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“I Wish We Had More Time to Spend Together...”The Distribution and Predictors of Perceived Family Time Pressures Among Married Men and Women in the Paid Labor Force
Abstract
In this article, I examine the distribution of time pressure associated with the roles of marital partner and parent using data from a telephone survey. Results of an analysis of open-ended responses indicate that less than a quarter of respondents are satisfied with the time they spend with their children and spouses. Women are more likely to want to improve the quality of family time, whereas men are somewhat more likely to want more time with their spouses and children. Regression analysis indicates that social support, hours of paid labor, hours of housework, job control, and having dependent children are all associated with significant variation in family time pressures. In contrast to research on general time pressure, there are no socioeconomic differences in family time pressures, and women do not experience significantly higher family time pressures than men do.
... Among workrelated demands, long work hours have been argued to bring about fatigue, magnify the impact of other stressors at workplace, limit parents' available time for the family and ergo their opportunities to nurture high-quality family relationships (Gray et al., 2004), which all lead to perceived conflicts. The negative impact of long hours has been repeatedly supported by existing research on both parents (Byron, 2005;Major et al., 2002;Roxburgh, 2006), although Milkie and Peltola (1999) found that long work hours are associated with only the fathers' (not the mothers') perceived work-to-family imbalance. Beyond contracted hours, today's workplace sometimes requires additional time investment or accessibility, such as overnight travels, long commute, and phone/email availability during off-work hours. ...
... Meanwhile, the workplace can provide work-related resources that may help individuals manage the interface between the professional and family spheres. One such example is job autonomy, defined as individual power and control over how the job should be done (Roxburgh, 2006). High-autonomy jobs typically involve non-routine tasks and schedule control. ...
... Job autonomy has been found to boost individual performance in work by promoting empowerment and professionalism at work (Pearson & Moomaw, 2005). High job autonomy has also been associated with lower distress and work-to-family conflicts among females (Grönlund, 2007;Lennon & Rosenfield, 1992), lower perceived parental and spousal time pressure for both fathers and mothers (Roxburgh, 2006), and higher perceived satisfaction, greater positive work-family spillover and lower work-family conflict for both sexes (Thompson & Prottas, 2006). Job autonomy might be a work resource that is particularly relevant to fathers: Fathers self-reported to have jobs with greater autonomy than mothers (Haines et al., 2019); job autonomy has also been found to foster positive, accepting parenting style among fathers, but not mothers (Grimm-Thomas & Perry-Jenkins, 1994;Whitbeck et al., 1997) The associations between various family demands and parents' perceived work-family conflict appear to be more complex. ...
Objective: This study investigated how work and family demands and resources relate to fathers’ perceived work-family conflicts. Background: Increasing expectations for family involvement and the lingering centrality of employment in the male life course pose challenges for fathers to combine different life domains. However, most studies on work-family interface continue to focus on mothers and examine work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflicts separately. Method: First, we used cluster analysis to identify a typology of four groups, each with different manifestations of work-to-family and family-to-work conflict. We then analyzed the relationship between fathers’ group membership in this typology and a number of relevant work and family demands and resources using multinomial logistic regression on a sample of 5,226 German nuclear families with at least one child under 18. Results: Our findings revealed that the greatest proportion of fathers (38.2%) reported being primarily pressured from work (=work-to-family conflict predominates), 19.8% primarily from the family (=family-to-work conflict predominates), but another 13.4% reported feeling conflicted in both directions; only 28.6% of fathers reported being more or less free of conflicts. Results of multinominal logistic regression suggested that long work hours, intrusive work demands, and long commute associated with fathers’ work-to-family conflict or dual conflicts. The higher the fathers’ weekday time investment in childcare and the better the perceived couple and family relationship, the lower the likelihood of fathers’ experience of work-to-family and dual conflict, although the likelihood of family-to-work conflict is unaffected. In addition, a higher family income and having a non-working partner negatively associated with fathers’ perceived work-family conflicts. Conclusion: These findings have strong implications for family-supportive practices and policies that are yet to focus on fathers in their difficult position between work and family obligations.
... Individuals increasingly struggle between conflicting responsibilities in different domains of life (e.g., work demands, child care; Gershuny, 2000;Hochschild, 1997) and subjectively experience 'time stress' (Levine, 1997) or 'time scarcity' (Pronovost, 1989). A considerable share of women and men report a lack of time for their partners and children (Jurczyk & Heitkötter, 2012;Matos & Galinsky, 2010;Roxburgh, 2006). Therefore, the second goal of this thesis is to contribute to the understanding of stress spillover mechanisms within intimate relationships by examining how minor external stress affects the different dimensions of shared time. ...
... (a) intensity of communication during an activity (e.g., Flora & Segrin, 1998;Holman & Jacquart, 1988;Orthner, 1975Orthner, , 1976 (b) channels of communication (verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal) (cf. Crystal Jiang & Hancock, 2013) (c) degree of novelty, excitement, stimulation, or potential for (shared) self-expansion (e.g., Aron et al., 2000;Reissman et al., 1993) (d) absence of (destructive) contention (e.g., Gottman, 1994) (e) presence of others, specifically children (e.g., Dyck & Daly, 2006;Hamermesh, 2000;Huston & Vangelisti, 1995;Lavee, Sharlin, & Katz, 1996;Lenz, 2009;Roxburgh, 2006;White, Booth, & Edwards, 1986). ...
... 168). Strikingly, people subjectively experience a lack of time for family and spouse (Daly, 2001a(Daly, , 2001bGillis, 1996;Jurczyk & Heitkötter, 2012;Roxburgh, 2006), and feel that nowadays daily life is hurried by contrast with an idealized interpretation of the past (Southerton, 2003). Meanwhile, an abundance of popular idioms such as 'time scarcity' (Pronovost, 1989), 'the time crunch' (Fox & Nickols, 1983), 'the time bind' (Hochschild, 1997), or 'the time squeeze' (Clarkberg & Moen, 2001) have been used to describe the phenomenon. ...
... In recent decades, mothers' increased employment, the rise of dual-earner couples, and a growing sense of overwork have raised valid concerns about how time is spent within the family (Jacobs & Gerson, 2004). Increased work hours have been associated with greater perceived partner and family time pressures for working men and women (Roxburgh, 2006), and dual-earner, full-time working couples spend less time together than other couple types . Although some evidence suggests that the time couples spend exclusively together has come under duress (Amato, Johnson, Booth, & Rogers, 2003Dew, 2009), time as a family (Genadek, Flood, & Garcia-Román, 2016), and with children, has seemingly been preserved, at the cost of mothers' free time (Sayer, 2005). ...
... Men and women have reported greater happiness and meaning, and less stress, during time shared with their partner, regardless of the activity performed . Reductions in partner time can have negative implications on marital quality (Claxton & Perry-Jenkins, 2008) and stability, especially for those with children, the majority of whom report spending too little time with their partner (Bianchi et al., 2006;Roxburgh, 2006). Family time has been repeatedly assigned the label of scarcity, putting parents who claim to never have enough of it in an endless pursuit to gain more and fueling cultural concerns of overwork and work-life strategies (Daly, 2001;Mattingly & Sayer, 2006). ...
... Family time has been repeatedly assigned the label of scarcity, putting parents who claim to never have enough of it in an endless pursuit to gain more and fueling cultural concerns of overwork and work-life strategies (Daly, 2001;Mattingly & Sayer, 2006). Lacking family time can be particularly acute among dual-earner couples (Bianchi et al., 2006;Jacobs & Gerson, 2004;Roxburgh, 2006). Time with children is equally important because evidence suggests that early parental time investments have lasting impacts on children's human capital development (Currie, 2001;Harvey, 1999). ...
In recent decades, the dual-earner couple has become increasingly normative, potentially reducing the time couples and families spend together. The authors investigated how coupled individuals allocated time together, alone, with children, and as a family, exploring changes between 1990 and 2010 in Sweden using three waves of the Swedish Time Use Survey (N = 9,544). Ordinary least squares and decomposition analyses find a trend toward time together over time alone, with childless couples spending similar time together and parents increasing family time. The shift toward family time evolved differently for men and women, indicating gender convergence in private and public spheres, but at higher costs of time alone for women. Change is behavioral and general, applying quite equally across gender and educational groups. There are educational gradients concerning time with children and certain qualitative aspects of time together, indicating that dual-earner society may be family friendly, but not equally for all.
... Moreover, there are a number of factors that could contribute to the quantity and quality of the time partners spend together, such as the experience of stress. More than two-thirds of couples report a lack of time for their partner and family (Jurczyk & Heitkötter, 2012;Matos & Galinsky, 2010;Roxburgh, 2006), which may be due in part to enduring everyday stress that partners face outside their relationship, defined as chronic minor external stress (CMES) (Randall & Bodenmann, 2017. Chronic minor external stressors (e.g., driving to work during rush hour every day) contribute to a feeling of being pressured for time (Levine, 1997). ...
... For example, the chronic experience of minor everyday stressors may impact the time shared between partners as they are busy navigating these stressors (e.g., dealing with a demanding work schedule while taking care of the children). Given the increased stress parents may face (Hamermesh, 2000;Roxburgh, 2002Roxburgh, , 2006Wight, Raley, & Bianchi, 2008;Witt & Goodale, 1981) and the importance of the time spent with one's romantic partner for relational outcomes (Hill, 1988;Holman & Jacquart, 1988;Orthner, 1975), it is surprising that limited literature exists that focuses on understanding how parents' shared time is associated with daily hassles and minor external stress. ...
