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Designing a Task-Based Syllabus
Abstract
This article presents a framework for designing a task-based course based on a distinction between unfocused and focused tasks. Various criteria for sequencing tasks in terms of complexity are identified and discussed. These criteria relate to task input, to task conditions, to the process of performing a task and to task outcomes. While it is recognized that the criteria cannot be applied to task sequencing algorithmically, it is argued that they should inform intuitive decisions about the design of task-based syllabuses. The article also considers two approaches to incorporating a focus on form into a task-based syllabus. In an integrated approach, content-obligatory and content-compatible language forms are identified for each task. In a modu lar approach, the syllabus is conceived of as two separate modules, one consisting of unfocused tasks and the other utilizing a traditional structural syllabus taught through a focus-on-forms approach and/or through focused tasks.
... Infatti, le difficoltà dovute alla gestione della classe, come ad esempio la discontinuità nella frequenza, le conflittualità fra gli studenti o le fasi di silenzio tipiche dei primi stadi di interlingua, ostacolano la programmazione dei neo-docenti e talvolta non consentono loro di adottare i quattro criteri che, secondo Ellis (2009: 223), definiscono un task: 1. La centralità del significato; 2. La presenza di un problema comunicativo da risolvere; 3. La possibilità di fare ampio affidamento sulle proprie risorse linguistiche e non linguistiche per completare il task; 4. La maggiore importanza della riuscita comunicativa del task rispetto alla sua adeguatezza grammaticale 2 . Grazie a queste riflessioni, nate insieme ai neo-docenti del Progetto durante i momenti formativi e in seguito all'analisi dei loro diari, si è deciso di adottare la versione debole della didattica per task: il Task Supported Language Teaching (Ellis, 2003(Ellis, , 2009). Quest'ultima opzione permette l'alternarsi di lezioni tradizionali a lezioni task based, consentendo un uso non esclusivo dei task. ...
... Sono quindi previste attività tradizionali e soprattutto viene incentivata la costruzione di focused task, compiti di realtà il cui fine è quello di focalizzare ed esercitare le strutture morfosintattiche del sillabo di riferimento (Della Putta, Sordella, 2022: 85). I focused task permettono di ricorrere a determinati interventi per sostenere gli studenti nell'operazione di mappare forma e funzione durante l'atto comunicativo (Ellis, 2003). Infatti, oltre all'uso dei focused task, il Task Supported Language Teaching prevede una struttura predeterminata della lezione che si compone di tre fasi: 1. pre-task: l'insegnante stimola la motivazione dei discenti verso i contenuti del progetto e fornisce gli strumenti linguistici necessari per svolgere il compito; 2. task: gli studenti sono impegnati nello svolgimento di compiti di realtà il cui fine è quello di raggiungere un obiettivo extralinguistico; 3. post-task: l'insegnante propone attività di riflessione esplicita sulle strutture linguistiche impiegate nello svolgimento del task e attività di metariflessione sulle dinamiche di lavoro o sui risultati. ...
... A conclusione del lavoro di task, la neo-docente dovrebbe compiere strategie di focus on forms, grazie al quale, come messo in luce da molti autori (Ellis, 2003: 258 e segg.; Willis, Willis, 2007), si riprendono gli elementi problematici emersi durante lo svolgimento del compito e si strutturano delle attività di pratica guidata, fornendo, quando necessario, spiegazioni esplicite sul funzionamento degli elementi linguistici che sono stati oggetto di focalizzazione (Cortés Velásquez, Nuzzo, 2018). Tuttavia, a causa del poco tempo rimasto a disposizione per concludere la lezione, probabilmente perché la fase di pre-task era stata particolarmente corposa, la neo-docente non ha potuto proporre ai propri studenti l'attività di post-task programmata, che prevedeva lo svolgimento collettivo di un cruciverba per fissare il lessico specifico degli animali dell'Antico Egitto. ...
Il presente contributo nasce dall’esperienza di educazione linguistica con un gruppo di alunni stranieri avvenuta all’interno di un percorso laboratoriale realizzato a distanza e incentrato sul Project-based learning (PBL). Il laboratorio preso in esame è stato condotto nell’anno scolastico 2020/21, all’interno del progetto “Italiano L2 a scuola”, nato dalla collaborazione tra i Servizi Educativi del Comune di Torino e il Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici dell’Università della stessa città. Il progetto si occupa di sostenere l’integrazione linguistica degli studenti Neo Arrivati in Italia (NAI), inseriti nelle scuole primarie e secondarie di primo grado della città di Torino. Ogni anno un gruppo di studenti universitari conduce laboratori di italiano L2 nelle scuole della città per potenziare l’uso dell’italiano per scopi comunicativi reali, al fine di aiutare gli studenti NAI a integrarsi nella comunità scolastica. L’obiettivo dell’articolo è condurre un’analisi di alcune buone pratiche glottodidattiche fondate sul TSTL (Task Supported Language and Learning), che hanno saputo stimolare il gruppo classe promuovendo un apprendimento attivo della lingua, anche attraverso l’uso delle TIC (tecnologie dell’informazione e della comunicazione) risultate essenziali per l’erogazione del laboratorio durante il periodo di pandemia. La volontà è dunque di contribuire nel fornire degli spunti di riflessione per orientare le scelte glottodidattiche in alcuni contesti di apprendimento di una lingua seconda. The use of Task Supported Teaching and Learning (TSTL) in Italian L2 distance learning. A case study in the Project “Italiano L2 a scuola” This paper examines the language education experience with a group of foreign students, held as an online workshop focused on Project-based learning (PBL). The workshop was held in 2020/21 as part of the Project "Italiano L2 a scuola", born from the collaboration between the Educational Services of the Municipality of Turin and the Department of Humanities of the University of the same city. The Project deals with supporting the linguistic integration of Newly Arrived in Italy (NAI) students, enrolled in primary and lower secondary schools in the city of Turin. Every year a group of university students conducts L2 Italian workshops in city schools to enhance the use of Italian for real communicative purposes, in order to help NAI students integrate into the school community. The aim of the article is to analyze some good language teaching practices based on TSTL (Task Supported Language and Learning), which have been able to stimulate the class group by promoting active learning of the language, through the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technologies), which proved to be essential for the provision of the workshop during the pandemic period. The intention is therefore to contribute in providing food for thought to guide language teaching choices in certain contexts of Italian as a Second Language learning.
... Focus on form activities are also very important in implicit instruction and incidental learning. They cause noticing and pushed output to occur (Ellis, 2003;Ellis, 2015). Material developers can provide implicit instruction opportunities by employing underlining, highlighting and italicizing language forms including idioms to draw learners' attention. ...
... In a task-based approach, students learn a language by doing tasks that make them interested and involve them in doing the tasks. Thus, tasks are considered as vehicles for language learning (Ellis, 2003;Prabhu, 1987). ...
... Form-focused tasks, or focused tasks, provide a context for learners in which they are expected to attend and use some specific features of a language. Unfocused tasks, also known as meaning-focused tasks, are those in which there are no pre-determined linguistic features, and meaning is primary (Ellis, 2003;Ellis, 2015). ...
... As seen in the following table, the workshops with the tasks and writing strategies were arranged as follows: There have been several task-based models for designing lessons, but there was one that seemed to be relevant for this study. Ellis (2003) and his TBI design presented a more refreshing idea on how lessons can be conducted, especially on the English language development and what he mentioned as "real-world activities". The following table illustrates the structure followed by Ellis´s design: Table 3. ...
... The following table illustrates the structure followed by Ellis´s design: Table 3. A Framework for Designing Task-Based Lessons (Ellis, 2003) Pre-task (Consciousness-raising activities) ...
... Note. The framework shown in Table 3 is based on the approach suggested by Ellis (2003). ...
This qualitative research project aims to determine the impact that Task-Based Instruction had on fifteen Intermediate English language students´ writing skills in online classes at a private institute in Cartagena. A journal, a questionnaire, and a checklist were used as instruments to collect information during the diagnostic stage. During the action stage, six workshops were implemented, each with a different writing strategy: webbing, peer-editing, asking questions to revise writing, revising and editing, using templates, and reorganizing ideas. At this stage, the same instruments were used to measure the impact of the strategy and to achieve the research objectives. Results show that implementing six online workshops predicated on the task-based instruction helped the students to improve their writing, learning new vocabulary, use ICT tools, and writing strategies, thus having a positive impact on their English language learning process not only in writing but also in other skills. TBI was favorably accepted by learners and affected positively their writing skills.
... While is not surprising that such a complex skill was scarcely practiced in the virtual learning environment, the development of speaking is one of the most important skills for second language learners, not only because we learn a language to be able to communicate, but also because speaking promotes and facilitates further language learning. This paper proposes that task-based learning can be an effective approach for learners to engage in spoken communication and to develop oral skills in an online environment (Ellis, 2003;Nunan, 2004;Skehan, 2009). The paper begins with the theoretical background on speaking and task-based language teaching. ...
... Besides specific affective issues and individual differences in terms of character and aptitude, Ellis (2003) posited that a main problem in spontaneous language use is the lack of time to represent, process, and put into words what we want to say. Following the information-processing model proposed by Levelt (1989), Ellis (2003) emphasised the complexity of language production: ...
... Besides specific affective issues and individual differences in terms of character and aptitude, Ellis (2003) posited that a main problem in spontaneous language use is the lack of time to represent, process, and put into words what we want to say. Following the information-processing model proposed by Levelt (1989), Ellis (2003) emphasised the complexity of language production: ...
Based on data from the GRAAL group's questionnaire on remote teaching, caused by the Covid-19 emergency as reported in Conti (2021), oral production practice was neglected by both high school and college students. The aim of this paper is to reflect on how to promote and sustain speaking from the beginning of the language learning process, during in-person, remote and/or hybrid teaching. The framework presented indicates task-based language teaching (TBLT) as an effective approach to help learners participate in successful communication. The paper provides: 1. an overview of current literature on the subject; 2. applicable examples integrated with Flipgrid; 3. data analysis of students’ performance.
... As a subcategory of CLT, TBLT defines communication in a target language as the goal of language learning [8]. TBLT is also a response to the constraints of traditional approaches that teach so that learners will master certain forms [9]. TBLT is of great interest in linguistics because it emphasizes meaning, real-world language use, and communicative activities [9,10]. ...
... TBLT is also a response to the constraints of traditional approaches that teach so that learners will master certain forms [9]. TBLT is of great interest in linguistics because it emphasizes meaning, real-world language use, and communicative activities [9,10]. In terms of methodology, TBLT has its own learning framework, principles of syllabus design, and procedures of material development. ...
