfect performance at the keyboard, and than testing them by having them transcribe the material. Longer study periods lack effect on retention. Piano students should study the whole composition for structure and form, then master some small unit and attempt it from memory at the keyboard. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Twenty-two pianists, classified into four levels of skill, were asked to learn and memorize an assigned composition by J. S. Bach (different for each level). All practice was recorded on cassette tape. At the end of the learning process, the pianists performed their composition in a recital setting. The resulting performances were evaluated by three experienced piano teachers. From the cassette tapes, values for the quantity of practice were obtained. These values were compared across all four levels of skill and examined to reveal whether they were related to quality of performance. The analyses indicate that the standard deviations of the amount of time spent in each practice session increased systematically with level of skill and that pianists at higher levels spent more time in each practice session. Quantity of practice, however, was not significantly related to quality of performance. Rather, pianists who employed longer practice segments by the middle stage of practice produced better musical, communicative and technical performances. These findings stand in defiance of the argument that quantity of practice is the fundamental determinant of the quality of performance. Instead, they suggest that the content and quality of an individual's practice must be examined when investigating the determinants of musical skill.
A concert pianist recorded her practice as she learned the third movement, Presto, of J.S. Bach's Italian Concerto. She also described the formal structure of the piece and reported her decisions about basic features (e.g., fingering), interpretive features (e.g., phrasing), and cues to attend to during performance (performance cues). These descriptions were used to identify which locations, features, and cues she practiced most, which caused hesitations when she first played from memory, and which affected her recall 2 years later. Effects of the formal structure and performance cues on all three activities indicated that the pianist used the formal structure as a retrieval scheme and performance cues as retrieval cues. Like expert memorists in other domains, she engaged in extended retrieval practice, going to great lengths to ensure that retrieval was as rapid and automatic from conceptual (declarative) memory as from motor and auditory memory.
Simmons is assistant professor of music education and a member of the Institute for Music Research at The University of Texas at San Antonio. Her research interests include procedural memory consolidation, motor skill development, and preservice teacher preparation
- L Amy
Amy L. Simmons is assistant professor of music education and a member of the Institute for Music
Research at The University of Texas at San Antonio. Her research interests include procedural memory
consolidation, motor skill development, and preservice teacher preparation.
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