... For example, partners may have to synchronize conflicting work hours or "bring their work home" to meet greater work demands (e.g., project deadlines), and account for family demands, such as getting their children to school or to various appointments (Gershuny, 2000;Hochschild, 1997). In several studies assessing the subjective perception of time stress, about two-thirds of the women and men report a shortage of time spent with their spouse and children (Daly, 2001;Matos & Galinsky, 2010;Roxburgh, 2006). Although Voorpostel, van der Lippe, and Gershuny (2010) showed that the time spent in shared spousal leisure activities has increased during the past decades, Dew (2009) demonstrated that the overall amount of time partners budget for one another has significantly decreased. ...
Data from 90 German committed heterosexual couples who had a least one child were used to examine the associations between chronic minor external stress, quantity and quality of time spent together as a couple, and partners' relationship satisfaction. Using an extended version of the Actor Partner Interdependence Model, the authors found significant negative indirect effects from mothers' chronic minor external stress via quality, but not quantity, of shared time to both parents' reported relationship satisfaction. Mothers' chronic minor external stress was associated with fewer reported quality time activities, which were also associated with lower reports of relationship satisfaction for both mothers and fathers. The authors did not find indirect effects for fathers' chronic minor external stress. Overall, the frequency of quality time activities may be more important for mothers, as it explained 25% of variance in their relationship satisfaction, compared with 15% in fathers' relationship satisfaction. Implications for relationship researchers and clinicians are discussed.
... Despite definite changes in marriage in the direction of individualization, the percentage of couples who share bank accounts, residences, and time remains high (Lauer and Yodanis 2011). The individualization of marriage argument is also undermined by research showing that individuals want to spend more time with their spouses (i.e., Bianchi 2009;Bianchi et al. 2006;Nomaguchi et al. 2005;Roxburgh 2006). ...
... Perhaps increases in shared time overall are driven by more assortative mating and "consumption complementarity" (Lam 1988;Lundberg 2012;Stevenson and Wolfers 2007); that is, couples have selected into marriages based on shared interests and spend more time doing things together that they both enjoy. This explanation would be consistent with evidence that couples want to spend more time with their spouses (Bianchi et al. 2006;Nomaguchi et al. 2005;Roxburgh 2006). The increases in couples' shared time may also be related to selection into marriage and selection related to staying married. ...
... Despite spending more time together, shared time may be colored by always feeling rushed (Mattingly and Sayer 2006), thereby creating that "never enough" feeling for coupled individuals (Bianchi et al. 2006;Roxburgh 2006). The increasing trend in parents' shared time seems largely driven by family time-that is, time with a spouse and a child. ...
Despite major demographic changes over the past 50 years and strong evidence that time spent with a spouse is important for marriages, we know very little about how time with a spouse has changed—or not—in the United States. Using time diary data from 1965–2012, we examine trends in couples’ shared time in the United States during a period of major changes in American marriages and families. We find that couples without children spent more total time together and time alone together in 2012 than they did in 1965, with total time and time alone together both peaking in 1975. For parents, time spent together increased between 1965 and 2012, most dramatically for time spent with a spouse and children. Decomposition analyses show that changes in behavior rather than changing demographics explain these trends, and we find that the increases in couples’ shared time are primarily concentrated in leisure activities.
... When both partners acknowledge their mutual presence, "they must agree to some extent about what is going on and how a particular situation should be interpreted" (Vagni, 2019, p. 504). This shared interpretation allows for the constitution of shared norms and values within the relationship and thus for the constitution of a couple identity (Berger & Kellner, 1964;Rossignac-Milon et al., 2021;Surra & Bartell, 2001;Walsh & Neff, 2018)-an important part of couple solidarity. ...
... family sociology theorizes that joint participation in faceto-face activities promotes the constitution of shared norms and values as well as a mutual perspective on the marriage (Berger & Kellner, 1964). Therefore, spending time together allows for the formation of a couple identity (Rossignac-Milon et al., 2021;Walsh & Neff, 2018)-an important part of couple and family solidarity. ...
This article examines the relationship between couple time and nonstandard working time, in particular evening work, using household-based time use data from Germany. We analyzed three measures of couple time: total time couples spend together, engaged leisure time and other couple time. Engaged leisure includes joint leisure activities and a mutual acknowledgement of the partner’s presence, while other couple time includes the performance of different activities or joint unpaid work. The results of multiple OLS-regressions on data from 1957 couples across 5871 diary days strongly suggest that evening work reduces not only total couple time but also specifically engaged leisure time. In contrast, other couple time is less affected by time spent in paid evening work. As engaged leisure time is strongly related to relationship stability and satisfaction, it can be assumed that evening work has negative effects on intimate relationships.
... When workers cannot adapt to meet the demands of both work and family, physical and mental health problems may arise (Costa, Sartori and Akerstedt 2006). Work factors and pressures have been associated with family time pressures (Roxburgh 2006). Working parents choose work and family routines on a daily basis by making decisions on what is most important for them in that moment. ...
... For example, working parents in Australia reported wanting to work fewer hours if they were experiencing greater work-to-family conflict (Reynolds and Aletraris 2007). Such conflicts can impinge upon the working parent's sense of balance between work and family demands, affecting not only productivity in (or commitment to) the workplace, but family time and family functioning as well (Roxburgh 2006;Stevens, Kiger and Riley 2006). ...
This study explored the relationships between five types of everyday family routines (leisure, chores, TV viewing, worship, and meals) with family satisfaction, and the degree to which work–family fit (WFF) moderated this relationship. Data come from a nationally representative sample of workers in Singapore, using a subset of 623 married, employed parents. Results revealed that family routines were differentially related to family satisfaction, with TV viewing having the strongest positive relationship. WFF itself was directly related to greater family satisfaction and also moderated the relationships between family routines and family satisfaction. Findings suggest WFF – the perception of successfully integrating work and personal/family life – is strongly related to family satisfaction and may play a role in helping employed parents to experience benefits in the home, in the workplace, and even in their health and well‐being. Key points Work‐family fit is an important issue that represents how well employees balance work and family. Work‐family fit is related to employees' self‐reports of their level of satisfaction with their families. Work‐family fit seems to influence how often employees participate in various activities with their families.
... These two trends have led to an increase in the total time dedicated to children, despite decreasing fertility levels (Sullivan -Gershuny 2001, Lam et al. 2012. However, there is also persistent evidence that the majority of American parents want to spend more time with their children (Milkie et al. 2004, Nomaguchi et al. 2005, Roxburgh et al. 2008. Although this increase is well-established in the literature, there is much less empirical knowledge about how parents and children spend time together (Craig et al. 2014). ...
... While there has been an increase in the time that parents and children spend together -especially in the case of fathers (Sullivan -Gershuny, 2001;Harcsa, 2014;Hofäcker, 2007;Lam et al., 2012) -, contemporary parents complain about the insufficient time they are able to devote to their children (Milkie et al., 2004;Nomaguchi et al., 2005;Roxburgh et al., 2008). On the one hand, the squeezed feeling of time that characterizes the lives of contemporary families might influence the nature and the perception of the time that parents and children spend together. ...
While there is an upward trend in the time parents and children spend together, there is also intensifying parental anxiety about whether they are spending enough and sufficient quality time with children. The significant impact of parental time on children’s cognitive and social outcomes and wellbeing is well documented in the literature. This importance is also reflected in the often-used notion of quality time in academic and public debate, which emphasizes the nature of parental time. Moreover, there is growing evidence that a ‘squeezed’ feeling of time characterizes the lives of contemporary families. The difficulties of reconciling work and family life mostly concern parents. This paper reviews the literature about parental time based on the problem of time pressure, and related to this, the paradoxical anxiety of today’s parents about the time they devote to their children. The article aims to describe parenting trends and focuses on parental time by exploring its features and influential factors. First, we review the characteristics of changing expectations about parenthood and discuss emerging concepts concerning the time parents and children spend together related to the ideals of contemporary parenting. Second, based on earlier empirical findings, the most important factors are outlined and elaborated. Reflecting on the Hungarian context, related findings are also presented.
... Ein Großteil der befragten Paare berichtet, nicht genug Zeit für den Partner zu haben, und wünscht sich mehr Zeit für die Familie (z. B. Jurczyk und Heitkötter 2012;Roxburgh 2006). Schon allein das legt die Vermutung nahe, dass gemeinsame Zeit ein wertvolles Gut ist, welchem nicht nur Paarberater und -forscher, sondern vor allem die Paare selbst eine große Bedeutung beimessen. ...
... Auch wenn sich Stress negativ auf die gemeinsame Zeit von Paaren aller Altersgruppen und Beziehungsstadien auswirkt, so gehören vor allem Paare mit kleinen Kindern zur Risikogruppe, bei der Zeit für Zweisamkeit (zu) eng bemessen ist (Hamermesh 2000;Roxburgh 2002Roxburgh , 2006Witt und Goodale 1981). Eltern verbringen ihre gemeinsame Zeit vor allem als Familie und weniger zu zweit als Paar (Lenz 2009;Weißbrodt 2005). ...