... As indicated in the name, tasks are the core concept of the TBLT course and lesson development [12]. Researchers have defined tasks differently, but in language learning, a task has been defined as a language activity that requires students to pay attention to meaning and to how language is used in real life [9]. In terms of language use, Long [13] defined tasks as students' real-world communicative uses of the target language outside the classroom that can have academic, occupational, or social survival purposes. ...
The present study aimed to investigate the beliefs and practices of task-based language teaching (TBLT) among lecturers in English as a foreign language (EFL) at technical universities in Vietnam. A total of 136 lecturers completed the questionnaire and seven of whom participated in semi-structured interviews. Findings indicated that the lecturers had positive views toward the TBLT approach and showed a willingness to use it in their classrooms, although they also shared notable challenges related to the technique. The results also showed significant differences in understanding of TBLT among lecturers with different years of experience; however, years of experience and qualifications did not affect the lecturers’ views on or implementation of TBLT. The study offers several implications for better understanding and more effectively implementing TBLT approaches in the classroom.
... Such capacity development is thought to enable teachers to handle situations within the educational context beyond the classroom setting. All in all, this didactic proposal is expected to take into consideration not only the distinctive features of the communicative task (Ellis, 2003;Long, 1985;Nunan, 1991) but also the demanding constraints of the education context. ...
... The task presented here is framed within a communicative-centered approach. Traditionally used as a primary unit of instruction (Ellis, 2003;Long, 1985;Skehan, 1998), the contextualization of the task has been deemed as a core aspect to boost L2 use, and most importantly, acquisition. Communicative tasks are also "vehicles for interaction-driven language learning in classroom settings" (Kim, 2015, p. 163), and classroom tasks are devoid of the main purposes of instructional practice (see Candlin, 1987). ...
... Higher Education allows for much more enriching learning outcomes than other stages of education, especially if one bears in mind the usefulness of debates to foster critical thinking. The role of communicative tasks in this scenario, namely in a BA in Primary Education, is highlighted by the clearly defined outcome apart from the use of the language, as noted by Ellis (2003) in the four criteria for the definition of tasks. Thus, after the time teacher trainees are provided with in order to accomplish the task goals, they have to perform the role they were assigned at the outset. ...
... In TBLT, students learn language by doing tasks. Thus, tasks are considered as vehicles for language teaching (Ellis, 2003). Tasks can be either formfocused or meaning-focused. ...
... Regarding focus, tasks can be divided into form-focused or meaning-focused. Ellis (2003) refers to form-focused tasks as receptive or productive tasks that can be used to enforce learners to attend to particular linguistic forms. According to Schmidt's (1990) Noticing Hypothesis, attention is crucial for language learning. ...
... In other words, they were not contextualized. Moreover, the target idioms were bolded to draw the participants' attention to them (Ellis, 2003). ...
This study investigated the effects of form-focused and meaning-focused tasks with different involvement load indices on EFL learners' recognition of L2 idioms. To this end, a sample of 180 EFL learners was selected and randomly assigned into six groups. Form-focused tasks with involvement load 2 (Multiple-choice), 3 (Sentence-completion), and 4 (Sentence-making) were used for three experimental groups, while meaning-focused tasks with involvement load 2 (Summary-writing), 3 (Writing with glossary), and 4 (Writing without glossary) were utilized for the other three groups. After the treatment, a 30-item test in multiple-choice format was administered to assess the participants' recognition of idioms. One two-way ANOVA and a series of independent-samples t-tests were run to process data. The results indicated that the tasks with higher levels of involvement were more effective on recognition of idioms. The results also showed that form-focused tasks were more efficient than meaning-focused tasks. Moreover, at involvement load of two, meaning-focused tasks were more beneficial than form-focused tasks, while form-focused tasks were more effective at higher involvement loads of three and four. The results of this study have theoretical and pedagogical implications for language teachers, curriculum designers, and researchers.
... Lee (2016) claims that TBI supports productive and receptive skills in tasks, allowing students to utilize L2 eagerly and expressively. Ellis (2003) believes that a task is associated with the proficiency of four skills. TBI helps students enhance their vocabulary through a variety of tasks consisting of Lower Order Thinking and Higher Order Thinking Skills. ...
... Task-based instruction is suitable for language acquisition activities (Ellis, 2003). It aligns with Shintani's (2012) research result that the input-based task succeeded in improving vocabulary acquisition. ...
... However, teachers had to pay attention to their syllabus carefully to see if a modified lesson is suitable without disregarding the target competence. Ellis (2003) states that teachers should examine the curriculum used by the school and students' learning objectives for each lesson. It was important to give them rich input of the vocabulary so that they had a better output. ...
This study is intended to enhance students’ reading vocabulary through task-based instruction. It was also devised not only to answer how the strategy can enhance students’ reading vocabulary but also to get data about students’ vocabulary retention two weeks after the implementation and students’ responses towards the strategy. The participantS of this study were 30 ninth graders in SMPN 11 Malang in the second semester of 2019/2020 academic year. Classroom Action Research (CAR) was used as the research design. Vocabulary test, questionnaire, observation sheet, and interview session were the instruments of this study. There were three vocabulary tests, namely vocabulary test one, vocabulary test two, and delayed test. The result showed that there was an improvement in students' scores. 90% of students achieved at least 25 improvement points for the vocabulary test two, 61% of students passed the delayed vocabulary test, and 97.5% of students responded positively toward the strategy. TBI could enhance vocabulary acquisition from the context and task’s characteristics. The context of the text helped students to give a clue about some forgotten vocabularies, so they felt less burdened to remember the vocabulary in the whole text because they generally understand the context of the text. Keywords: task-based instruction, reading vocabulary, vocabulary retention Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kosakata membaca siswa melalui instruksi berbasis tugas. Penelitian ini juga dirancang tidak hanya untuk menjawab bagaimana strategi yang diterapkan dapat meningkatkan kosakata membaca siswa tetapi juga untuk mendapatkan data tentang retensi kosakata siswa dua minggu setelah penerapan dan tanggapan siswa terhadap strategi yang diberikan. Partisipan penelitian ini adalah 30 siswa kelas 9B di SMPN 11 Malang semester genap tahun ajaran 2019/2020. Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK) digunakan sebagai desain penelitian. Tes kosakata, angket, lembar observasi, dan sesi wawancara menjadi instrumen dalam penelitian ini. Ada tiga tes kosakata yang diberikan, yaitu tes kosakata satu, tes kosakata dua, dan tes tertunda. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada peningkatan pada nilai siswa: 90% dari keseluruhan siswa mencapai setidaknya 25 peningkatan poin untuk tes kosakata dua, 61% dari keseluruhan siswa mampu melalui tes kosakata tertunda, dan 97.5% dari keseluruhan siswa menanggapi strategi secara positif. TBI dapat meningkatkan penguasaan kosakata dari suatu konteks dan karakteristik tugas. Konteks dari suatu teks membantu siswa mendapatkan petunjuk tentang beberapa kosakata yang telah terlupakan, sehingga mereka merasa tidak terlalu terbebani untuk mengingat kembali kosakata keseluruhan teks karena mereka pada umumnya memahami konteks teks tersebut. Kata kunci: instruksi berbasis tugas, kosakata bacaan, retensi kosakata
... Synergies Argentine n° 6 -2020 p. 37-59 las investigaciones y el modelo del grupo PACTE (2005PACTE ( -2017 y, más específicamente, Prieto Ramos (2011), además de los aportes del enfoque por tareas para la enseñanza de la lengua de Ellis (2003), entre otros, desarrollaremos distintos modos de adaptación que pueden ser aplicados en el aula. ...
... Étant donné un certain manque de production locale de bibliographie, aussi bien théorique que pratique, il nous faut adapter le matériel conçu en Espagne à notre réalité. À l'instar des recherches et du modèle du groupe PACTE (2005PACTE ( -2017, en particulier Prieto Ramos (2011), outre les apports de l'approche par tâches pour l'enseignement de la langue d' Ellis (2003), entre autres, différentes modalités d'adaptation susceptibles d'être exploitées dans nos cours seront développées. ...
... El trabajo en pares (o grupal) resulta fundamental ya que genera más posibilidades de utilizar la lengua activamente (Taylor y Wigglesworth, 2009). Ellis (2003) considera que el diálogo entre estudiantes, a diferencia de la realización de tareas en forma individual, brinda la posibilidad de construir conocimiento de manera conjunta. Si bien entendemos que el traductor profesional en la actualidad debe poder adaptarse a diferentes situaciones y modos de trabajo (individual, en colaboración, presencial, a distancia, etc.), la práctica con tareas dialógicas en el aula es muy beneficiosa por ser colaborativa, en tanto los integrantes del grupo abordan la tarea juntos; recíproca, ya que esta modalidad de trabajo fomenta que los alumnos se escuchen, compartan ideas y expresen y negocien distintos puntos de vista; comprensiva, dado que no pone a los estudiantes en riesgo de sentir vergüenza por el tipo de contribuciones realizadas; acumulativa, porque se construye a partir de las ideas y propuestas de otro; y, lo que es más importante aún, significativa, puesto que se trabaja con un objetivo real en mente. ...
This paper is the result of the work carried out in the course Legal and Economic Translation (English-Spanish) 1 taught at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, in connection with access to teaching materials in such context. Our double role as professional translators and translation lecturers constantly makes us rethink our teaching practices in order to ensure that teaching quality is always kept to the highest possible level and that we can accompany our students in their university paths. Given that there are very few publications in the field in our country, be them theory- or practice-oriented, we are faced with the need to use material produced in Spain and to adapt it to our context. Following the research and model presented by PACTE (2005-2017) and, more specifically, Prieto Ramos (2011), as well as the task-based approach developed by Ellis (2003), among others, for the teaching of language, we have developed different ways to adapt these books so that they can be applied in our classrooms.
... En esta secuencia didáctica, se trabaja entonces sobre y con una habilidad de pensamiento de orden superior -la comparación-al contrastar el número de hablantes de distintas lenguas. Para tal propósito, se involucra el uso de la voz pasiva y de numerosos adjetivos comparativos en un contexto creado ad hoc donde ambas formas lingüísticas se presentan como necesarias y emergen naturalmente, de modo que lxs estudiantes proceden a su uso mediante la provisión de tareas focalizadas (Focused tasks) (Ellis 2003). Este acceso inductivo a la lengua y a sus patrones de recurrencia posibilitan la posterior reflexión sobre la forma y función lingüística de la voz pasiva y de los adjetivos mencionados a partir de una tarea de toma de conciencia lingüística (Consciousness Raising Task) (Ellis 2003). ...
