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Substantive Positivism and the Idea of Crime
Abstract
Efforts to construct theories of crime consistent with a priori principles typically prove unsatisfactory. Awareness of this fact led the early positivists to reject choice theories in favor of discipline-specific theories tested by examination of correlations among directly measurable variables. Today, disciplinary theories of crime rely more on a priori principles than those theories they were designed to replace. This article critiques these principles and contrasts them with principles derived from a substantive theory of crime based on the idea of restraint. The contrast between positivistic and restraint theories is illustrated by comparing their positions on the following issues: (1) whether to begin with the presuppositions of one or another of the established disciplines; (2) whether to assume that the causes of a phenomenon require that it occur; (3) whether to assume that the characteristics of acts or events are relevant to or implicated in their causation; (4) whether behaviorally different acts and events may be homogeneous with respect to causation; and (5) whether causes or explanations common to all acts or events must enter the explanation of particular acts or events. These questions are examined in light of their consequences for criminological theory and research. In all cases, restraint or choice theory is more likely to produce conclusions consistent with the evidence.
... In general, exercising good selfcontrol will reduce the chance of crime in any situation. Individual's criminal and violent behaviour, as well as delinquent and self-control behaviour, were both significantly correlated, as per the General Theory of Crime (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990), which is the theoretical framework for studies on self-control (Baron, Forde, & Kay, 2007;Forrest, Hay, Widdowson, & Rocque, 2019;Holt, Cale, Brewer, & Goldsmith, 2021;LaGrange, & Silverman, 1999;Morselli, & Tremblay, 2004;Peter, Lagrange, & Silverman, 2003;Phythian, Keane, & Krull, 2008). ...
... (Pratt, & Cullen, 2000;Rebellon, Straus, & Medeiros, 2008;Gottfredson, & Hirschi, 2022). Note that General Theory of Crime speculates that people possess rational decision-making, and their participation in crime does not necessitate a special purpose; rather, it is only a manifestation of their fundamental inclination to avoid pain and seek pleasure (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). The central proposition of General Theory of Crime to analyze the primary person-centric factor for involvement in delinquent and criminal behaviors is the self-control concept. ...
... The self-control construct consists of six elements: (1) impulsive, in a way that they pursue immediate gratification; (2) desire simple and easy tasks (3) involved in risky, exciting, and physical behaviors; (4) are easily angered; (5) are drawn to actions and seeking out sensations; and (6) are self-centered and insensitive towards other people. Referring to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), individuals having poor self-control favor behaviors that give them immediate gratification and are less worried about the possible long-term effects of their choices (see also Gottfredson & Hirschi, 2019). Other than that, Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990) later highlight that these characteristics possess a strong inclination to co-occur in the same individuals. ...
This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0 The increasing incidence of criminal and delinquent behaviour has received a lot of attention. The Low Self-Control Scale (LSCS) developed by Grasmick et al. (1993) has been significant in our understanding of the role of self-control in that behaviour. The purpose of this study is to look into the psychometric properties of the Malay language modified multidimensional LSCS among 181 property crime convicts in Malaysia prisoner. The validity and reliability of the LSCS second-order reflection measurement model were investigated using the partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) method. The findings demonstrate that the six LSCS constructs (temper, easy tasks, self-centered, risk seeking, physicality, and impulsivity), as well as the 23 indicators, can explain the concept of low self-control. This research proved the construct reliability, discriminant validity, and convergent validity of the LSCS's Malay version. In addition, this research also demonstrated that prisoners disclosed themselves high on each LSCS's constructs, having the highest ratings on impulsivity and the lowest on temper. In conclusion, the psychometric evidence of LSCS in this study will be catalyzed for future studies of individual self-control in delinquent or criminal behavior.
... In this paper, we limit our focus to a contrast of these systems. In so doing, we acknowledge working within the definitions of these as presented in Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990). We further acknowledge that each logical system allows the theorist the creative freedom to explore many alternative points of emphasis, far more than we can develop here. ...
... Positivism is supposed to give scientists the tools to adjudicate between rival theories, but, in criminology, it became a theory whose basic principles would dominate criminological thought thereafter . Substantive positivism, as Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990) called it, was the extension of positivism to matters of theory creation and had originally developed as a reaction against defects in early versions of classical thought (Durkheim, 1982(Durkheim, [1895; Roshier, 1989). Social scientists rejected the classical idea of hedonistic utility maximization as "unproven" and pre-scientific; properly conceived theory would instead begin with the assumption that people had no nature at all. ...