In stresstheoretischen Ansätzen innerhalb der Paarforschung wird die gemeinsame Zeit ebenfalls als eine (begrenzte) Ressource betrachtet, die vor allem durch Alltagsstress negativ beeinflusst wird. Im Stress-Scheidung-Modell identifiziert Bodenmann (Stress und Coping bei Paaren, Hogrefe, Göttingen, 2000b), die gemeinsame Zeit als eine von vier Schlüsselfaktoren, die den Mechanismus allmählicher, gegenseitiger Entfremdung in Partnerschaften durch chronischen Alltagsstress erklärt.
... Lack of children and heterosexuality were included as inclusion criteria in order to aid the sample homogeneity. Moreover, partners who have children spend less time with each other (Roxburgh, 2006), thus, may be differently impacted by phubbing. The participants were compensated with £3.40 ($4.20 in 2021) for a total of 30 minutes' study run over seven days. ...
Interactions between romantic partners may be disturbed by a co-present mobile phone use when a partner ignores their interaction partner in favor of a smartphone. This common practice, called phubbing, promotes social rejection and exclusion, hence the partner who gets phubbed may report negative emotional experiences. However, these experiences may be buffered by a cognitive perception mechanism, when the partner’s behavior is still perceived as responsive (i.e., understanding or validating). Thus, we hypothesize that feeling understood or validated moderate the link between phubbing intensity and negative emotions. To test our hypotheses, we conducted a daily diary study over seven days, using a sample of N = 133 participants living with their partner. Multilevel modeling was applied, to examine between- and within-person processes. The findings indicate that perception of the partner as understanding and validating, despite the co-present mobile phone use, reduces the negative emotional experiences during phubbing, and the interaction effects indicate nuances between phubbing and understanding and validation by partner, which extend our theoretical comprehension and distinguish between the two as separate relationship-related constructs. Our research provides a unique insight into how mechanisms related to couple interactions may reduce negative experiences, a finding that may be useful in future interventions and couples' therapy.
... According to Beyens and Eggermont (2017), support for this theory was provided by two distinct groups of studies. The first group suggested that higher work hours would be positively associated with parenting time pressure, which in turn would be negatively associated with wellbeing (e.g., Roxburgh, 2006Roxburgh, , 2012Van der Lippe, 2007). Thus, as children of mothers with lower wellbeing tend to watch more TV (Thompson & Christakis, 2007), higher work hours would indirectly be associated with increased screen time. ...
The recent proliferation of mobile technology has dramatically changed the media landscape experienced by today’s preschool children, which presents an opportunity to re-appraise the predictors of screen time for children in this age group. Previous research conducted by Beyens and Eggermont has shown mothers’ life logistics to be longitudinally predictive of one- to fouryear-old children’s hours of TV viewing. Their Observed Life Logistics Model indicated that mothers’ work hours, mediated by mothers’ work-life balance and well-being, indirectly predicted hours of children’s TV viewing. We used SEM and employed a comprehensive measure of screen time to re-examine this model using a large, nationally representative cohort of New Zealand children (n > 5000) aged between four and five years. We found that mothers’ life logistics were not associated with preschool children’s screen time, although we did find a significant but small negative effect of mothers’ hours of work on children’s screen time. Surprisingly, although employed as a control variable, ethnicity emerged as the strongest predictor of screen time for children in our sample. Children with more symptoms of inattention/hyperactivity tended to have higher screen time and children who attended childcare regularly tended to have marginally lower screen time. Most importantly, we found four modifiable media parenting practices that were associated with preschool children’s screen time: allowing meals in front of TV and level of TV exposure provided to the child (background and foreground) were positively associated; having rules restricting screen time and reading to the child on a daily basis were negatively associated. As screen technologies become ever-more present in family life, these particular findings about modifiable media parenting practices may be useful to parents wishing to reduce their children’s screen time or maintain it at levels they consider appropriate for their child.
... The inclusion criteria entailed being in a committed heterosexual relationship for at least two years, living with their partner, and spending time with them every day, and have no children. We included the latter criteria to achieve the homogeneity of the sample as partners who have children spend less time with each other (Roman, Flood, & Genadek, 2017;Roxburgh, 2006); thus, may be differently impacted by phubbing. The participants were compensated with £3.40 ($4.20 in 2021) for a total of approximately 30 min of the study run (including a baseline questionnaire and seven short daily assessments), as per Prolific standards. ...
Interactions between intimate partners are important for the maintenance of a healthy relationship. However, the practice of snubbing one partner in favor of a mobile phone (phubbing), may undermine interactions. Thus far, research has mainly investigated between-person differences, i.e., people experiencing more partner phubbing report lower relationship satisfaction. However, phubbing is linked to processes which unfold within-person and might trigger different appraising mechanisms across different phubbing situations. This study examined participants in intimate relationships (N = 133) over seven days. Results based on multilevel modelling demonstrate that participants did not report lower relationship satisfaction on days when phubbing occurred compared to days without phubbing. However, on days when people experienced partner phubbing, higher phubbing intensity was associated with stronger appraisals reactions: participants reported lower perceived partner responsiveness, more negative and less positive moral judgment of partner’s phubbing behavior. These appraisal mechanisms were significantly associated with end-of-day relationship quality. This evidence highlights the importance of appraisal mechanisms in phubbing situations, in other words how the phubbing is perceived is important.
... Even critiques of Bowling Alone, which tend to focus on other societal shifts as causal agents, accept its general premise that community investment and social relationships have decreased. In particular, critics suggest that time pressures (from work, child care, and commuting) have increased, arguing that it is a scarcity of time that has led people to retreat from neighborhood ties and social organizations that help facilitate neighborhood social cohesion (Fischer 2005;Roxburgh 2006). Others point to broader shifts in social psychology and a potential increase in the mistrust of others (Raudenbush 2016). ...
Neighborhood social cohesion is strongly associated with health and well-being, especially among families with children. However, there is a widespread perception in the media, policy circles, and prominent research traditions that neighborhood social cohesion has decreased in recent decades for the United States as a whole and among certain subpopulations. Unfortunately, the empirical evidence for such trends is thin. In this study, we use data on families with children from two studies, the Survey of Income and Program Participation and the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, to explore trends in neighborhood social cohesion and how individual- and neighborhood-level characteristics pattern disparities in the experience of neighborhood social cohesion. Counter to popular perceptions, our results show increases in neighborhood social cohesion over recent decades, at least for families with children. However, our results reveal persistent disparities in the experience of neighborhood social cohesion by individual and neighborhood characteristics.
... The amount of time partners spend together would be positively associated with enhanced experienced couple well-being (Genadek et al., 2019). Research also showed that many people feel they usually do not have enough time with their partners and would like to spend more time with them (Nomaguchi et al., 2005;Roxburgh, 2006). Moreover, time together might be a valuable resource to help partners buffer the negative effects of stress (Randall & Bodenmann, 2009): Partners are better able to adapt to and cope with stress. ...
In March 2020, the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. To reduce the risk of infection, Belgian government ordered restrictive isolation measures. If lockdown and social isolation have proven to be quite effective in terms of physical health, little is known about the impact of the lockdown on couple and parental satisfaction. The current study concerned the first wave of a 5-wave longitudinal research programme relative to the trajectory of couple and parental satisfaction around the lockdown (N = 779 individuals) on 3 cohorts based on the government announcements (i.e. beginning of the lockdown and subsequent extended lockdowns). The objective was to compare the level of couple and parental satisfaction during the strict first lockdown in Bel-gium with normative values, considering any gender, parenting, and cohabitation differences. Participants were invited to complete four scales of the Marital Satisfaction Inventory Revised, i.e. Global Distress, Difficulties in Problem-solving Communication , Aggression, and Conflicts over Children Rearing. Two main findings emerged from the study. First, our results showed more couple satisfaction during the lockdown, in comparison to normative situations. During the lockdown, partners expressed more general couple satisfaction. They also felt more effective in resolving couple conflicts and in problem-solving communication and they experienced less couple physical and verbal aggression. Second, higher levels of conflicts over children rearing between partners during the lockdown were observed, in comparison to normative situations. However, major gender differences were observed: While mothers assessed more parental conflicts during the lockdown in comparison to normative situations, fathers reported less conflicts. Finally, our results showed gender differences in parental satisfaction between the three cohorts: Mothers expressed more parental conflicts over children rearing after the first extension of the lockdown in comparison to the beginning of the lockdown while no differences were observed in fathers. The discussion highlighted the positive aspects of lockdown for couples and the gender diferences relative to the satisfaction over children rearing.
... Thus, effect of lack of time can lead to avoidance of activities and behaviours which are essential for good health (Strazdins etal, 2016). Meanwhile, the clearest evidence is related to the relationship between mental health and lack of time.Results of a study conducted in USA showed that pressure of time predicts depression in women and men and women reported more time pressure than men (Roxburgh et al, 2016).Resources obtained by work are necessary to maintain health. Employed women inevitably spend their limited time on housework and caring for others (children, elderly and disabled members of the family) and have less time for selfcare, exercise, proper nutrition and rest (Craig etal, 2016).According to Jenkins (2010), the most important sports constraints are family responsibilities and financial, time, work and health constraints; this finding is consistent with current study. ...
Using appropriate methods to attract more women to sports and improve their health and wellbeing requires identification of factors which constrain their participation in sports. This study tends to prioritize barriers of sports and recreational activities among female employees of Zabol University. The studied population included all female employees of the university, among whom 214 women were recruited for the study. A standard questionnaire was used to measure sport barriers. For this purpose, hierarchy of three factors was studied in different levels of participation, participants compared with non-participants and participation in terms of individual characteristics. Friedman test showed that structural factors, followed by individual and interpersonal constraints, are the most important effective factors on participation of female employees in sports. This is fixed in all aspects of the study. The results show that hierarchy of three constraints is not confirmed in this study. Therefore, it is essential to consider and eliminate structural and infrastructural constraints in the studied area in order to promote health and sport culture in this class of society.