... Para tal propósito, se involucra el uso de la voz pasiva y de numerosos adjetivos comparativos en un contexto creado ad hoc donde ambas formas lingüísticas se presentan como necesarias y emergen naturalmente, de modo que lxs estudiantes proceden a su uso mediante la provisión de tareas focalizadas (Focused tasks) (Ellis 2003). Este acceso inductivo a la lengua y a sus patrones de recurrencia posibilitan la posterior reflexión sobre la forma y función lingüística de la voz pasiva y de los adjetivos mencionados a partir de una tarea de toma de conciencia lingüística (Consciousness Raising Task) (Ellis 2003). Estas tareas ponen de manifiesto que el número de personas que hablan inglés como lengua segunda o como lengua extranjera supera ampliamente al número de hablantes nativos, lo cual interpela genuinamente a las y los estudiantes quienes buscan entender por qué y para ello se relacionan críticamente con los contenidos conceptuales cuyo lugar es central en la matriz de la materia. ...
Resumen Revisamos los modos en que históricamente la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata instrumentó el ingreso a las carreras de inglés, más específicamente desde la sanción de la Ley de Educación Superior en 1995 (Montenegro 2017). Los dispositivos no sufrieron modificaciones sustanciales sino hasta 2016. Desde entonces, y a partir de la creación de la materia Introducción a la lengua, nos convoca la idea de que la variable de ajuste en el ingreso no puede ser académica. Por el contrario, es necesario promover el acceso y la permanencia mediante estrategias de contención. En Introducción a la Lengua Inglesa entendemos que los modos de conocer y los conocimientos deben encontrar su pedagogía de posibilidad en la universidad pública desde perspectivas multisemióticas y encarnadas, producidas desde subjetividades dinámicas, biográficas, de praxis constitutiva y de pedagogías decoloniales. (Baum 2016). En Introducción a la Lengua Inglesa nos proponemos poner en diálogo la relevancia sociocultural implicada en el pedagogizar decolonial situado de la lengua inglesa como lengua otra "[énfasis nuestro]", con saberes que genealógicamente se inscriben en la identidad de las y los estudiantes. En este contexto, los materiales didácticos decoloniales situados ad hoc aparecen como artefactos culturales de/para aprendizajes y como espacios geo-corpo-políticos contrahegemónicos (Baum 2017). Abstract We devise a historical revision of the ways in which the Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata operationalized student access to the courses of studies specialized in English, particularly from the sanctioning of the Ley de Educación Superior in 1995 (Montenegro 2017). The accessing strategies did not undergo substantial change until 2016. From this year on, and since the creation of the subject Introducción a la lengua inglesa, we uphold the view that the adjustment variable cannot work on an academic criterion. On the contrary, it is necessary to promote access and retention through diverse scaffolding strategies. In Introducción a la Lengua Inglesa we believe that knowledges and ways into knowing need to find a pedagogy of possibility at the public university. This is achieved from multisemiotic and embodied perspectives instantiated in dynamic, biographical subjectivities that feed on decolonial pedagogies and constitutive praxes (Baum 2016). At Introducción a la Lengua Inglesa we establish a dialogue between sociocultural relevance comprised in decolonial situated pedagogizing of English as an other "[our emphasis]" language, and saberes that are genealogically inscribed in students' identities. In this context, decolonial situated didactic materials designed ad hoc become cultural artifacts of/for learning and geo-corpo-political, counter-hegemonic spaces.
... Para lograr algunos de los lineamientos que seguimos en la cátedra en cuanto al modo de abordar la planificación de secuencias didácticas nos hemos propuesto profundizar el aprendizaje basado en tareas task based (Ellis, 2003(Ellis, , 2016(Ellis, , 2018 dado que consideramos que este enfoque de enseñanza de inglés permite vertebrar los contextos y contenidos críticos y articularlos con la enseñanza de la lengua de manera inductiva. ...
... Estos tres momentos que componen una unidad de trabajo (task) constituyen una secuencia didáctica, con una coherencia en la presentación y desarrollo del contenido. Además de adherir al aprendizaje basado en tareas (Ellis, 2003(Ellis, , 2016(Ellis, , 2018 adherimos también al enfoque por contenidos críticos con andamios estructurantes del diseño de insumos didácticos (Sato, Hasegawa y Kumagai, 2017). Este último enfoque en particular nos permite viabilizar en sentido práctico los modelos teóricos mencionados. ...
LAS COMPLICIDADES ENTRE LA ENSEÑANZA DE INGLES FUERA DE LOS PAISES ANGLOHABLANTES NATIVOS
... Skehan's (1998) characterization of the 'task' is mainly focused on meaning, and form is not given any relevant role. Hence, Ellis (2003) combined both perspectives of form and meaning within his understanding of pedagogical tasks. In his view, tasks should resemble real-world communication directly or indirectly, involving the activation of several cognitive processes which may be productive or receptive. ...
... In the case of planning strategies, research has predominantly relied on the types of planning put forward by Ellis (2003), that is, strategic planning, which refers to the preparation of a task taking into consideration the content, and rehearsal, which is related to the concept of task repetition. In this regard, strategic planning has been one of the most widespread types of planning strategies in L2 oral production research, and hence, in communicative tasks or TBLT studies. ...
... Instructional content was therefore no longer linguistically oriented. Rather, communicative tasks became the central units for teaching and course design (Ellis, 2003a(Ellis, , 2012. As time passed, the strong version transformed into what is now known as task-based instruction (TBLT) (Ellis, 2012;Nunan, 2004;Richard, 2006;Santos, 2011). ...
... 196). In designing a task-based course, tasks should be selected based on task types and topics or themes (Ellis, 2003a). Activities from textbooks could also be adapted as tasks but by following some criteria: a focus on meaning, a real-world relationship, an observable outcome and relevance to students' needs (Willis, 2006). ...
Given the difficulty of teaching Cambodian learners the English speaking skills due to large, mixed-ability classes, and inappropriate applications of existing resources, the approach of Task-Based Instruction (TBI) was tested with ninth-grade students. This article, therefore, investigates the effect of TBI on ninth-graders' English-speaking skills and their satisfaction toward the experience with this approach. The pretest-posttest non-equivalent quasi-experimental group design was utilized with two Grade 9 classes totaling 78 students. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected by using the speaking tests and the student satisfaction questionnaire. Quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated that the TBI made significant contributions to the experimental group's speaking skills in general as well as in all sub-skills either when comparing the pretest and posttest within the group or the posttests between groups. Analyses of the satisfaction questionnaire found that the experimental group was 'satisfied' with their experiences with the TBI. Students also viewed TBI as an approach that provided them appropriate conditions for language learning, helped improve their speaking skills, increased their confidence in speaking, and motivation in learning English despite the difficulty with the language of instruction. Based on these findings, some recommendations for pedagogical implications and further research have been proposed.
... b. En relación a la unidad de trabajo que más arriba denominamos tarea, necesitamos precisar la elección -en el espacio de la didáctica especial-de una tipología surgida del enfoque de la enseñanza de la lengua basada en tareas (Ellis 2003(Ellis , 2016(Ellis , 2018 a la cual recurrimos como marco para definir unidades de trabajo que nos permitan entramar la enseñanza de contenidos conceptuales/práxicos y lingüístico-discursivos. Tal tipología nos ofrece dos clases de tareas: 1. no focalizadas (no abordan contenidos lingüísticos/gramaticales) y 2. ...
Nuestro interés en socializar los procedimientos metodológicos implicados en el diseño de materiales decoloniales situados para la enseñanza de inglés como lengua otra, persigue un propósito triple. Por un lado, ofrecer una alternativa a la ausencia de materiales-y a las ausencias deliberadas sobre las cuales los materiales tradicionales se construyen-que promueva miradas críticas, ad hoc y capaces de enseñar contenidos geo-corpo-políticamente (Mignolo y Tlostanova 2006; Mignolo 2006 y 2009) relevantes, de transmitir memoria y de acompañar procesos de decolonización. Por otro lado, instalar una perspectiva pedagógica decolonial (Walsh 2017) sobre la cual se monta el aparato didáctico que viabiliza-en términos metodológicos-la creación de materiales/corpora. Finalmente, acompañar su incorporación al sistema educativo público y gratuito de nuestro país y, con las necesarias adaptaciones, de otros países en Latinoamérica. Este corpus en construcción surgido de tal abordaje, y que desde 2016 venimos usando para el dictado de la materia Introducción a la lengua inglesa en las carreras de inglés de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación en la Universidad Nacional de La Plata, ha demostrado altos índices de aceptación según lo manifestado por los propios estudiantes. Ofrecemos en este trabajo algunas muestras de dicho corpus, solo a título ilustrativo. Palabras clave: perspectiva decolonial, material de enseñanza/corpus, metodología, lengua otra. Our interest in socializing the methodological procedures involved in the design of decolonial situated materials to teach English as an other language, pursues a threefold purpose. On the one hand, offer an alternative to the absence of materials-and the deliberate absences upon which traditional materials get built-which promotes critical, ad hoc perspectives, capable of teaching geo-corpo-politically (Mignolo y Tlostanova 2006; Mignolo 2006 and 2009) relevant content, transmit memory and accompany decolonization processes. On the other hand, settle a decolonial pedagogical platform
... Task-based syllabus is a type of syllabus in which the content of the teaching is a series of complex and purposeful tasks that the students perform with the language they are learning (Rahimpour, 2010). According to Ellis (2003), a task is a work plan that requires learners to process language in a practical or realistic manner, or to use language that bears resemblance to how it is used in the real world so as to achieve results that can be evaluated based on the content created by the learners themselves. A task can be focused wherein students use oral or written skills that are mainly centered on allowing them to examine and apply predetermined linguistic features such as grammatical structure for productivity or receptiveness to stimulate communicative language. ...
The purposes of this study were to find out what teachers can learn from students’ thought processes and perceptions in order to improve the design and development of syllabuses and teaching materials for courses where they are encouraged to use a foreign language, and to contribute to research in foreign language teaching and learning. Participants were Taiwanese second year undergraduate students from the departments of applied foreign languages and tourism and leisure in a university in northern Taiwan. A qualitative approach was applied using asynchronous interview in questionnaire form that is comprised of open-ended items. Findings reveal that student benefits and challenges were the main factors that can determine how well the syllabus can be redesigned and eventually become more effective for learning. Task-based courses where students are encouraged to work in teams and use a foreign language can be daunting, but can be purposeful in helping students improve their proficiency and cooperation skills in preparation for their chosen future career in the real-world context. Teachers may not need to evaluate students based on proficiency level, but rather the completeness of the task as they are process-oriented. For the courses in this present research, supplementing the course syllabuses by including a brief introduction to the tourism industry and tour guiding careers and tasks can help students learn more about the skills required for tourism-specific jobs, so they can make a personal assessment of their skills including foreign language, searching and organizing information, as well as cooperation.