... It is beyond our remit to summarize the criticisms against substantive positivism; however, we should note that in Hirschi and Gottfredson's (1990) view, thanks to its having appropriated the external features and jargon of science, the perspective benefits in that it appears attractive and reasonable. On the other hand, theories of offenders that conform to its assumptions pay a steep price in parsimony, accuracy, and overall usefulness (see, also, Kornhauser, 1978;Matza, 1964;Pfohl, 1994;Taylor, Walton, & Young, 1973). ...
This paper identifies an intellectual orthodoxy among criminological theorists, in which conceptual schemes are preoccupied with the offender and exclude any mention of the victim. We show that any theory of crime in fact can define two related ideas about the victim, here called ideas of victimization and vulnerability, fixing their meaning and producing a constellation of testable predictions about their empirical properties. We then conduct a theoretical exercise contrasting how the internal logic of substantive positivist theories and choice theories would specify these ideas. We found that substantive positivism is not only the probable source of the aforementioned intellectual orthodoxy, but it also generates predictions about victimization and vulnerability that are inconsistent with the known facts. Choice theories, in contrast, incentivize scholars to attend to the victim and are able to make predictions that not only are consistent with known facts but that also suggest rich possibilities for the future growth of theory and research. Consideration of these ideas have important implications for falsifying longstanding criminological perspectives, by casting doubt on any crime theory that is unable to make believable empirical predictions about victimization and vulnerability.
... Opportunities included job autonomy , perceived group norms of GCB, anticipated group sanctions, perceived organizational monitoring, organizational sanctions, organizational awareness of GCB, and finally, perceived risk of unemployment. Internal controls were investigated including selfcontrol (according to Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990), dependability, positive self-concept, general trust, (lack of) rationalizations for GCB, (lack of) projection of GCB on others, and cognitive ability. Propensity was measured by stimulus seeking, low trouble avoidance , manipulativeness (or Machiavellianism), and behavioral intentions . ...
... For that purpose, predictors were combined into sets representing either the person–situation distinction or the motivation– control distinction. After controlling for age in Step 1, one set (e.g., person variables) was entered in Step 2, and the remaining set of predictors (in this case, situation variables) was entered in the Step 3. Age was entered first because it is the only variable in self-control theory that Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) regarded as an independent predictor of crime (or GCB, for that matter). The order of the last two steps was then reversed with the situation variables entered in Step 2 and the person variables entered in Step 3. The same procedure was then applied to the sets of motivation and control variables, giving a series of four hierarchical regression analyses. ...
... * p Ͻ .05. ** p Ͻ .01. *** p Ͻ .001. Hirschi (1990) ...
Counterproductive work behaviors have predominantly been investigated at relatively narrow levels, with the focus limited to subsets of the behavioral domain as well as to specific explanatory approaches. This study took a broader perspective with respect to both dependent and independent variables. A sample of German employees from 2 organizations reported on their levels of general counterproductive behavior (GCB). In predicting GCB, M. R. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi's (1990) theory of self-control as a general explanation for deviant acts was tested and compared with several alternative approaches. Results from simple and moderated hierarchical multiple regression analyses involving 24 predictors of GCB strongly support hypotheses derived from self-control theory. Little support is found for any effects on individual differences in GCB beyond the direct and conditional impact of internal control.
... They offered call center and massage training here. (Participant 8) This theme is supported by Self control theory of Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990). They believe that most crimes are straightforward to perform, do not require long-term planning, and offer minimal long-term advantages. ...
... Individuals lacking in self-control should be risk-takers, adventurers, short-sighted, nonverbal, impulsive, and insensitive to others, given the nature of illegal behavior. According to Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990), a lack of self-control is not only the cause of crime, but it also causes analogous actions. Because people who lack self-control are insensitive to others and take risks, they are more likely to have problems in social relationships, such as marriage; they are also more likely to use drugs and abuse alcohol; and they are more likely to drive without wearing a seat belt and get into car accidents (Goode, 2008). ...
This is qualitative research on the experiences of persons deprived of liberty in Carcar City Jail during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study sought answers to the life-changing experiences of the informants during the COVID-19 pandemic, how they coped with the challenges they encountered, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of the persons deprived of liberty. The study utilizes the phenomenological method of research. There were 10 informants individuals confined at Carcar City jails for the periods 2017-2018 and 2019-2022 respectively. They were selected based on the preset criteria of being in the facility during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research proceeded with an in-depth interview using the interview guide and voice recorder. The interviews were transcribed and with the use of Colaizzi’s method of analysis, eight emergent themes were created, namely: In the Life-Changing Experiences of the Informants during the COVID-19 Pandemic, three themes were created, namely: Breaking Momentum: Reminiscing the Older Self; Recovery Point: Road to Redemption; Breaking Point: The Moment of the Greatest Collapse; and Point of Reckoning: Reflection of One Self. In coping with the challenges encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic, two themes were created: Desolation: In the Face of Sorrow and Healing a Broken Soul: It's OK Not to Feel OK. For the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of the informants, two themes were created Retooling: The Long and Winding Road of Change and Reborn: The Return of the Prodigal Son. It is recommended in this study that the persons deprived of liberty experience creating an avenue for them to strive to change their perspective in life and stay away from things that might trigger them back to their old ways. The families of the informant's continuous support and understanding as to the source of the PDL’s strength and hope for their loved ones who are undergoing treatment programs and to stay strong to weather the storm and see the light beyond the darkest part of the tunnel. The DILG, BJMP, LGU and community should all play a role in achieving a holistic approach to rehabilitation as a program instrument by providing the necessary resources and equipment to fully achieve the goals of rehabilitating persons deprived of liberty as changed individuals upon reintegration into the folds of the community.