... Time pressure is a major characteristic of parents' life, which typically involves juggling children's schedules with their own work activities and personal engagements (Roxburgh, 2006). In addition, the increasing amount of routine activities, which are particularly important to get through everyday tasks with children and give them structure and a feeling of safety, may have a strong influence on autobiographical memory. ...
A widely reproduced finding across numerous studies of different cultures is that adults perceive the most recent 10 years of their lives to have passed particularly fast, and that this perceived speed increases as they grow older. Potential explanatory factors for this effect are believed to be more routines in life as we age as well as an increase in time pressure during middle adult age, both factors that would lead to a reduced autobiographical memory load. Fewer contextual changes in life are known to cause the passage of time to be perceived as faster. Taking advantage of the database created for the study that first captured this age effect on subjective time (Wittmann & Lehnhoff, 2005), we investigated the role that having children plays in the subjective speeding of time. Adults aged between 20 and 59 who had children reported that time over the last 10 years passed subjectively more quickly than adults of the same age group without children. Factors such as education or gender did not influence subjective time. A small correlation effect could be seen in the fact that parents with more children reported that time passed more quickly. Experienced time pressure was not a differentiating factor between the two groups, as time pressure was associated with a faster passage of time in all adults. Future systematic studies will have to reveal what factors on autobiographical memory and time might be accountable for this clear effect that raising children has on perceived time.
... Experienced time pressure is another factor that contributes to the feeling that time passes more quickly. The time pressure experienced by some parents during the pandemic, which typically involved juggling children's schedules with the own work activities and personal engagements (Roxburgh 2006), resulted in the impression of a fast passage of the days and weeks. In two studies, more reported time pressure was positively related to the perception of a faster passage of life intervals (Winkler et al. 2017, Wittmann et al. 2015. ...
Over the weeks of social isolation during the COVID -19 pandemic, people typically reported that time had passed comparably quickly. Although time might have passed slowly during moments of anxiety and boredom for some, many felt a speeding up of the passing days and weeks. Here I attempt to explain the experience of time during the pandemic with cognitive models of time perception as related to the present moment (prospective time) and in hindsight (retrospective time). Retrospective judgments of time intervals rely on memory traces. The more contextual changes experienced during a given time interval, the longer duration is judged when looking back over past time intervals. More routine activities, as experienced by many during the pandemic, even when under time pressure, lead to fewer memorable events stored in autobiographical memory. This creates the impression that time has passed considerably more quickly.
... Whereas; about 84 percent of males are working in paid work who falls in the age category of above 15 years. The data shows massive discrimination while acknowledging the economic contribution (Roxburgh, 2006). ...
This research has examined the existing status of working women, their problems while performing jobs, working condition and measuring the decision making status at workplace and in their household economy. The study is also analyzed the awareness about pro- women laws, rules, Acts, commitments and conventions signed by Government of Pakistan for empowering women. This research has taken sample of about 117 working women from two public sector departments including health department and local government department in Karachi. The study revealed that most of working women were found in small grade jobs such as nurses, however few were doctors and surgeon. Similarly, majority of them are working in small grade jobs where they earned less as compared to women working at higher posts. It is also observed that women who are educated want to become independent economically, and want to increase their standard of living. It is concluded that they all have been working according to choice and even they do not have any hindrance while performing job, even families are supporting women to work in such departments. In addition, there are very few women who have little knowledge regarding “Protection against Harassment of Women at Workplace Act-2010”. Whereas the problems such as lower wage, harassment at work place, supremacy of men do not observed in such governmental departments. The study suggested that there must be provision of facilities to the lower staff or lower grade working women to ensure equality at all levels.
... Whereas; about 84 percent of males are working in paid work who falls in the age category of above 15 years. The data shows massive discrimination while acknowledging the economic contribution (Roxburgh, 2006). ...
This research has examined the existing status of working women, their problems while performing jobs, working condition and measuring the decision making status at workplace and in their household economy. The study is also analyzed the awareness about pro- women laws, rules, Acts, commitments and conventions signed by Government of Pakistan for empowering women. This research has taken sample of about 117 working women from two public sector departments including health department and local government department in Karachi. The study revealed that most of working women were found in small grade jobs such as nurses, however few were doctors and surgeon. Similarly, majority of them are working in small grade jobs where they earned less as compared to women working at higher posts. It is also observed that women who are educated want to become independent economically, and want to increase their standard of living. It is concluded that they all have been working according to choice and even they do not have any hindrance while performing job, even families are supporting women to work in such departments. In addition, there are very few women who have little knowledge regarding “Protection against Harassment of Women at Workplace Act-2010”. Whereas the problems such as lower wage, harassment at work place, supremacy of men do not observed in such governmental departments. The study suggested that there must be provision of facilities to the lower staff or lower grade working women to ensure equality at all levels.
... Research has shown that many people feel they do not have enough time with their spouses, that most would like to spend more time with their partners (Bianchi et al. 2006;Nomaguchi et al. 2005;Roxburgh 2006), and that couples try to coordinate their https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-020-00861-z schedules (Hallberg 2003;Hamermesh 2000Hamermesh , 2002Jenkins and Osberg 2004;Sullivan 1996;van Klaveren and van den Brink 2007). ...
This study examines and compares shared time for same-sex and different-sex coresident couples using large, nationally representative data from the 2003–2016 American Time Use Survey (ATUS). We compare the total time that same-sex couples and different-sex couples spend together; for parents, the time they spend together with children; and for both parents and nonparents, the time they spend together with no one else present and the time they spend with others (excluding children). After we control for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the couples, women in same-sex couples spend more time together, both alone and in total, than individuals in different-sex arrangements and men in same-sex couples, regardless of parenthood status. Women in same-sex relationships also spend a larger percentage of their total available time together than other couples, and the difference in time is not limited to any specific activity.
... Some characterize it as an antecedent of health 18,19 . Others classify social support together with adjacent terms, such as social capital, social integration, and social networks [20][21][22] . Still others delineate the various subtypes of support that can be offered [23][24][25] . ...
Social network sites (SNS) have become an increasingly popular platform for providing and receiving social support. Traditionally, females are believed to offer more social support. However, investigations of both the offline and online domains have revealed mixed findings. This meta-analysis attempts to assess the presence and magnitude of gender differences in social support on SNS. A literature review produced a sample of 30 independent studies with 17,000 participants. Results showed that females on SNS give (d = 0.36) and receive (d = 0.14) greater social support than do males. This is the first meta-analysis to test for and demonstrate gender differences in social support, either offline or online.
... Whereas; about 84 percent of males are working in paid work who falls in the age category of above 15 years. The data shows massive discrimination while acknowledging the economic contribution (Roxburgh, 2006). ...
This study was conducted to discover the impact of work-life conflict on
organizational commitment of female faculty at private universities in Karachi,
Pakistan. To test association between the two variables, correlation was used. The
results were further corroborated by the use of contingency table. The target
population was permanently employed female faculty of private universities. The
study was done through interviews and questionnaire survey. The method employed
for this purpose wast-test of correlation and chi-square test of association. The study
revealed that faculty members at private universities in Karachi had time-based
conflict but they did not have strain-based and behaviour-based Conflict. The female
faculty were committed to their organizations and the affective commitment showed
higher result than continuance and normative commitment. The study reveals that
there exists a weak association between two critical variables i.e. work-life conflicts
and organizational commitment.
Keywords: Work- Life Conflict, Organizational Commitment, Female Faculty.
... Spending time together as a couple is associated with marital quality (e.g., Amato, Booth, Johnson, & Rogers, 2007), and individuals generally report greater levels of happiness during activities when they are with their spouse compared to when they are alone (e.g., Flood & Genadek, 2016). However, many couples report that they do not have enough time to spend with their spouse (e.g., Roxburgh, 2006). In particular, couples with children spend less time alone together than couples without children, and parents of young children spend the least amount of time alone together (Flood & Genadek, 2016). ...
... Qualitative researchers have approached the concept of quality time from a different angle, and in doing so have shown that it is not so much the type of activity, but the level of parents' attention that matters to children and parents (Christensen, 2002;Roxburgh, 2006;Snyder, 2007;Wajcman, 2014). For example, the children whom Christensen (2002) interviewed attached great value to what were viewed as ordinary activities, such as family meals and watching television. ...
Objective
To examine the association between child mental health and (a) the amount of parent–child interaction and (b) the amount of interference in that interaction due to paid work.
Background
Although some research findings suggest children do not always benefit from being with their parents full‐time, other studies suggest it is important for children to have their parents' undivided attention.
Method
Analyses are based on the 2013 New Families in the Netherlands dataset (639 fathers and 849 mothers of school‐aged children). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we analyzed how child well‐being varied with the frequency of parent–child activities and the amount of interference due to paid work.
Results
Children demonstrated better mental health when the frequency of father–child activities was higher and the amount of interference due to work was lower. We found no effects for mothers. Moreover, the association between the frequency of parent–child activities and child mental health was not moderated by the amount of interference due to paid work (neither for fathers nor mothers).
Conclusion
The findings suggest that children attach great importance to the psychological availability of their fathers. We speculate that children respond more strongly to their fathers because their attention and involvement is less taken for granted than that of mothers.