... CLIL approach is one that is favorable in content-based language learning. According to Ellis (2003), contentbased language learning is premised on the supposition that learners would effectively learn a language that engages them in learning content matter. Nonetheless, this approach also has several downsides Kondal, Bairi, 2017). ...
The Upper Secondary Vocational School for Transport in Bratislava takes up the challenges of arming its students with relevant education. Due to the fact that students learn in various ways, the teachers implement a combination of approaches including synchronous, asynchronous, critical thinking, case study, tutorial, and team-based learning among others. They provide education in both classroom mode and on the online platform. Moreover, they try to educate their students in both Slovak and English languages. Besides the regular English language programs, the teachers also provide core skill-enhancing courses like Technical English, Business English, as well as, English of automotive mechanics and commerce. The paper presents examples of good practice related to the use of a recently written textbook English of Automotive Mechanics and Commerce within the teaching processes, which has been essential for skilled language teachers who also have a nice command of mechanical and commercial understanding.
... The lack of consistency in these parameters led later researchers to propose more theoretically motivated criteria for task grading and sequencing (Ellis, 2003;Robinson, 2010Robinson, , 2015Skehan, 1996Skehan, , 1998. For example, Skehan (1998), on the basis of information processing, argued that tasks should be sequenced according to difficulty levels operationalized in terms of code complexity, cognitive complexity, and communicative stress. ...
To test the predictive power of the SSARC (stabilize, simplify, automatize, reconstruct, and complexify) model of pedagogic task sequencing in second language (L2) writing development, the present study explores the performance of written decision-making tasks with varied levels of cognitive complexity in a simple-to-complex sequence in comparison to complex-to-simple and individual task performance sequences over time. The participants, 100 advanced-mid learners of English as a second language (ESL), who were divided into three groups completed writing tasks either (1) in a simple-to-complex sequence, (2) in a complex-to-simple sequence, or (3) at one level of complexity (i.e. simple, medium, or complex task versions). Their written production was analysed for syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency (CALF). Quantitative analyses found that the simple-to-complex group produced more syntactically complex and accurate essays over time than the complex-to-simple group, although neither group’s progression was linear. When the two sequencing conditions were compared to the individual task performance condition, the results showed more improvement in CALF in both sequencing groups than in the individual performance group over time, with more and steadier growth in the simple-to-complex condition. These findings support the SSARC model and expand current understandings of the relationship between cognitive task complexity and L2 writing development under different task sequencing conditions, with implications for L2 writing pedagogy.
... In line with the listening ability, they suggest using authentic tasks and for speaking they emphasize integrating TBLT with technology as investigated by Butarbutar (2019) and (Butarbutar, 2021b). These empirical studies were also pioneered by (Ellis, 2000), Ellis (2003), (Ellis, (2005), Ellis (2009), Ellis (2013, (Ellis, 2018), (Prabhu, 1987), (Skehan, 1996) and supported by (Kasap, 2005), Nget et al. (2020) and (Gordon, 2021). However, no one study verifies that implementing TBI can empower learners' self-efficacy, for this reason, the study presents to fill this empirical gap. ...
Self-efficacy is the belief that someone can do work successfully. The study purposes to explore whether collaborative task-based instruction (TBI) can empower EFL self-efficacy? The study uses a critical review, content analysis, and interpretation regarding five perspectives namely in terms (1) cognitive-interactionist, (2) psycholinguistics, (3) sociocultural, (4) psychological, and (5) educational. The results note TBI is effective to use to empower EFL learners’ self-efficacy. And, psychological perspective is the most significant to use.
... It is same with other researcher opinion. Many researcher or writer believe that TBLT is an approach has three main primary standards: the first is a learner-centered approach (Ellis, 2003;Nunan, 2004;Richards & Rodgers, 2001); it has a few parts like goals and procedures (Murphy, 1996;Nunan, 2004;Skehan, 2003) and it supports content-based and importance based undertakings (Carless, 2002;Littlewood, 2007). ...
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is a learning method that is considered more comprehensive compared to the communicative method which has been considered far more useful in language teaching. TBLT proposes the use of tasks as a main component in language classroom because it provides better context for learners to activate their acquisition process and promote second language learning. The current research compares the growth of students vocabulary knowledge in English. The purpose of this study is to know the students’ experiences of TBLT in vocabulary learning. The qualitative research method used in this study is a narrative inquiry. Data was collected through interviews specially semi structure interview based on interview guideline and data analysis by involving students in the online learning process. The findings provide information about the learning process as well as the advantages of TBLT in vocabulary learning. The interview results show that students in general have a positive attitude toward learning vocabulary through TBLT method. Keywords: Students’ Experiences; Task Bask Language Teaching, Vocabulary Learning
... Although speed is a fundamental aim of fluency (i.e. communicative efficiency) training, gains in speed must not be attained at the expense of the meaning-centered focus of a task (Ellis, 2003). Importantly, the meaning-focused aspect of the task in this study does not appear to have been compromised as both groups achieved scores greater than 90% on the comprehension and information-gap items. ...
This classroom study evaluates the effectiveness of pre-teaching communication strategies before learners undertake an information-gap speaking task. A convenience sample of 67 first-year students taking mandatory English classes at a private Japanese university was subject to one of two instructional approaches. The experimental group (n=37) undertook a pre-task communication strategy awareness activity coupled with a video modeling the ensuing information-gap task and communication strategies, while the control group (n=30) received no pre-task training. An analysis of speaking times, task worksheets and audio recordings of conversations indicated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in task accuracy and communicative efficiency. In addition, a review of experimental group conversations indicated that most participants implemented the six targeted communicative strategies multiple times throughout the speaking task. Major implications for foreign language teachers include the value of pre-task modeling and communication strategies awareness-raising to help learners overcome disconnects in communicative tasks. Further, this study demonstrates the utility of information-gap speaking tasks for: (a) practicing communicative strategies; and (b) developing learners’ communicative competencies for real-world English as a lingua franca contexts.
... Curriculum design is a field in education that is concerned with systematic approaches for designing educational courses, reflecting the educational philosophies and beliefs of the contexts in which curricula are deployed and the purpose which these curricula aim to serve. Curriculum design typically involves the following interconnected but not necessarily linear stages: articulate a course rationale to communicate the underlying principles of the curriculum to stakeholders [23]; identify the theoretical basis for the curriculum; conduct needs and situation analysis [24]; match the aims and objectives to these needs and the course rationale; develop a rationale for lesson content selection and sequencing, typically known as a syllabus [25]; integrate teaching methodology and pedagogy into the syllabus [26]; design and integrate assessment and testing to document the effectiveness of instruction [27]; and formulate evaluative processes to determine course quality for developmental or accountability purposes [28]. While these stages may appear as discrete and sequential components, the enactment of curriculum requires iteration and integration of the processes to ensure that learning can be successfully evaluated against the course rationale and is effectively aligned with the specific learning and teaching context. ...
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are having a great impact on all aspects of society. However, due to the technical competencies and mathematical understanding required for implementing solutions leveraging these technologies, access to the communities working on these technologies is limited to those having these skills. This limits the ability of domain experts to directly transfer their knowledge and contribute to the development of AI and ML systems. To address this problem, we propose the Human Education AI Teaming (HEAT) framework, in which we draw on human education to design an innovative education system to enable collaboration between humans and AI cognitive agents. The main aim of HEAT is to promote the social integration of AI by allowing domain experts to focus more on communicating a body of knowledge to the machine, and less on the computational, data, and engineering concepts associated with how the machine learns. We follow an educational theory-driven approach to derive the content knowledge and competencies required by each agent. We conclude the paper with a demonstration case study explaining how the complex autonomous guidance of a flock of sheep could leverage HEAT to make the technology accessible by empowering non-AI specialists, livestock farmers in our example.
... Fifth, task or activity is the pivotal item of ESP materials at once as the main focus of the present study. The term task in this study refers to the pedagogical activity that focuses on meaning rather than grammatical form or theories in communicative language use (see Bygate et al., 2001;Ellis, 2003aEllis, , 2003bEllis, , 2009Nunan, 2004) and reflects the actual sociocultural practices in a specific vocational setting (Widodo, 2015a(Widodo, , 2017b. Tasks are designed for a variety of curricular and pedagogical objectives including designing course syllabi, learning materials, and assessments and also serving as a starting point for carrying out the NA (Van Avermaet & Gysen, 2006;Widodo, 2015a). ...
This article seeks to compare and explore the dominant tasks in selected ESP textbooks
... Regarding focus, there are form-focused and meaning-focused tasks (Spada & Lightbown, 2008). Form-focused tasks are those in which learners attend to specific forms of language by utilizing different strategies (Ellis, 2003). Based on Noticing Hypothesis, Schmidt (1990) claims that attention is a necessary condition to acquire a language. ...
Finding effective ways to improve L2 idioms recall has been a long-standing concern of many practitioners. This study compared the effects of meaning-focused and form-focused tasks with varying involvement load indices on EFL learners' recall of L2 idioms. One-hundred eighty intermediate level EFL learners participated in this study and were randomly assigned to one of the six experimental groups. In three form-focused groups, the participants received multiple-choice, sentence-completion and sentence-making tasks with involvement indices of 2, 3, and 4, respectively. In three meaning-focused groups, they were asked to perform summary writing, writing with glossary, and writing without glossary with involvement degrees of 2, 3, and 4, respectively. A 30-item test in fill-in-the-blank format was administered to all groups to assess their recall of idioms after the treatment. To analyze the data, a two-way ANOVA and a series of independent-samples t-tests were used. The results showed that the tasks with higher degrees of involvement were more efficient on the recall of idioms. The results also revealed that although form-focused tasks were significantly more effective than meaning-focused tasks at lower loads of involvement, at higher involvement load, the difference between form-focused and meaning-focused tasks was not significant. The findings of the present study can have theoretical as well as pedagogical implications for learners, teachers, textbook designers, and curriculum developers.
... Different approaches can be used to design a syllabus (Murphy, 2018), including task-centered (Ellis, 2003;Maali & Al-Attar, 2020), learner-centered (Robb, 2012), competencies (skills)-centered (Mamaghani & Zolghadri, 2018), and content-centered (Stoller, 2004). Each approach has its own strengths and preferences based on the environment in which it will be used and the course material it will cover. ...