... The former concerns itself with conceptualizing of the offender's motivations and, more directly, to inhibitions to indulging in self-serving behavior that imposes criminal harm on others. The orienting dispute in criminological theory is that between theories of restraint and positivism (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1990). Control theorists, as restraint theorists are more commonly referred to, dedicate their energies to explaining the sources of conformity while positivism works to specify the animating forces of criminality. ...
... A recursive sharing of information across the disciplinary divide will enhance Criminology's understanding of the complicated nature of unlocking the riddle of crime and empower Criminal Justice to constructively critique and help refine theory. For its part, Criminology would do well to commit to cataloging the limits of its knowledge, accrued largely though the application of positivist logic, (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1990) in its theory courses. Conversely, Criminal Justice instruction will gain from embracing the value of case studies. ...
Criminology and Criminal Justice are bifurcated on multiple dimensions: education, publication patterns, and epistemological orientation. These asynchronous efforts might plausibly be remedied through a three-pronged pursuit of improved science, adherence to trial and error in justice practice, and evidence-based practice. Unfortunately, these potential solutions face a triple threat of criminal justice being built on a monopolistic (single producer) and monopsonistic (single purchaser) foundation, limits on rationality including biases in theory and practice, and fundamental limitations of tacit knowledge. Although these are likely to always be present, one option may be the development of an area with new possibilities for criminological research and criminal justice practices. In revisiting a scholarly exchange over agency (Paternoster, 2017) we consider how moving toward cognitive criminology could foster a more enriched understanding of human action. This may offer opportunities for both fields, including unifying the basic science of Criminology with the application of Criminal Justice.
... According to the maturational reform theory developed by Glueck and Glueck (1937), ageing would lead to a gradual shift away from crime due to maturational reform. According to the age theory developed by Hirschi and Gottfredson (1983) and Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), age directly effects crime and crime declines with an increase in age. The identity theory (Giordano et al., 2002) discusses the role of environmental factors in fostering desistence from crime with an increase in age. ...
... In one of the earliest studies developed by Glueck and Glueck (1937), referred to as the "maturational reform theory", ageing was the only significant factor in the reformative process, and the gradual shift away from crime was due to "maturation or maturational reform". Hirschi and Gottfredson (1983) and Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) noted that age directly affects crime and crime declines with age. Discussed extensively in Ulmer and Steffensmeier (2014), close ties to "adult individuals and institutions, such as work, marriage, family, community institutions" may lead to a decline in the propensity to commit crimes with an increase in age. ...
The United States is undergoing a demographic transition in which the proportion of individuals aged 65 years and above in total population is increasing. The age-crime relationship is a well-tested theory in criminology. A commonly accepted theory that has been unanimously supported by empirical evidence is that the propensity to commit crime decreases with age. But recent data from the FBI depicts an increase in crimes committed by the elderly. Notwithstanding the increasing trend in arrests among the elderly, we test the hypothesis that population ageing decreases total crime rates, violent crime rates, property crime rates, and their six sub-categories, namely, murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. We control for expenditures on police force (% of GDP), income inequality, national income, unemployment rate, poverty rate, and population density. The multiple break test, the bounds testing approach to cointegration analysis, and causality analysis are applied. The long-run results reject the hypothesis. Population ageing is found to increase crime rates in the United States. The results further indicate a positive correlation between population ageing and share of crimes committed by the elderly in total crimes in the United States.
... Similarly, the Benthamian assumption of self-interest can be discerned from readings of 'opportunity theories' of crime. Indeed, Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990) identified both the rational choice perspective, advanced by Cornish and Clarke (for example, Clarke and Cornish, 1985;Cornish and Clarke, 2008), and routine activity theory (for example, Cohen and Felson, 1979;Felson and Cohen, 1980) as 'restraint' theories, which are therefore arguably built upon the same assumption of a self-interested human nature. 1 By contrast, SAT is based on the assumption that human actions are predominantly ruleguided rather than driven by self-interest Treiber, 2009, 2016). This position is grounded in the observation that humans appear to have a natural propensity to develop systems of rules to keep order in society (Wikström, 2010;Treiber, 2017a); indeed, rules of conduct, although varying in their content, have existed throughout human history (for example, Goode, 2015). ...