Implications
Given the intrusive nature of smartphones and laptops in daily life, it is crucial that parents, employers, and family life educators understand how distractions during parent–child time due to paid work can affect children. With this knowledge, strategies to minimize unintended detrimental consequences for children can be developed.
... For example, spending time together is positively related to happiness and meaning for both men and women, no matter what activities couples do together (Flood & Genadek, 2016). The amount of time spent together seems also vital to marital quality, especially for those who have children (Claxton & Perry-Jenkins, 2008;Roxburgh, 2006). Gager and Sanchez (2003) also found that wives' perception of time spent together is related to marital solidarity, buffering against divorce for women. ...
The Marital Comparison Level Index (MCLI; Sabatelli, 1984), grounded in social exchange theory, was developed to measure marital complaints by asking respondents to contrast their marital experiences with their marital expectations. Translated versions of the MCLI have been used in non-Western cultures such as in Korea and China (e.g., Chan & Rudowicz, 2002; Yang, 2004). However, since each individual’s standards and expectations for evaluating relationships are culturally influenced, it follows that measures reflecting Western cultural values may not be reliably applied to different cultural settings. Therefore, the goal for this study was to revise the measure in a culturally relevant way to be used to study Asian couples, with a particular emphasis on Korean couples. Guided by an ecological/exchange framework (Sabatelli, Lee, & Ripoll-Núñez, 2018), the culture-specific aspects (e.g., intergenerational exchanges) of marital relationships were included along with contemporary aspects of marriages (e.g., technology use, work-to-relationship spillover) in the revisions of the MCLI. Using the sample of Korean and American married individuals (N=676), measurement invariance testing was conducted to assess whether the measure performs in the same way across two cultures. Results showed that there was a second-order factor, which is marital quality, that underlies the five first-order factors (i.e., emotional intimacy, sexual intimacy, marital conflicts, intergenerational relationships, and complaints about partner’s lifestyle). The identified second-order factor structure showed an adequate level of measurement invariance, indicating the potential for explaining cross-cultural relevance of the marital construct. Taken together, the present study serves as an impetus for international scholarship that could promote cultural and racial diversity in relationship research.
... Scale (Roxburgh, 2006) to assess whether coaches perceived that they had enough time to do their coaching duties (three items-time constraints) and whether they felt that they had enough time to complete their duties, compared with their other life commitments (three items-work-life conflict). The subscales had adequate internal reliability (time constraints: α = .82; ...
This study explored how the coaching context influences coaches' psychological needs, motivation, and reported interpersonal behaviors, using self-determination theory. In Study 1, 56 coaches identified how contextual factors influence their coaching experience. Coaches identified administration, athlete motivation, colleagues, parents, professional development, time, and work-life as having the largest impact on them. In Study 2, 424 coaches reported on their perceptions of the factors identified in Study 1 and their psychological needs, motivation, and interpersonal behaviors. Structural equation modeling analyses suggested perceptions of the coaching context supported or thwarted their psychological needs, which positively or negatively predicted their autonomous and controlled motivation. Coaches' autonomous motivation predicted their reported supportive interpersonal behaviors and controlled motivation predicted thwarting behaviors. Overall, the results provided additional support for understanding how the coaching context, coaches' psychological needs, and their motivation for coaching relate to their coaching behaviors.
... There is evidence that couples' shared time is important for both marital quality (e.g., Gager & Sanchez, 2003;Milkie & Peltola, 1999) and individual enjoyment and happiness during activities performed with a spouse (Flood & Genadek, 2016;Sullivan, 1996). Research also shows that many people feel they do not have enough time with their spouses and would like to spend more time with them (Bianchi, Robinson, & Milkie, 2006;Nomaguchi, Milkie, & Bianchi, 2005;Roxburgh, 2006). Yet the emphasis of the limited literature is on individuals in the career-and familybuilding years, with a particular focus on the effects of paid work and parenthood on time spent with a spouse (e.g., Flood & Genadek, 2016;Kingston & Nock, 1987). ...
Objective:
This study examined the amount of time married couples share together in a new "encore adult" life course stage around the 50s, 60s, and 70s. Also investigated was the relationship between shared time and experienced well-being for this age group.
Method:
Time diary and survey data were used from nationally representative 2003-2014 American Time Use Survey (ATUS) data for 26,303 adults aged 50-79 years. Analyses examined amount of total and exclusive shared couple time and experiences of happiness and stress when together using multivariate models.
Results:
Shared time was positively associated with couples living on their own, conjoint employment/nonemployment, and age. Encore women and men reported feeling happier and less stressed when with their spouses. Men seemed to find time with spouses more enjoyable if both partners or just their wives were working.
Discussion:
Encore adults are living longer as couples; results suggest couple relationships may occupy most of their days, with potentially positive implications for emotional well-being. Men and women are happier during time with a spouse when the woman works, with men reporting even higher levels of happiness than women. This is important as contemporary couples navigate increasingly complex work/retirement transitions in gendered ways.
... Time is considered a paramount dimension of well-being and overall life satisfaction (1,3). Perceptions of time pressure can result in feeling stressed and can be associated with adverse consequences for physical as well as mental health and well-being including distress, depression, sleep disorder, accelerated ageing or increased risk of diabetes (4)(5)(6). The amount of perceived available time capacity also influences life-style including diet, eating habits, and physical activity (7). ...
Objectives:
The aim of this study was to analyze the prevalence and determinants of time pressure among younger Australian women born between 1973 and 1978 over a 17-year period.
Methods:
Using six surveys (N=14 247 at baseline in 1996) from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women`s Health (ALSWH), we estimated fixed-effects ordered logistic regression models.
Results:
More than two thirds of women felt rushed, pressured, too busy every day or a few times a week, and time pressure substantially increased over the observed 17-year period. Baseline estimates show that time pressure is significantly (P<0.001) associated with being employed and being a mother with coefficients ranging from 0.255 [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.188-0.322] for being employed to 0.273 (95% CI 0.163-0.377) for having children. The multivariate analysis further indicates that time pressure is significantly related to a number of personal, family, and work characteristics such as number and age of children, economic insecurity such as having financial difficulties, concern about employment stability, or the length of the working week.
Conclusions:
Understanding the sources of time pressure and identification of certain groups which are particularly vulnerable to it is important if policy-makers aim to design and successfully implement health policies, and family-friendly parental leave and child-care policies.
... Family structure factors-single parenthood and responsibility for household income-are also positively associated with work hours (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006;Feldman, 2002;Heymann, Earle, & Hanchate, 2004;Major et al., 2002). Some family demands and responsibilities-hours spent with children and on housework and child care responsibilities-are negatively related to work hours (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006;Humbert & Lewis, 2008;Ng & Feldman, 2008;Shelton & John, 1996), whereas time pressures from spouse and parents are positively related to work hours (Roxburgh, 2006). Among family supports, child care by one's spouse is positively related to work hours, whereas using a private child care service is negatively related to work hours, a surprising finding (Humbert & Lewis, 2008). ...
What is the linkage between individuals’ sex and the interface between their work and family roles? The answer to this question is by no means straight-forward as gender roles, work roles, and family roles evolve. To address the question, we examine the influence of family-domain factors on work-domain decisions and their linkages to sex and gender. According to the logic of appropriateness, a theory of decision making, people develop and apply rules in decision-making situations that are consistent with their personal identities. We identify three broad types of decisions in the work domain — role entry, participation, and exit decisions — that may be influenced by factors in the family domain according to such rules. Next, we review the literature on the linkage between individuals’ sex and an example of each of these types of decisions: the role-entry decision about whether to start a business, the role-participation decision about the number of hours to devote to one’s job or business, and the role-exit decision about whether to quit a job. Our review suggests that (1) family-domain factors mediate effects of sex on work-domain decisions and (2) sex moderates relationships between family-domain factors and work-domain decisions. Based on the review, we offer a model of the linkages among sex, family-domain factors, and work-domain decisions that incorporates constructs from theories of the psychology of gender (femininity) and identity theories (family role salience). Finally, we offer guidelines for future theory and research to test and extend the model.
... Two of the five cases that I used to explore the shopping practices of people who rarely practice ethical consumption were financially well-off college graduates; all were married homeowners with at least a high school education; and three were women. Moreover, the broader literature on the "time squeeze" in the United States strongly suggests that many factors-stagnating wages, long commutes, and dual-earner families, to name a few-have made time a precious commodity for a socioeconomically broad spectrum of people, and for both women and men (Jacobs 2004;Roxburgh 2006). This widespread shortage of time, by acting as a potential constraint on how much and how often people are able to exercise their reflective capacities, is precisely what my data suggest may be an overlooked reason why committed ethical consumption is still relatively rare-even among people most likely, on average, to be ethical consumers. ...
Efforts to explain why some people incorporate ethical concerns into everyday shopping for food and household goods, while many do not, have so far left significant variation in “ethical consumption” unexplained. Seeking to move beyond explanations that rely mainly on differences in consumers' social class, gender, and political engagement, I draw on concepts associated with “practice theory” to argue that ethical consumption is closely tied to people's willingness and ability to spend time, while shopping, on distinct activities associated with breaking old routines and establishing new ones. The central insight of practice theory is that most consumption is the product of unconscious routine. And it is precisely because consciously departing from routine is, according to my study, a fundamentally time-consuming process, that lack of time emerges as a crucial obstacle to translating abstract ethical concerns into concrete action as a consumer.