Technology is becoming a major pillar in many professions. It plays a critical role in developing and enhancing the quality and accuracy of tasks. Because the formal education system is the first place where future employees are educated, it is very important to ensure that educational institutions offer continuously updated technology-related courses that cover a wide range of new and emerging topics. This research has two objectives. First, it explores the validity of the claim that AIS education is of low quality in the Middle East, as stated in some studies. This is conducted through highlighting the status quo for AIS courses in Arab countries within the Middle East by focusing on a representative case study. This part of the work was conducted through a thorough exploration of the universities’ websites and by distributing and analyzing a survey for faculty members in a number of universities. Second, the research performs a deep analysis to develop new, up-to-date, aligned objectives, contents, resources, and assignments in order to create a new, comprehensive syllabus in the higher-education sector that will serve stakeholders from universities to accounting communities. The output of this research identified suitable learning objectives based on current literature and faculty responses. This was followed by designing new course content and assessment tools that are aligned with learner- and competency-centered approaches.
... Stated in other words, language learning is subordinate to task performance (Reilly, 1988). With the same view, Ellis (2003) defines task as "a workplan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order to achieve an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of content (rather than language) […] it requires learners to give primary attention to meaning and to make use of their own linguistic resources" (p. 64). ...
The present study investigated whether or not the implementation of a Selective
Procedural Negotiated Syllabus has any effect on the reading achievement of
Iranian intermediate-level EFL learners. The hypothesis assumed in this study
was that the treatment would accrue no effect. The study was conducted with
the participation of 61 female intermediate-level EFL learners. The participants
were grouped into four classes serving the Experimental Group (EG; N = 32)
and the Control Group (CG; N = 29). The learners shared a homogenous
English proficiency level and background (as well as in terms of materials and
instruments). The classes were randomly assigned to EG and CG. The selected
element of negotiation in this study was based on the interest areas of the EG
learners. An interest areas survey (IAS) based on Likert scale (from value 1 as
least interesting to value 5 as most interesting) was constructed and conducted
to elicit EG learners’ areas of interest on the basis of which passages with
reading ease of ± 2 standard deviation (by Flesch Reading Ease score) were
selected. Learners in the EG were clustered into groups of three and two (10× 3
and 1× 2) and filled out the IAS. Items scoring highest on the IAS were
selected for the purpose of text selection. Interest areas were not polled in the
CG and the texts given to them were arbitrarily selected. In order to observe any
change in learners’ reading achievement, both groups were pretested at the
outset of the experiment and post-tested at the end of the experiment with a
valid reading comprehension (RC) test comprising 22 multiple-choice items. A
two-way two-sample t-test was conducted to compare the means difference
between the gain scores of the EG and CG over the two administrations of the
RC test. The results indicated that the groups had performed equally well on the
experiment and no statistically significant result was observed. This study was
based on the natural-occurring pre-experimental intact groups framework of
research design.
... Estaire and Zanón"s (1994) specification of enabling tasks, according to Ellis (2003a), indicates a strong explicit focus on form, which is more similar to language exercises rather than tasks. In response to the noncommunicative nature of enabling tasks, Ellis (2003aEllis ( , 2003b proposed two categories of task: focused and unfocused tasks. In this distinction, focused tasks offer opportunities for communication using some particular linguistic features while unfocused tasks provide learners with opportunities to broadly use language for communicative purposes without being restricted to any specific linguistic features. ...
Over the last decade, task-based language teaching (TBLT) has become a central focus in second/foreign language education policy in Asian-Pacific countries (Adams & Newton 2009; Butler 2011; Littlewood 2007). Governments in the region have designated TBLT as the official discourse in second/foreign language curriculum innovation and teachers across different educational contexts are expected to adopt TBLT in their classes. The teachers’ central role in the implementation of the curriculum has consequently led to growing research interest into English language teacher cognition (i.e., teachers’ beliefs, knowledge and thinking) in relation to TBLT in the region (Canh 2011; Sakui 2004; Yook 2010) as teacher cognition is considered to be a prominent factor in the successful implementation of curricula (Borg 2006). To date, several studies have explored teachers’ implementation of curricula, but they have focused primarily on only one of two major components of teacher cognition, namely their beliefs (Canh 2011; Viet 2013); no studies in the Vietnamese context have yet examined teacher cognition with the purpose exploring both their beliefs and knowledge – two major components of teacher cognition, according to the literature (Borg 2003, 2006). Furthermore, previous studies focused on teacher cognition about Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) as part of the teaching methodology rather than the guiding approach that informs the curricular content, teaching pedagogy and learner assessment with regards to the introduction of tasks. Given that the task-based curriculum is designed on the three-dimensional interface of curriculum content, teaching pedagogy and learner assessment (Nunan 2004), there is a critical gap in the literature regarding this interface. In the current curriculum innovation in Vietnam, TBLT is used as an overarching discourse defining the curricular content, classroom pedagogy and learner assessment (Van et al 2006a, 2006b). Even now, what the Vietnamese teachers know, believe and practise in the classroom in relation to these dimensions of the curriculum innovation still remains unclear.
This qualitative case study fills the research gap in the literature by exploring Vietnamese teachers’ implementation of the task-based curriculum from a teacher cognition perspective. Drawing on a combined framework of Shulman’s (1986, 1987) categories of teacher curricular knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge and Bernstein’s (1990, 2000) notion of pedagogic discourse, this research project examined the participating teachers’ cognitions and classroom practices regarding the curriculum in the three dimensions (i.e., curricular content, teaching pedagogy and learner assessment) that the curriculum innovation entailed. In particular, this study looked at three research questions:
1. What cognitions do the participating teachers hold about the task-based curriculum in a Vietnamese upper secondary school?
2. How do the participating teachers’ cognitions permeate their classroom practices?
3. To what extent are the teachers’ cognitions reflected in their classroom testing practices?
A case study of six teachers was conducted for the current investigation. Empirical data was collected from interviews (semi-structured interviews and informal conversations), lesson plans, classroom observations, and documents (e.g., textbooks, curriculum guidelines, and test papers). The data was transcribed into the original language that the teachers used (both English and Vietnamese) and analysed using a qualitative thematic approach (Braun & Clarke 2006; Guest et al. 2012).
The findings from the interview data indicated that teachers’ cognitions, classroom practices and assessment all mirrored a structural approach that privileges form over meaning. Specifically, the teachers conceived the curricular content in terms of discrete linguistic items, paying minimal attention to a topic-based content that the curriculum was modelled on. For those teachers, learning English means rote memorization of linguistic items which should be prioritized over students’ communicative skills. Further data from the lesson plans and classroom observations showed a similar focus-on-forms approach. In teaching, the majority of the teachers selected vocabulary-based, closedended and form-focused activities. In addition, these activities were organized in a formfocused sequence, reflecting the conventional Presentation – Practice – Production (PPP) teaching model (Byrne 1986), which is not aligned with that advocated by a TBLT framework of practice (Skehan 1996; Willis 1996). Analysis of data from testing practices indicated that the teachers’ assessment focused on discrete linguistic items and precision of language production at the word and sentence levels, aligning with the focuson- forms approach that the teachers described and delivered in classes. In light of Bernstein’s (1990, 2000) pedagogic discourse, the findings reported from the teachers’ curriculum, pedagogy and assessment showed that discrete linguistic knowledge, rather than tasks, dominated their cognitions and classroom practices. It was likely that the teachers responded to the influence of the examinations, and prioritized the importance of examinations in their classroom teaching. As a result, the teachers’ classroom practices deviated from the underlying purpose behind the TBLT approach in the curriculum innovation, and instead aligned with a ‘teaching-to-the-test’ approach (e.g., Popham 2001) in their implementation of the task-based curriculum.
The findings reported in this study serve to enrich our academic understanding in the field of teacher cognition research from a combined framework of Shuman’s (1986, 1987) concept of teachers’ knowledge and Bernstein’s (1990, 2000) notion of pedagogic discourse, suggesting a rethinking of teacher cognition research which is situated in a local setting. More importantly, this thesis provides empirical evidence for language education policy makers, curriculum leaders, test designers, and teacher trainers to consider in relation to the implementation of the task-based curriculum, and suggestions for making the curriculum innovation a success in local classroom contexts.
... Tomamos, además, el enfoque por tareas propuesto por Ellis (2003) para la didáctica de la lengua en general, en el cual se distingue la tarea de la actividad (ejercicio fundamentalmente gramatical), y en el que la tarea constituye una oportunidad para que los estudiantes utilicen la lengua de forma comunicativa. Ya Willis (2000, p.23) definía la tarea como "una actividad en donde el alumno utiliza la lengua meta con un fin comunicativo para lograr un resultado determinado" 5 . ...
... Willis (1996) divided this cycle into three parts: task implementation, planning, and report. In the task implementation part of the task cycle, task demands are, according to Ellis (2003), 'the processing demands imposed by the structure of the task on the language learner' (p. 67). ...
In light of contemporary pedagogical methods, the flipped classroom has been recognised as an effective
pedagogy in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). This study employed a quasi-experimental one-group
research design to investigate the impact of flipped learning on Omani EFL learners’ grammar and to examine
students’ perceptions on the flipped classroom. An intact group of students (n=28) enrolled at the foundation
programme in Arab Open University-Oman was randomly selected. Seven videos on English grammar were
developed and shared with the students prior to the class. A varaiety of activities were conducted in the class
following task-based language teaching. Students met for 8 lessons over the period of 8 weeks. Pre-test, post-test
and semi-structured interviews were used in the study. The findings indicated that flipped learning had a positive
impact on students’ understanding and usage of English grammar. Students’ perceptions on the flipped approach
were positive. The study also provided pedagogical insights for the flipped classroom and recommendations for
future research.
... His category includes three comprehensive approaches: • Task-based syllabus which is concerned with purposeful activities which learners might be expected to engage in real-life situations. As Ellis (2003) points out, this type of syllabus also puts emphasis on meaning and communication, where students are primarily "users" rather than "learners" of the language. Learners may switch their attention to form when performing a task, but the code is seen as peripheral to the focus on meaning. ...
Chronologically speaking, the view to syllabus design has been changed over the decades of development of the phenomenon of second language learning and teaching, as we go through from language centered methods to learner centered methods and to learning centered methods. An attempt was made in this paper to revisit the concept and the types of syllabus approaches in the realm of second language learning and teaching. Topics analyzed included, the definition of syllabus, the categorization of syllabi types, the introduction of an integrative approach to syllabus design and the presentation of the proposed model to syllabus design. In this paper, I focus on the traditional and critical approaches to syllabus design and introduce an integrative approach and finally I present the proposed model to teachers and syllabus designers to apply in practical contexts.