... The clearest evidence for a link between time scarcity and health is for mental health. Roxburgh (2006) found that time pressure predicted depression both for men and for women. Women reported more time pressure than men, and this difference explained the gender gap in depression in her US sample. ...
Since there is a close relationship between the quality of family life and how individuals and families spend their discretionary time, it is important to understand the multiple family and leisure intersections. There are three models of family leisure time-use of relevance for this understanding: Core and Balance Model, Social Cohesion and Dissonance Model, and the Relational Tourism Lifecycle Model. These are discussed as they relate to research findings on various dimensions of families and time-use. The discussion extends to a family science framework called the Contextual Model of Family Stress (CMFS), as a way of formally connecting ways of thinking about family leisure and the research findings to family stress and resilience. The CMFS highlights multiple external influences on families, and internal family dynamics including their resources. These models are integrated through discussing core functions of interpersonal relationships: Reliable alliance, attachment, guidance, social integration, reassurance of worth, and opportunity for nurturance. The chapter concludes with presenting implications related to four types of interventions: Educational (family life education programs), therapeutic (therapies accounting for how time-use can enhance family healing), policy (a focus on organizational support for families), and person-to-person (the power of social relationships and networks).
Why do people fall in love? Does passion fade with time? What makes for a happy, healthy relationship? This introduction to relationship science follows the lifecycle of a relationship – from attraction and initiation, to the hard work of relationship maintenance, to dissolution and ways to strengthen a relationship. Designed for advanced undergraduates studying psychology, communication or family studies, this textbook presents a fresh, diversity-infused approach to relationship science. It includes real-world examples and critical-thinking questions, callout boxes that challenge students to make connections, and researcher interviews that showcase the many career paths of relationship scientists. Article Spotlights reveal cutting-edge methods, while Diversity and Inclusion boxes celebrate the variety found in human love and connection. Throughout the book, students see the application of theory and come to recognize universal themes in relationships as well as the nuances of many findings. Instructors can access lecture slides, an instructor manual, and test banks.
Greater access to flexible work arrangements is considered a solution to many working parents’ challenges balancing the demands of work and family, yet it remains unclear whether such arrangements are associated with parents’ time in the active caregiving activities linked to children’s development and parents’ notions of quality time. We examine this question using data from the American Time Use Survey and Leave and Job Flexibilities Module (2017–2018) ( n = 1,874 mothers, n = 1,756 fathers) and linear regression and inverse probability weighting techniques. Results indicate that access to flextime is associated with more active caregiving time for mothers but not fathers. They also provide suggestive evidence that flexplace is associated with more active caregiving time for mothers and fathers and strong evidence that it is associated with more passive caregiving time for both parents. The findings highlight the importance of expanding parents’ access to flexible work options, and the limits of doing so.
The principal objective of this research is to test the effects of perceived social support on loneliness with various age-dependent respondents during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sample is made up of 442 respondents (41% male), who are arranged into five age categories: up to 25, 26-35, 36-45, 46-55, over 55 years old. These subsamples are administered according to the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1980) and The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (Zimet et al., 1988), which measures perceived social support from three sources - family, friends, and significant other. The results of regression analysis show that in all five models the perceived support of a friend is a statistically significant negative predictor of loneliness, while the perceived support of family is a significant negative predictor of loneliness with respondents up to 25, from 36 to 45 and over 55. Support of significant other is a statistically significant negative predictor only in the sample of respondents from 46 to 55 years old. Results show that a significant predictor of loneliness for respondents of a specific age category is the sense of support from a person who is largely not fulfilling that role.
A squeezed feeling of time might influence the quality of parental time and thus parental engagement. Using recent Hungarian quantitative data on representative parent–child dyads ( n = 1000) based on subjective estimations and evaluations of parental time, this study aims to grasp the often used notion of quality time. We concentrate on the aspect of focus in parental attention and compare parents’ and adolescents’ perspectives to reveal the impact of the former on teenagers’ subjective wellbeing. Results indicate that quality time matters; in addition, teenagers’ perceptions about focused parental time is a more significant factor in relation to wellbeing than parents’ perceptions, and the latter has a greater impact on life satisfaction than enrichment activities. However, when there is a lack of shared time, enrichment activities might compensate for this shortage. Finally, we propose that class inequalities are further enhanced and reproduced by unequal access to quality time and intensive parenting practices.
This study aimed to analyze differences between married couples and single-person households in their time spent and analyzed the expected behavior and differences in living satisfaction of middle-aged and older women. Data from the 2014 Korean Time Use Survey collected by the Korean National Statistical Office were used in this study. The results showed intergenerational differences in aspects of time use and their effects on life satisfaction. Our results also showed that the time spent on each activity alone or together with a spouse influenced life satisfaction of middle-aged and older women differently. Both middle-aged women and older women spent lengthy amounts of time on housework, and both middle-aged and older women appeared to assume the same gender roles, regardless of intergenerational differences. Women 65 years and older spent large amounts of time watching media alone. This indicates the need for policies to ensure that the elderly can be more active by taking part in different activities. This study, which adopted the life-course perspective, served to specifically determine the time that middle-aged women and older women spent with family members.
Tese sobre o desenvolvimento do conceito de Autonomia Culinária
Though socioeconomic (SES) status partially explains the experience of stress and health outcomes, most research to date has relied on a small number of traditional indicators that fail to capture the full domain of socioeconomic factors. The recent reconceptualization of perceived scarcity is proposed as a subjective indicator of SES when attempting to predict both stress and health outcomes. Although a conceptualization of perceived scarcity has been advanced, a psychometrically sound scale is needed to assess the utility and scientific import of this concept. No such scale exists. Therefore, the current paper describes the development, psychometric properties, and initial validation of the Perceived Scarcity Scale (PScS). Four studies using traditional scale development processes were employed to develop (Studies 1 & 2) and provide an initial validation (Studies 3 & 4) for the PScS. Results support the existing model of perceived scarcity and indicate that the measure is valid. Moreover, the scale predicted concurrent perceived stress, as well as longitudinal ratings of perceived stress, global health, quality of life, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The development of the new scale provides clinicians and researchers with a brief, validated measure that can assess the level of perceived scarcity individuals currently experience.
Background:
A particular challenge facing parents of children with intellectual disabilities occurs when their adult children with intellectual disabilities has an interest in pursuing couple relationships. This study explores parents' perceptions regarding the nature of couple relationships, the right of their adult children with intellectual disabilities to pursue such relationships, the difficulties their children encounter and their own role in providing support.
Method:
Interviews were conducted with 30 parents of adults with intellectual disabilities who had left home for independent and semi-independent living arrangements. A thematic content analysis was conducted.
Results:
Whereas parents used "mutual support" to characterize couple relationships in general, they viewed their children with intellectual disabilities as primarily focused on "physical intimacy" and the couple relationship as a "status symbol," as well as expressed reservations about their becoming parents.
Conclusions:
Parents should be helped to adopt a more consistent and positive attitude towards their intellectual disabilities children's pursuit of couple relationships.
This chapter looks at free time associated with family, friends and community. The first part focuses on family time, including everyday time, weekends and special occasions and uncovers participants’ conceptions of relationships, parenting and values. As opposed to committed time, free time with the family is presented as enjoyable and highly valued yet linked to cultural expectations of the ideal mother, father or partner. The chapter also addresses gender roles and the notion of quality time. The second part relates to social interaction, friendships and social outings. It looks at sites for socializing as well as the meanings attached to social relationships and practices. Participants present social interaction as valuable, describing it as pleasure, as a form of release, and as fostering a sense of belonging.
This chapter focuses on the link between free time and discourses of productivity, questioning the traditional distinction between work and free time. It examines the language and activities related to time management and the self-project. The concept, disciplined freedom is offered here as a conceptual tool with which to explore the contradictory nature of self-management practices that were seen as freedom to invest in the self, yet guided by ideals of hard work and self-discipline. The chapter also offers the term, conspicuous busyness to refer to the display of busyness as an integral part of self-presentation as a productive individual.
Objective: This study investigates the effects of first and second births on time pressure and mental health and how these vary with time since birth and parental responsibilities. It also examines whether time pressure mediates the relationship between parenthood and mental health.
Background: Childbirth is a major life course transition that adds a new role to parents' role set and contributes to role strain, of which time pressure is one manifestation. Longitudinal analyses can help determine whether the impact of children on parental time pressure endures or eases over time and whether any changes affect parents' mental health.
Method: This study uses 16 years of panel data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey (n = 20,009 individuals). The data are modeled using fixed effects panel regression models.
Results: First and second births increase time pressure to a similar extent. Their estimated effects are larger for women than men and persist over time, but there is limited evidence of moderation by parental responsibilities. Maternal mental health improves after a first child, whereas second children are associated with declines in paternal mental health. These effects are long lasting. Mediation analyses suggest that in the absence of time pressure maternal mental health would improve significantly.
Conclusion: Children have a stronger effect on mothers' than fathers' experiences of time pressure. These differences are not moderated by changes in parental responsibilities or work time following births. The increased time pressure associated with second births explains mothers' worse mental health.
Implications Parenthood is an important factor underpinning gendered experiences of time pressure. Reducing time pressure among parents may improve parental mental health, particularly among mothers.