... Tomamos, además, el enfoque por tareas propuesto por Ellis (2003) para la didáctica de la lengua en general, en el cual se distingue la tarea de la actividad (ejercicio fundamentalmente gramatical), y en el que la tarea constituye una oportunidad para que los estudiantes utilicen la lengua de forma comunicativa. Ya Willis (2000, p.23) definía la tarea como "una actividad en donde el alumno utiliza la lengua meta con un fin comunicativo para lograr un resultado determinado" 5 . ...
a mayoría de los traductores y, sobre todo, aquellos traductores que nos dedicamos a la docencia de esta profesión nos vemos continuamente obligados a replantearnos nuestras prácticas y a reflexionar sobre las diferentes herramientas que podemos brindarles a los alumnos; herramientas que, por un lado, favorezcan el desarrollo de una actitud crítica respecto de la labor profesional y, por otro, fomenten una autonomía que les permita resolver futuros desafíos. Entonces, el objetivo del presente trabajo se centra en mostrar la utilidad del enfoque por tareas en la enseñanza de esta profesión. Se entiende por tarea de traducción “una unidad de trabajo en el aula, representativa de la práctica traductora, que se dirige intencionalmente al aprendizaje de la traducción y que está diseñada con un objetivo concreto, una estructura y una secuencia de trabajo” (Hurtado Albir, 2003:55). Partimos, además, de la noción de género discursivo (Bhatia, 2004) aplicada al estudio de la traducción (Izquierdo, 2005) en la didáctica de la traducción jurídica para trabajar, más precisamente, el género sentencia. Con el objeto de mostrar una posible aplicación de estas teorías, hemos diseñado una secuencia didáctica de actividades/tareas que pretenden enseñar al alumno cómo abordar textos de manera autónoma y prepararlo para su futuro ejercicio profesional.
... This learning approach is the combination of task-based learning and problem-based learning. Task-based learning is believed to empower students to develop their communicative skill (Ellis, 2003), train students' linguistic competence as well as provides experiential learning (Hussein, et.al, 2012). Meanwhile, problem-based learning provides opportunities for students to develop cognitive, social & experiential Connection (Cross, 1999), extensive and flexible knowledge (Derry, et.al 2002) as well as self-directed learning skills (Hmelo & Lin, 2000). ...
... Second language vocabulary may be taught through meaning-focused and form-focused tasks. Ellis (2003) claims that formfocused tasks attract learners" attention to form in order to elicit specific linguistic features, and Teklesellassie (2016) believes that meaningfocused tasks are useful for improving the ability to communicate in English. Similarly, Abrams and Byrd (2016) point out that meaningfocused tasks can improve grammatical accuracy and lexical richness. ...
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of meaning-focused versus form-focused input-oriented and output-oriented task-based instruction on elementary level Iranian EFL Learners" vocabulary comprehension and recall. For this purpose, a sample of 120 male students from a private school in Tehran was selected through convenience sampling and based on availability. The participants were divided into four groups, and each group was given a different treatment. The first group was taught through meaning-focused input-oriented vocabulary tasks; the second group was instructed through meaning-focused output-oriented tasks; the third group received form-focused input-oriented vocabulary tasks, and the fourth group received form-focused output-oriented vocabulary instruction. At the end of the treatment, the participants in all the four groups were given a vocabulary comprehension and a vocabulary recall posttest. The results indicated that meaning-focused tasks were more effective than form-focused tasks on both vocabulary comprehension and recall. At the same time, input-oriented tasks turned out to be more effective than output-oriented tasks on only vocabulary comprehension. In vocabulary recall, input-oriented tasks were more effective when they were form-focused, while output-oriented tasks were more effective when they were meaning-focused. The results of this study can have implications for teachers, learners, and curriculum designers.
... His category includes three comprehensive approaches: • Task-based syllabus which is concerned with purposeful activities which learners might be expected to engage in real-life situations. As Ellis (2003) points out, this type of syllabus also puts emphasis on meaning and communication, where students are primarily "users" rather than "learners" of the language. Learners may switch their attention to form when performing a task, but the code is seen as peripheral to the focus on meaning. ...
Chronologically speaking, the view to syllabus design has been changed over
the decades of development of the phenomenon of second language learning and teaching, as
we go through from language centered methods to learner centered methods and to learning
centered methods. An attempt was made in this paper to revisit the concept and the types of
syllabus approaches in the realm of second language learning and teaching. Topics analyzed
included, the definition of syllabus, the categorization of syllabi types, the introduction of an
integrative approach to syllabus design and the presentation of the proposed model to syllabus
design. In this paper, I focus on the traditional and critical approaches to syllabus design and
introduce an integrative approach and finally I present the proposed model to teachers and
syllabus designers to apply in practical contexts.
... There have been various approaches and methods of second or foreign language learning. Jeon & Hahn (2006) propose that the task-based view of language teaching, based on the constructivist theory of learning and communicative language teaching methodology, has been in response to some limitations of the traditional PPP (Presentation, Practice, and Production) approach (Ellis, 2003). Therefore, it has the substantial implication that language learning is a developmental process promoting communication and social interaction rather than a product acquired by practicing language items, and that learners learn the target language more effectively when they are naturally exposed to meaningful task-based activities. ...
As job competition is getting more challenging, higher education institutions need to cater for their students' career development. This paper discusses a case of an elective course preparing Indonesian students majoring in Information Technology (IT) hone their language and life skills to initiate their career steps. Focusing on writing skill to prepare application documents and oral competence to perform job interviews, this course applies principles of task based language teaching (TBLT) facilitated by strategy training of job hunting. The scaffolding activities cover classroom tasks dealing with life skills, namely soft-skill inventory, self potential identification, and examination of career interests. The course conduct is facilitated by the university e-class management system, a website containing job-interview videos, and web-based tools of document sharing. As the course output, learners are required to write a resume and a cover letter on their interest of job postings to be simulated in an interview session. A seminar of winning job competition by HRD managers and a short workshop by guest trainers discussing hands-on strategies to perform well in the selection process enrich the curricular activities. A model of ESP pedagogy to facilitate EFL students' initial career development is the ultimate objective of this course. INTRODUCTION ESP (English for Specific Purposes) pedagogy addresses the relevance between specific focus of language training and the communication purposes they perform in their job. In other words, the language competence resulted from classroom learning and practice should be pertinently applied into practice when they work. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) point out that one of the main concerns of ESP deals with preparing learners to communicate effectively in the tasks prescribed by their study or work situation. Accordingly, Basturkmen (2010:8) states that in an ESP situation, it is understood that " learners would want to achieve 'real world' objectives, the ones requiring specific linguistic competencies ". Aligned with language programs to facilitate professional purposes, this study focuses specific needs of preparing students for job recruitment process. Mainly it addresses the needs of writing application documents and performing well in job interview sessions. Suggesting task based of language teaching (TBLT) as the framework, this paper reports the classroom tasks and elaboration of ICT to facilitate the learning process.
... In this paper, I will use Willis's 'strong version' (Willis 1996b) of task-based language teaching (TBLT) where tasks are taken to be "the central component of syllabus design" (Butler, 2011: 38). This is in contrast to Ellis's weaker version of TBLT (Ellis 2003) where the task is used "for communicative practice in conjunction with a grammar-or function-based syllabus" (Butler, 2011: 38). I believe the former is in line with definitions of TBS (see below), whereas the later refers to task-supported teaching. ...
The task-based syllabus is the best model for providing a flexible framework for the promotion of L2 and the communicative use of language while recognizing the individuality of the learner. It provides opportunities for the real use of language while tasks relevant to learners needs and interests intrinsically motivate learners. This paper examines the theories that have influenced the task-based syllabus and looks at both its strength and weaknesses, identifying language learning contexts where it is best suited while showing that it is in-line with SLA research findings that propose that language learners do not acquire language one form at a time but rather through more complicated cognitive processes.
This study, a follow-up to the research reported by Erlam, investigated K-12 content teachers’ ability to design tasks for content instruction in U.S. schools. Thirty-nine K-12 teachers who were enrolled in an English as a second language (ESL) teaching methods course participated in the study and each designed two language learning tasks. Two researchers rated the tasks following Ellis and Shintani’s four task criteria, as in Erlam. The study addressed the questions: (1) How successful are content teachers in designing tasks that satisfy Ellis and Shintani’s criteria? (2) Which of the criteria do teachers find easiest and most difficult to satisfy? and (3) Do the teachers improve in meeting the criteria in a second round of task designs? Ninety-two percent and 95% of the tasks satisfied three of the four criteria in task designs 1 and 2, respectively. The teachers excelled most at creating contexts for meaningful communication (92%) and including an information gap (92%) in their first tasks. Incorporating a clearly defined outcome was the most difficult criterion (66%) for teachers to achieve. There was no significant improvement from Task 1 to Task 2 in successfully incorporating the four criteria. The content teachers incorporated more of the task features than the foreign language teachers in Erlam. Over 90% met the majority of the criteria, compared to 82% in Erlam’s study. Another important difference was that participants in Erlam’s study found the easiest criteria to address was including an outcome, and they struggled most to allow learners to use their own linguistic resources and incorporate a gap. The content teachers in the follow-up study struggled most to include an outcome, but consistently incorporated communication gaps and grew in their ability to ensure that learners use their own linguistic resources. This suggests that language teachers may focus more readily on language forms, while content teachers focus more on meaningful content than on language, providing support for learners to focus on meaning.
In die Kurrikulum- en Assesseringsbeleidsverklaring (KABV) van Afrikaans Huistaal oor verskillende skoolfases heen, word aangetoon dat die onderrig van grammatika toegespits moet wees op die wyse waarop dit gebruik word om sinvol te kommunikeer (DBO 2011b:11; Adendorff 2017:510). Daar is egter ’n leemte in die riglyne ten opsigte van kommunikatiewe grammatika-onderrig, waarvan Afrikaans Huistaal-onderwysers voorsien word, omdat dit bloot te karig is (Van der Merwe 2014:224). Vervolgens is die doel van ons artikel om ’n werkbare metode voor te stel wat gebruik kan word om grammatika kommunikatief te onderrig, naamlik taakondersteunende taalonderrig, wat berus op die gebruik van gefokusde take, dit wil sê take waar grammatikale items kommunikatief ingeoefen word (Adendorff 2017:512).
Communication via a foreign language is a collaborative process in
which both speakers and listeners construct meaning. Through
communication, language learners jointly construct knowledge.