The current article conceptualizes free time as subjectively experienced and defined, as it explores not only how individuals spend free time, but also how they perceive and interpret it. It challenges established approaches to leisure that relate to it as a realm of freedom distinct from work or duties, suggesting that the discourse of work imbues free time with ideals, which shape, not only how we spend our free time, but also, how we perceive it and utilize it for self-management. My focus is on the relationship between time, freedom, and the self, while taking into account the input of culture. The theoretical concept that I offer here in order to analyze free time is disciplined freedom. I use this term to refer to the ways by which cultural paradigms shape conceptions and actions of free time by promoting a disciplinary gaze that encourages a form of management of time and the self that adheres to authenticity, freedom, and choice. Based on qualitative data from 43 in-depth interviews, the findings revealed the impact of conflicting discourses that competed in shaping meaning and action related to free time. The article brings into question the freedom of individuals in the face of discursive frameworks that were found to operate as powerful, taken for granted dictates in everyday life.
Marketing strategies are often tied to how consumers spend time (e.g., waiting in lines, searching across stores) in return for money (e.g., receiving a discount). Viewing such time-money tradeoffs in terms of a reservation wage rate for consumers, we identify a wage-rate asymmetry between two elicitation procedures: (a) Money-Elicit (MEL): state the minimum amount of money, M, that you would accept in return for spending a given number of hours, T; and (b) Time-Elicit (TEL): state the maximum number of hours, T, that you would spend in return for accepting a given amount of money, M. While these procedures are normatively equivalent, we propose that TEL (vs. MEL) wage rates are higher because time scarcity receives a higher weight in TEL judgments. In eight studies including both hypothetical and real settings, we document the wage-rate asymmetry, the time scarcity process, and a downstream consequence of TEL (vs. MEL) reducing the likelihood of accepting a time-money tradeoff. We discuss the implications for practice, and for research on wage rates, time versus money, procedural invariance, and scarcity.
This study addresses the role of family leisure on the family farm. An interpretive interview approach was used to explore the meanings of family leisure for a purposively selected group of farm women in Ontario, Canada. The analysis showed that while children's leisure, family excursions and vacations were all highly valued, attempts to facilitate these activities were often experienced with disappointment and frustration due to the demands of farm life and the absence of the husbands from family activities. The women's experiences were seen as “single parenthood within the marital context.” Comparisons are drawn between the family leisure experiences for these farm women and previous research on leisure in urban families. The importance of context for understanding family leisure is emphasized.
Despite concerns to social determinants of health inequalities, time’s role as a health resource largely remains overlooked and few health policies address it. Time structures what people do; so, people require time to access health services, social network, exercise, play, work and care. All these activities are fundamental to good health. Time scarcity is the main reason people give for ignoring exercise or preventive activities and eating healthy food that are vital for good health. In this study, I argue about the association between time and health and their related inequalities. Finally, I explain the importance of time in health policy making.
The study focused on perspectives of people with intellectual disability (ID) regarding their experience of being involved in an intimate relationship with a steady partner and on the discrepancies between their reported experiences and the prevailing opinions on this issue as expressed in the professional literature. In light of the importance of couple relationships in the general population, the paucity of studies that consider this type of relationship among people with ID is conspicuous. Qualitative analysis was used to understand how people with ID perceive couple relationships. Quantitative analysis was used to compare the quality of life and self-concept of people with ID involved in an intimate relationship with those of people with ID who have a strong relationship with a close friend. The findings indicate that people with ID perceive couple relationships to be multidimensional, with unique characteristics, much like the general population’s perception of couple relationships. In addition, it was found that people with ID involved in an intimate couple relationship scored higher on quality of life and self-image measures than did their counterparts who had a close relationship with a (non-partner) friend. Several recommendations are offered on how to help people with ID develop and maintain a long-term intimate relationship with a lifelong partner.
We know little about how perceptions of conflict between work and family shape the subjective views of dual-earner parents. Given time constraints and the prevalence of gendered parenting norms, gender ideologies and work-family conflicts may help explain perceived parental success. Using data from the 2002 National Study of the Changing Workforce, I explore whether gender ideology moderates how conflicts between work and family relate to perceived parental success. Among dual-earner mothers, work-to-family conflict was negatively related to perceived parental success. For dual-earner fathers, work-to-family conflict was positively associated with perceived parental success among more traditional fathers, while the opposite was the case for more egalitarian fathers. Family-to-work conflict was only negatively related to the perceived parental success of more traditional fathers. These findings suggest that gender ideologies are more central in explaining how work-family conflicts relate to fathers’ perceived parental success compared to that of mothers.
Although the rise in postdivorce joint physical custody has fueled scholarly interest in its impact on children, consequences for parents remain understudied. Because children's residence arrangements determine time and coordination demands associated with child care, this study investigated the relationship between postdivorce residence arrangements and parents' time pressure. Regression analyses on 4,460 formerly married or cohabiting parents in the Netherlands showed that main residence (mother residence, father residence, or joint physical custody) is more strongly related to time pressure than is nonresident parents' visitation frequency. Compared with mother residence, joint physical custody is associated with less time pressure for mothers and slightly greater pressure for fathers, which supports the idea of higher care demands when parents spend more time with their children. The results do not support the role of coordination demands; the extent of interparental contact and the number of transitions the child makes are not related to time pressure.
Providing as a form of paternal involvement is not readily acknowledged in contemporary fatherhood literature. Providing is often overlooked because it is taken for granted, is invisible to the family, holds negative connotations, and is inadequately conceptualized. This article expands paternal involvement to include economic provision. Providing as a form of paternal involvement is considered as it affects father, child, and family well-being. In conclusion, practice and policy implications related to an expanded view of economic provision and paternal involvement are shared.
Time urgency may be an important construct in industrial and organizational psychology. Preliminary analyses have indicated that time urgency may be multidimensional, and available self-report measures have been criticized on psychometric grounds. The present research addressed the dimensionality of time urgency. Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS), in which behavioral statements are substituted for qualitative anchors, were used to construct time urgency measures. The BARS technique produced multidimensional measures of time urgency that possessed adequate reliability and construct validity. The scales were tested on a wide variety of subjects. It is concluded that time urgency is a multidimensional construct. Relationships between the time urgency measures, job satisfaction, and work stress are discussed in light of previous research findings.
This study compared the emotional states experienced by mothers and fathers during daily activities in the domestic and public spheres. Participants carried pagers for 1 week and reported their states when signaled at random times. Patterns for mothers and fathers differed markedly. Mothers reported more positive states in activities away from home, including during work at a job. These states were related to the perceived friendliness of co-workers. Fathers reported more positive states in the home sphere, partly because they spent more of this time n personal and recreational activities and partly because they experienced more choice, even during family work.
Possible gender differences in bases of marital satisfaction were investigated through male-female variations in (1) overall marital quality; (2) satisfaction with love, interest, friendship, sexual gratification, time spent at home and with children, help at home, spouse's friends, and treatment by in-laws; and (3) correlations between general evaluations of marital quality and satisfaction with specific marital characteristics. It was found that marital quality of men and women differs in degree rather than in kind. Although men are more satisfied with their marriages than women, the same factors are important in their assessments. These aspects are more important to the overall marital quality for women, but their saliency varies by stages of the family life cycle. There are indications of differential assessment, with women more sexually fulfilled, while men are more satisfied with spouse's help, time with children, and friendship; results also suggest a greater focus by women on companionship.
This article investigates relationships between psychological distress and objective and subjective aspects of the roles of paid worker, spouse, and parent and examines the intersection of these roles with the adult-child role in relation to distress. The sample consists of mothers and fathers of children aged 10-17 years interviewed for the 1992-1994 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH). Hours helping and caring for parents show positive relationships with distress. Objective and subjective aspects of the roles of paid worker and spouse show consistent relationships with psychological distress among mothers and fathers. Subjective aspects of the roles of spouse and paid worker moderate some relationships between helping and caring for parents and psychological distress for mothers. The parent role is unrelated to distress.
The purpose of this article is to advance a new understanding of gender as a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction. To do so entails a critical assessment of existing perspectives on sex and gender and the introduction of important distinctions among sex, sex category, and gender. We argue that recognition of the analytical independence of these concepts is essential for understanding the interactional work involved in being a gendered person in society. The thrust of our remarks is toward theoretical reconceptualization, but we consider fruitful directions for empirical research that are indicated by our formulation.
Previous research regarding the effect of children on mental health is mixed, with some studies suggesting that mothers are more depressed than their childless counterparts, and others finding no difference. Using a sample of 500 Canadian women, I test how resources and demands in the primary roles of parent, worker, and partner account for variation in the mental health of employed women. Demands are measured as job demands and as chronic strains in home roles. Resources are measured as job control and as partner support. Results indicate that when partner support and job control are high or average, employed mothers are significantly less distressed than employed nonmothers. Conversely, when role demands are high and resources are low, mothers are significantly more distressed than nonmothers. These results are discussed with respect to the interrelationships between social roles, resources, and mental health, and in terms of directions for future research.
In this article, we ask the question: Does a wife's economic independence destabilize marriage and heighten the risk of divorce? Using longitudinal data from the National Survey of Families and Households, we find only weak support for the economic independence thesis. There is an initial positive association between a wife's percentage contribution to family income and divorce, but the relation is reduced to nonsignificance as soon as variables measuring gender ideology are introduced into the model. Our analysis indicates that measures of marital commitment and satisfaction are better predictors of marital dissolution than measures of economic independence. This strongly suggests that the independence effect found in prior research, which did not include controls for marital quality, may have been measuring the role of wives' economic independence in exiting bad marriages, not in exiting all marriages.
Although the question of division of household labor between wives and their husbands has been of interest to social scientists for quite some time, in general we do not know much beyond how much time each spends in such activity. While lack of detail and datedness hamper studies based on most large scale data sets, it is possible to glean some initial impressions from the existing work. Those data suggest that there are important qualitative differences between the work that men and women do within the household. This article reviews those findings and presents a gender stratification theoretical framework that appears promising for the examination of the qualitative differences in household and child care division of labor. Three general hypotheses focusing on the concept of the wife's “net economic power” are derived from this framework. Furthermore, the differential impacts of the earnings ratio between husband and wife, stability of that ratio, and presence of surplus income on household division of labor are considered by class. It is suggested that future study focusing on the qualitative aspects of housework and child care sharing within this framework can have social science and policy implications.
This article reviews more than 200 scholarly articles and books on household labor published between 1989 and 1999. As a maturing area of study, this body of research has been concerned with understanding and documenting how housework is embedded in complex and shifting social processes relating to the well-being of families, the construction of gender, and the reproduction of society. Major theoretical, methodological, and empirical contributions to the study of household labor are summarized, and suggestions for further research are offered. In summary, women have reduced and men have increased slightly their hourly contributions to housework. Although men's relative contributions have increased, women still do at least twice as much routine housework as men. Consistent predictors of sharing include both women's and men's employment, earnings, gender ideology, and life-course issues. More balanced divisions of housework are associated with women perceiving fairness, experiencing less depression, and enjoying higher marital satisfaction.
Based upon assumptions that the social self is comprised of major role-identities and that role-identities reduce psychological distress, this paper examines the mental health advantage of married and unmarried men relative to comparable women as a function of multiple-role occupancy. Panel data from surveys of 1,106 adult heads of household in Chicago and 720 adults in New Haven are utilized. Possession of multiple role-identities (up to 6 in Chicago, 8 in New Haven) does significantly reduce distress in both samples. But identity summation does not consistently reduce gender or gender by marital status differences in distress. Further exploration revealed that men and women appear to experience equivalent levels of distress when they hold the same numbers and types of roles. When sex differences do occur, they appear to be a function of employment rather than of marriage, contrary to popular belief. Although structural inequalities in role occupancy appear to produce status differences in distress, future research will require deliberately stratified samples to adequately test this hypothesis.
Mothering and motherhood are the subjects of a rapidly expanding body of literature. Considered in this decade review are two predominant streams in this work. One is the theorizing of mothering and motherhood and the other is the empirical study of the mothering experience. Conceptual developments have been propelled particularly by feminist scholarship, including the increasing attention to race and ethnic diversity and practices. The conceptualizations of the ideology of intensive mothering and of maternal practice are among the significant contributions. Study of mothering has focused attention on a wide array of specific topics and relationships among variables, including issues of maternal well-being, maternal satisfaction and distress, and employment.
This study integrated work-family research with the stress resource perspective and organizational leadership theory. Based on the premise that stress is a major contributor to work–family conflict, this research examined resources likely to reduce the stress and work–family conflict women experience. Family emotional support, leader–member exchange, and hardiness were explored as potential resources. The 206 female Ss (mean age 36 yrs) were recruited in daycare centers, a business community, and a university setting. The sample was diverse in terms of ethnicity and occupation. However, the majority of the women were married (68%) with children (82%). Ss completed measures of job stress, work–family conflict, family stress, leader–member exchange, family emotional support, and hardiness. Path analytic tests supported most of the relationships in the hypothesized model. Leader–member exchange, family emotional support, and hardiness were each shown to be important resources for the reduction of stress and subsequent conflict. Findings suggest that having a high-quality relationship with one's supervisor may have complex implications for work–family conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper assesses the daily routines of 538 mothers in Metropolitan Toronto, Canada, who vary by degree of paid, outside employment. Attention is given not only to trade-offs among activities but to subjective feelings about time-use. Childcare, one major response to the demands on employed mothers, is examined to assess the extent that different options contribute to amelioration. While some forms of childcare are found helpful, the data make clear the need for more comprehensive policy adaptation to changing family conditions.
The intent of this paper is to provide a more detailed answer to the question who are the time pressured? than has previously been available. Data was gathered through a telephone survey of residents of the Northeast Ohio region, yielding a sample of 734 full-time workers. Results indicate that the affluent are more time pressured, although education is associated with higher time pressures only among women. High time pressures are related to the number of roles occupied but the nature of experience within these roles—the type of volunteer work, job characteristics, the amount of housework done by a spouse, and satisfaction with daycare arrangements—are important for understanding the relationship between everyday lived experience and high time pressures.
A general formula (α) of which a special case is the Kuder-Richardson coefficient of equivalence is shown to be the mean of
all split-half coefficients resulting from different splittings of a test. α is therefore an estimate of the correlation between
two random samples of items from a universe of items like those in the test. α is found to be an appropriate index of equivalence
and, except for very short tests, of the first-factor concentration in the test. Tests divisible into distinct subtests should
be so divided before using the formula. The index
[`(r)]ij\bar r_{ij}
, derived from α, is shown to be an index of inter-item homogeneity. Comparison is made to the Guttman and Loevinger approaches.
Parallel split coefficients are shown to be unnecessary for tests of common types. In designing tests, maximum interpretability
of scores is obtained by increasing the first-factor concentration in any separately-scored subtest and avoiding substantial
group-factor clusters within a subtest. Scalability is not a requisite.
Parental child care time has historically been narrowly defined to include only those child care activities where the parent's primary attention was occupied by the child. In this study, we expand this definition so that it includes parental reports of time where child care was a subsidiary activity. We find that suchsecondarychild care time comprises about one-third of all parental child care time. Time spent in both primary and secondary child care appear to be influenced by the gender of the parent, the age of the youngest child, the mother's hours of paid employment, household income, and residential location. Simulations suggest that mothers in two-parent, two-child families average between 13,729 and 15,439 h in the care of children from ages 0 to 18. The corresponding figures for the fathers are lower at 4150 to 4415 h.
This paper analyzes three trends in working time in the United States over the last thirty years. First, we document an increasing bifurcation of working time, with growth evident among those working both long and short hours. An international comparison also shows that the United States stands out as having among the highest percentage of workers putting in 50 hours per week or more. Second, we argue that there is a mismatch between working time and the preferences of American workers. On average, those working very long hours express a desire to work less, while those working short hours prefer to work more. Third, we maintain that the sense of being overworked stems primarily from demographic shifts in the labor force rather than from changes in average working time per se. Even in the absence of a dramatic rise in time spent on the job, the growth in the proportion of American households consisting of dual-earner couples and single parents has created a growing percentage of workers who face heightened time pressures and increased conflicts between work and their private lives. Copyright 1998 by Taylor and Francis Group
Current research on the effects of wives' employment on their well-being focuses on the determinants of those effects. Most studies have used a gender model that concentrates on family conditions as mediators. In contrast, studies of the effects of employment on men typically use a job model and focus on work rather than family conditions as determinants. To understand fully the impact of employment on women, these models should be combined. We predict that certain work and family conditions interact, specifically, that the degree of control at work moderates the effects of demands in the family. Using two data sets on community mental health, we have found some support for this hypothesis.
This paper examines gender differences in the consequences of combining spouse, parent, and worker roles for mental health. I suggest that work and family roles have different meanings for males and females, and that differences in the meaning of these roles may be partially responsible for why the mental health advantages of holding multiple roles are fewer for women than for men. Based on qualitative analyses of follow-up, in-depth interviews with 40 employed married parents who participated in a community panel study of mental health, I find that sex differences in the perceived relationship between work and family roles may help account for sex differences in distress by contributing to male-female differences in both the extent and nature of work-parent conflicts, attributions of responsibility for marital problems, feelings of guilt, and self-evaluations as parents and spouses. By identifying gender differences in the meaning of roles among individuals who have the same multiple role configuration, and suggesting how these differences can help explain sex differences in well-being; this research may expand existing theories about the mental health consequences of multiple role involvements.
This study compared respite users with stoppers and nonusers in the Health Resources and Services Administration-funded Alzheimer's disease demonstration grant in the State of Maryland. Of those accepted into the program, only 54% participated for at least 6 months. The primary reasons for stopping were the death or institutionalization of the relative, while those not using respite services felt they didn't really need them. Determinants of program use included the poorer cognitive status of the relative and less anxiety and greater burden among the caregivers. After 6 months, users reported fewer hours of informal assistance, less burden, and that the relative had fewer behavioral problems although cognitive status and activities of daily living (ADLs) had deteriorated.
In this paper I examine the association between subjective time pressure and depression and consider whether time pressure mediates the relationship between roles and depression, whether social and economic resources moderate the association between time pressure and depression, and whether time pressure explains gender differences in depression. Results of a telephone survey of 790 respondents indicate that time pressure is significantly associated with distress for men and women, and that subjective time pressure accounts for the significantly higher depression of employed women. Time pressure mediates the impact of housework and the volunteer role among women and it partially explains the differential depression of divorced men. Several resources moderate the impact of time pressure on depression: income among both men and women and perceived co-worker social support among men. Results suggest that the subjective experience of time pressure can be thought of as a potentially important mechanism by which lived experience is transformed into depression. However, in spite of the ubiquity of time pressure in the North American context, the depressing consequences of this subjective experience are not distributed equitably, suggesting that the capacity to manage time pressure and avoid depression may be another benefit associated with strategically advantageous social locations.