Therefore, communication leads to language learning. The propose of the
current study was to investigate the differences in perceptions of Iraqi
university teachers towards communicative lagunage teaching (CLT) and
task-based language teaching (TBLT). In addition, the effectiveness of
each one of these methods was inspected from the teachers’ perspectives.
Another objective was to find out the effect of gender on teachers’
attitudes towards the two methods. This was done with the help of two
questionnaires – that is, the questionnaire on communicative language
teaching (CLT) and task-based language teaching (TBLT). The
particiaptns of the study were 83 male and female EFL university
teachers at karbala and kufa universities, nearly at the center of Iraq. The
data were collected through asking the participants to complete the CLT
and TBLT questionanires and the results were analyzed using paired and
independent samples t-tests and chi-square test. Based on the results of
the data analysis, it was found that university teachers at two different
universities in Iraq (Karbala and Kufa) have different perceptions toward
CLT and TBLT. In other words, they had more complete understanding
of CLT and its components than of TBLT. Furthermore, it was found that
female teachers had more positive attitudes towards CLT than TBLT.
Finally, the participant university teachers believed that CLT is more
effective than TBLT in practicing teaching.
Key words: communicative language teaching (CLT), task-based
language teaching (TBLT), Teaching methodology, Iraqi EFL
teachers
Introduction. The article is devoted to the study of the effectiveness of the use of "Task-Based Learning" (TBL) in teaching speaking and professional vocabulary to cadets of maritime universities. Communicative task in this research is considered as a type of activity in which the target language is used by a student for communicative purposes to achieve a certain outcome. At the same time, a chronology of the communicative task that consists of three stages (the pre-task, the task cycle, and language focus) should be followed. The purpose of the paper is to determine the feasibility of using Task-Based Learning in improving speaking skills and knowledge of professional vocabulary while teaching English to cadets of maritime universities in Ukraine. Materials and methods of research. The study involved 36 second-year cadets of the National University "Odessa Maritime Academy" (Odessa, Ukraine), studying maritime engineering. To determine the effectiveness of the use of TBL, cadets were divided into two groups of 18 participants in each one: the control group and the experimental one. In the control group, Maritime English was taught using traditional methods, whereas in the experimental group, it was taught using Task-Based Learning. Quantitative and qualitative research methods were used to process test results and open-ended questions in the cadets' questionnaires. Results of the research . The results of pre-testing revealed that only 16.7% of the cadets of the experimental group had grades A for speaking and 11.1% for the knowledge of professional vocabulary. After the experiment, the percentage of the cadets who received the highest grade A for speaking tripled (50.0%), and for the knowledge of professional vocabulary increased four times (11.1% and 44.4%, respectively). At the pre-test, 22.2% of cadets received grades B for both speaking and the knowledge of maritime terminology, whereas after the course, their percentage almost doubled (to 44.4% and 38.9%, respectively). Conclusions. The results of the study reveal the feasibility of using Task-Based Learning in teaching Maritime English to cadets of Ukrainian universities. The advantages of using TBL are improving knowledge of maritime terminology; increasing internal and external motivation for further learning of English; using authentic teaching materials, resources, and communicative situations close to cadets’ professional environment; using various forms of interaction in order to develop collaboration, critical thinking and the ability to comprehensively solve daily and emergency problems related to future work on vessels.
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to some important changes to teaching and learning. Many universities worldwide offered online learning courses. In an online course, the most challenging aspect is not only the teaching process, but also the student-to-student interaction. It is well documented that, during COVID-19 pandemic, online learning has changed the way students interact, communicate, and exchange ideas. Students experienced new ways of online communication and missed student-to-student interaction during the pandemic. University students, up to now, had the opportunity for socialization during their university studies. Nowadays, they face the challenge to interact only online without any contact with their closest friends. In a face-to-face environment, students build metacognitive skills and improve their communication skills, working in well-established partnerships. When students faced the transition to online learning, they missed the interaction with their peers, and they were engaged more in specific class activities rather than forming concrete project-oriented groups. To test the student-to-student interaction during the pandemic, undergraduate students were asked to form their own virtual communities, interact with their classmates, and make use of social media for accurate and continuous communication. According to the findings, third-year students, who had previous experience of face-to-face communication, were more comfortable to trust online communities, interact with their peers, compared with second-year students. A blended-learning environment with face-to-face communication and extra online activities using social media will keep and support the student-to-student interaction for newer students.
The development of English as a universal language led to the emergence of a new field in English language teaching which is called English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Moreover, English is recently considered as an international language, and with advancements in technology, accordingly, there is a widespread growth in demand for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses fluctuating in teaching length and mode. The present study, thus, attempts to consider the EAP Learners' Perceptions towards the use of tasks taught in universities as EAP courses for students and what English skills and abilities are required from them on the job.
The issue of reactivity in concurrent verbal reports has motivated many
recent investigations to examine the effect of think-aloud during task completion.
The role of verbalisation in foreign language learning is still an open question,
especially in terms of variables on vocabulary development. The current study
investigated the issue of reactivity on vocabulary development while students
engaged in reading comprehension task. Most specifically, this study sought to
address the potential methodological issue of reactivity affecting learner’s attention
on the process of form or process of lexical form, and processing of meaning in
different attentional conditions of task-induced involvement. In order to successfully
explore such a broad issue, mixed methods approaches were adopted to discover the
different aspects of reactivity from different angles and provide a better
understanding of how performing think-aloud would trigger the issue of reactivity in
experimental intervention. The quasi-experimental research design was employed to
investigate the cause-and-effect inferences of participants’ attention to word form
and meaning while engaged in performing reading comprehension task. A total of
27 intermediate English as Foreign Language students were selected as sample in
this study. Participants were assigned randomly into three groups to perform several
tasks based on the involvement of load hypothesis. Two qualitative and three
quantitative instruments (think-aloud, journal entry writing, reading comprehension
test, written vocabulary production test, and recognition per-test and post-test of
word meaning) were employed to investigate the issue of reactivity. Results
obtained from the think-aloud protocol and journal entry writing revealed a positive
effect of think-aloud to trigger the potential issue of reactivity on vocabulary
development through operationalizing level of awareness and depth of processing
that use to assist in the investigation of reactivity. Positive reactive effect of think-
aloud occurred in all types of reading comprehension tasks, especially in multiple-
choice glosses used to identify the main idea. Results of this study provide evidence
of the relationship between level of awareness and level of processing with
development. Overall, the study supported the beneficial effect of glossing on
memory experiences and vocabulary development. In conclusion, the input-output
of task-induced involvement leads students to engage in deep processing with a
higher level of awareness and the process of reactivity may trigger vocabulary
development and enhance students’ performance in reading comprehension
Planning and sequencing lessons in task-based language teaching has been considered a challenge because there is no agreed-upon theoretical framework for sequencing tasks. The SSARC model (stabilize, simplify, automatize, reconstruct, and complexify) of task sequencing allows for predictions about L2 learners’ interlanguage development. However, previous task sequencing studies have reported mixed findings. Therefore, the current study further investigated the effectiveness of sequencing tasks using the SSARC model for promoting L2 written lexical complexity (e.g., lexical diversity), grammatical accuracy, and fluency. Novice French L2 writers (N = 42) at an elementary school in Lebanon carried out three experimental tasks in two different orders: simple-to-complex, and complex-to-simple. Pre-test and post-test measures of their written production and discrete point tests of target lexical and grammatical forms were administered. Results showed that the writers in both groups improved in terms of their lexical diversity, grammatical accuracy of relative clauses, and fluency, but the simple-to-complex group maintained the gains over time. Pedagogical implications for task sequencing in L2 contexts are discussed.
In Uganda, delays in teaching and learning of Kiswahili in primary schools have been experienced since their establishment in the education systems in the 1920s. At present, the language-in-education policy requires the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) to prepare instructional materials for facilitating the teaching of Kiswahili as a compulsory subject from primary schools to secondary schools. However, the NCDC has been able to produce and launch the Kiswahili teaching syllabi for secondary schools only, delaying the introduction of the teaching syllabi for primary schools. This theoretical paper argues that the absence of a Kiswahili conventional syllabus in primary schools has led teachers to (i) abandon the teaching profession as Kiswahili language teachers, and (ii) attempt 'designing' individual-based (hereafter, school-based) syllabi. The paper intends to demonstrate how the quality of the existing school-based syllabi can be improved and also aims to demonstrate (to language teaching researchers, advisers and language teachers) in general, how teachers can design their respective school-based syllabi purposefully to strengthen the teaching and learning of Kiswahili in their respective schools and classrooms.
Among the major initials of any language program is the specification of content of language teaching and learning in developing materials. As the aim of content specification is to prepare the list of items in the order they will be taught, different factors like the environment in which the course will be used, needs of the learners, and teaching and learning principles should be taken into account (Nation & Macalister, 2010).
This study reports on the investigation of young learners’ perceptions of FonF tasks regarding enjoyment, ease, performance, and persuasion. It was attempted to explore young learners’ attitudes toward FonF tasks in two elementary English classes. The two classes consisted of 13 and 17 female learners aged 12 to 15. In particular, the present study addressed the learners’ perceptions of two selected tasks of grammar interpretation and grammaring. For this purpose, questionnaires and an interview were used to elicit their perspectives on the tasks. Based on the analysis of their responses, it was revealed that the determinant features for their preferences fall into five categories: the use of context in teaching grammar, the use of contextual support for practicing the grammatical structure, task demands, the novelty of procedures, and the saliency of linguistic structure. Findings also indicated that in spite of the learners’ positive attitudes toward four tasks, variations existed in their perceptions regarding four sources of influence: the required mental processes to do a task, opportunities for group works, textual enhancement and the learning values of the task.
A growing body of research has shown a positive role of task-supported instruction in second language (L2) learning (Ellis, 2003a; Loewen, 2015; Van Den Branden, 2006). From a pedagogical perspective, recycling or repeating parts of teaching materials is common practice and theoretical support for such practice is emerging (Bygate and Samuda, 2005). However, determining which aspects to repeat during task-supported interaction that fosters interaction-driven learning opportunities while maintaining student interest is currently underexplored. Further, few studies have considered learners? perception during task completion. The current study thus examined the effects of task repetition on the production and resolution of language-related episodes (LREs) over time. English-speaking (first language, L1) students of Spanish (second language, L2) from two intact Spanish as a foreign language (FL) classroom (n = 28) were assigned to one of the following task repetition groups: task with repetition (same task/same content) or task with procedural repetition (same task/new content). Learner?learner interaction produced during two-way decision-making tasks were transcribed and coded for LREs. Learner perception data was collected following task completion and analysed qualitatively. The results indicated that the task repetition had greater benefits on the occurrence and resolution of lexis-based LREs, but that both groups benefited similarly in terms of producing and resolving form-based LREs. Results are discussed in light of speech processing models and pedagogical implications for task-based instruction in FL settings are examined.
Research into L2/FL reading and its instruction conducted over the last decades has made it clear that the development of reading ability cannot be properly defined only with reference to general text comprehension skills. A better explanatory framework is needed to account for the complexity of knowledge/content processing by means of linguistic tools. What is more, one has to bear in mind that reading activities take place in diverse sociocultural contexts, with a range of objectives set for them, and remain under the inherent influence of text and learner variables. Recent literature has also recognized the fact that, immersed in the educational system, both native and non-native learners struggle with the acquisition and expansion of subject matter knowledge. As part of literacy, reading substantially contributes to the acquisition of new informational content by the learner, the restructuring of general knowledge, as well as language proficiency enhancement. This paper is intended to seek some emerging theoretical foundations which would be helpful in approaching reading development with a dual focus on language and content which, as it is claimed, should form the basis for L2/FL reading instruction in formal educational settings. With this goal in mind, the paper tackles the following four areas of concern: (1) the conceptualization of reading by basic models of text comprehension, (2) the relationship between reading development and language acquisition, (3) the impact of the schema theory on understanding reading comprehension, and the weaknesses of this theory, (4) the implementation of language-content integration within content-based teaching frameworks.
The teaching of grammar in second language (SL) pedagogy has a history of at least 2,500 years (Rutherford, 1987), and it seems plausible that focus on grammatical form may be a factor in the advantage that instructed SL learners sometimes enjoy over naturalistic learners (Ellis, 1989; Long, 1988). Recently, the use of tasks in language teaching has gained increasing acceptance in the language teaching field (e.g. Nunan, 1989), and suggestions have been made regarding the potential of the task concept as an organizing principle for second language syllabi (Long, 1985). However, regarding the use of communicative tasks to teach second language grammar, there has only recently begun to be much of anything written (though see Bley-Vroman, 1989; Madden & Reinhart, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Rutherford, 1987; Ur, 1988). More importantly, little theoretical work has been done in tying grammar pedagogy and task-based methodology together. The purpose of this chapter is to bring together these two strands: focus on grammatical form and the use of tasks in language teaching.
Recent discussion of the role of grammar has focused on at least three key questions: When should some aspect of grammar be taught? Which should be taught? How should grammar be taught? (see Rutherford & Sharwood Smith, 1988). We will deal primarily with the third question - the question of methodology. It will be argued that the best way to incorporate grammar in language instruction is not by the use of drill or of grammar exercises, but instead, as Rutherford & Sharwood Smith (1988) claim, by the use of 'consciousness raising' activities which facilitate the development of grammatical knowledge through hypothesis testing and inferencing. We suggest that meaningful communication tasks can effectively be used to do just that. We will present an approach to designing structurally based communication tasks and will provide a psycholinguistic rationale for this approach.
This article proposes a conceptual framework for the integration of language and content teaching in second and foreign language classrooms. In this model, language and content teachers work collaboratively to determine language-teaching objectives. These objectives derive from two considerations: (a) content-obligatory language (language essential to an understanding of content material) and (b) content-compatible language (language that can be taught naturally within the context of a particular subject matter and that students require additional practice with). The conceptual framework is illustrated in four instructional settings—the mainstream class, the ESL class, the foreign language immersion class, and the FLES (Foreign Language in the Elementary School) class. General implications for the integration of language and content teaching are also discussed.
This study investigates the relative effects of two types of input modification—simplification and elaboration—on Korean high school students' EFL reading comprehension. Six English reading passages in one of three forms—(a) baseline, (b) simplified, or (c) elaborated—were presented to 180 students, who were divided into two proficiency levels (i.e., high proficiency and low proficiency). Comprehension was assessed by an 18-item multiple-choice test, which included items for assessing (a) general, (b) specific, and (c) inferential comprehension. In addition, students' perceptions of their comprehension were measured by their responses on a 6-point unipolar scale. The test data were analyzed by a 2-by-3 analysis of variance, with least significant difference tests used in post hoc analyses. The results support the suggestion that input should be modified in the direction of elaboration rather than by artificial simplification, because elaboration retains more nativelike qualities than and is at least equally successful as—if not more successful than—simplification in improving comprehension. Instruction with elaborated input should accelerate the progression to fluent reading of unmodified materials, which is the ultimate goal of foreign language reading instruction.
This paper describes a framework for examining the effects of the cognitive complexity of tasks on language production and learner perceptions of task difficulty, and for motivating sequencing decisions in task-based syllabuses. Results of a study of the relationship between task complexity, difficulty, and production show that increasing the cognitive complexity of a direction-giving map task significantly affects speaker-information-giver production (more lexical variety on a complex version and greater fluency on a simple version) and hearer-information-receiver interaction (more confirmation checks on a complex version). Cognitive complexity also significantly affects learner perceptions of difficulty (e.g. a complex version is rated significantly more stressful than a simple version). Task role significantly affects ratings of difficulty, though task sequencing (simple to complex versus the reverse sequence) does not. However, sequencing does affect the accuracy and fluency of speaker production. Implications of the findings for task-based syllabus design and further research into task complexity, difficulty, and production interactions are discussed.
Researchers need to identify what differences second language tasks set at different levels of complexity make to measures of learner language, in order to provide a basis for pedagogic decisions about grading and sequencing such tasks. This study examined differences in the production of oral narrative discourse by 12 adult second language learners of English on narrative tasks that simulated the ability to describe events in the Here-and-Now versus the There-and-Then. Target-like use, propositional and syntactic complexity, lexical load, pausing, and utterance length were measured under the two conditions. A MANOVA showed significant differences between the two conditions. Separate ANOVAs for each measure showed a significant difference between the two conditions for measures of lexical load and an almost significant difference for measures of target-like use. The more complex There-and-Then condition elicited greater accuracy and a higher ratio of lexical to grammatical words. There was also a trend suggesting greater utterance length for narratives performed under the simpler Here-and-Now condition. These results support the claim that complex tasks elicit less fluent, but more accurate and complex production than do simpler tasks.
This paper examines recent proposals for task-based approaches to instruction It reviews relevant research, before going on
to examine a number of potential problems with task-based teaching, such as a potential focus away from form and towards lexis
It reviews recent developments in cognitive psychology which support a dual-mode perspective for language processing, and
then proposes the goals of accuracy, complexity-restructuring, and fluency as the most relevant for task-based instruction
In the final section, the paper proposes a framework for the implementation of task-based instruction which draws upon relevant
theory and research, and which organizes the methods by which such instruction could be put into practice in such a way as
to minimize problems, and maximize the probability that all three above goals can be achieved
The influence of cognitive processing on second language acquisition (SLA), and on the development of second language (SL) instruction, has always been a subject of major interest to both SLA researchers and those involved in SL pedagogy. Recent theoretical research into SLA and SL pedagogy has shown renewed interest in the role of cognitive variables such as attention, short, working, and long term memory, and automaticity of language processing. This volume first examines the theoretical foundations of research into the cognitive processes underlying SLA, and then describes various implications for pedagogically oriented research and for SL classroom practice. The blend of research from the cognitive sciences and applied linguistics make it an excellent introduction to applied linguists and language teachers interested in the psycholinguistic processes underlying SLA.
This important new book provides a critical overview of recent classroom-centered research and its implications for the teaching and learning of languages. Chaudron synthesizes and evaluates crucial research about the way student and teacher behaviours affect language learning and discusses research methods. Second Language Classrooms will be of vital interest to researchers, language teachers, and curriculum specialists, as well as readers with a general interest in education, linguistics, sociology, or psychology.
The role of conversational interactions in the development of a second language has been central in the recent second language acquisition literature. While a great deal is now known about the way in which nonnative speakers interact with native speakers and other nonnative speakers, little is known about the lasting effects of these interactions on a nonnative's linguistic development. This paper specifically investigates the relationship among input, interaction, and second language production. Through data from native–nonnative speaker interactions in a direction-giving task, we show that both modified input and interaction affect task performance. However, only interaction has an effect on subsequent task performance.
This article examines incidental and transitory focus on form. Learner uptake was studied in focus-on-form episodes occurring in 12 hours of communicative ESL teaching. Learner uptake was generally high and successful—to a much greater extent than has been reported for immersion classrooms. Uptake was higher and more successful in reactive focus on form and in student-initiated focus on form than in teacher-initiated focus on form. The level of uptake was also influenced by whether meaning or form was negotiated and by the complexity of an episode. This study indicates that focus on form can occur without disturbing the communicative flow of a classroom and that the classroom context can affect the amount of uptake.
Extending the research done on the effects of different types of task and different participant arrangements used to foster negotiated interaction among L2 learners, we developed a task that presents specific referential conflicts and analyzed the solutions adopted within two different pairings of learners. Pairs in which the higher proficiency member had the dominant role engaged in little interactive cooperation and in some cases changed the task rather than negotiate a solution. Pairs in which the higher proficiency member had the nondominant role engaged in substantial negotiation work, sought each other's perspective and generally shared much more in the interactive turn-taking and the successful resolution of referential conflicts.
There are substantial theoretical and empirical grounds for believing that opportunities to negotiate meaning through interaction facilitate comprehension. However, although there are theoretical grounds for believing that meaning negotiation aids second language acquisition, these are not supported by any empirical evidence. This article reports two classroom studies, based on the same design, which investigated the effects of modified interaction on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition among 79 and 127 high-school students of English in Japan. The main results were: (a) interactionally modified input resulted in better comprehension than premodified input, (b) interactiqnally modified input led to more new words being acquired than premodified input, (c) learners who actively participated in negotiating meaning did not understand any better than those simply exposed to modified interaction, and (d) the active participators did not learn more new words. These results are discussed in terms of the interaction hypothesis (Long, 1981). The dual-study method in classroom research is a useful way of establishing which results are generalizable and which are subject to situational variation.
Analysis and Experience as Variables in Second Language Pedagogy The Development of Second Language Proficiency
- R Ellis
Ellis, R. 'Analysis and Experience as Variables in Second Language Pedagogy', in B. Harley, P. Allen, J. Cummins and M. Swain (eds.), The Development of Second Language Proficiency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): 93-109.
The Place of Grammar Instruction in the Second/Foreign Language Curriculum
- R Ellis
Towards Task-Based Language Learning
- C Candlin
Integrating Language and Content Instruction
- F Genesee