... There is much evidence that we would if we dared.' Accordingly, these theories emphasize the necessity of external and/or internal controls to constrain the presumed natural human inclination to engage in crime (Britt and Rocque, 2016;Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990;Hirschi, 1969;Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1990). This assumption is not restricted to criminological theory. ...
For situational action theory (SAT), morality is key to the definition of crime and the explanation for why and how acts of crime happen: acts of crime are acts of moral rule-breaking and personal morality guides individuals’ perception of moral rule-breaking as an option before controls become relevant. However, the nature and role of morality in SAT can be misread. Within this article I respond to misinterpretations of the theory by elaborating and adding further context to the concept of morality in SAT. I contend that the root of misunderstanding is grounded in alternative assumptions regarding human nature: SAT assumes a fundamentally rule-guided human nature, whereas the prevailing view within criminology is that people are primarily self-interested. In this article I delineate SAT’s assumption of a rule-guided human nature and set out how this assumption informs the definition of crime and personal morality in the theory. I further specify the nature and role of morality in the perception of action alternatives, and in so doing distinguish SAT from theories that view constraint as the measure of morality. Finally, I develop and clarify SAT’s position on the relationship between morality and the law.
... Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether the relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent MPA might be moderated by other factors. Selfcontrol refers to the process whereby individuals make efforts to shift their responses to external stimulation instead of trying to change the external reality, in order to consciously control their behaviors (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1990). Self-control is conceptualized into an impulse system and a self-control system in accordance with the dual-system model (Dvorak et al., 2011). ...
... This result is similar to previous studies indicating that self-control, as a positive individual trait, not only can directly predict problematic behaviors but can also alleviate the influence of negative mental states (e.g., loneliness) on problematic behaviors (e.g., MPA; Li et al., 2013). Individuals with high self-control are able to control their emotions (e.g., loneliness) and external behaviors (e.g., MPA) in accordance with social standards or their own will (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1990). For instance, Park et al. (2014) found that self-control moderated the indirect effect of peer relationship on problematic Internet use via selfesteem. ...
Previous studies have found that childhood maltreatment is an important risk predictor of adolescent mobile phone addiction (MPA). However, little is known about the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this association. Grounded in the Basic Psychological Needs Theory and the organism-environment interaction model, this study examined the mediating effect of loneliness and the moderating effect of self-control in the relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent MPA. A total of 981 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 13.68 years, SD = 0.92) completed measures regarding childhood maltreatment, MPA, loneliness, and self-control. After controlling for participants’ demographic variables, loneliness partially mediated the relation between childhood maltreatment and adolescent MPA and this indirect path was moderated by self-control. Specifically, the effect of loneliness on MPA was stronger for adolescents with lower self-control than for those with higher self-control. Our research provides additional evidence for the negative association between childhood maltreatment and MPA.
... The well-tested age theory of crime, along with the life course theory, social bond theory, maturational reform theory, identity theory, social learning theory, and social cognitive learning theory of crime developed by Hirschi and Gottfredson (1983), Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), Laub (1993, 2003), Cornelius et al. (2017), Hirchi (1969), Glueck & Glueck (1937), Giordano et al. (2002), and Bandura (1999Bandura ( , 2006aBandura ( , 2006b, amongst others, posit that the tendency to engage in criminal activities decreases with an increase in age. Thus, if the proportion of elderly individuals in total population increases in the United States, one would then expect the share of crimes committed by the elderly in total crimes in the United States to decrease. ...
Existing studies have modelled age-crime relationship within a symmetric framework. But due to sudden changes in government policies and other factors, the effects of increases and decreases in the number of elderly individuals in total population on crime rates could be asymmetric. This paper makes a novel contribution to the fields of demographics and criminology by testing the hypothesis that population ageing would result in a decrease in the share of crimes committed by the elderly in the United States under structural breaks in an asymmetric framework. The results of Non-Linear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (NARDL) cointegration analysis provide evidence of significant asymmetric effects. The results, therefore, underscore the importance to reformulate the existing age-crime theories in order to pave the way for a complete understanding of the complex relationship between population ageing and crime in the United States.
... It was not until the late 1980s to early 1990s that research began examining women's unique pathways to crime. The emergence of a women-centered pathways perspective formed from a lack of acknowledgement and representation in widely accepted, general theories of crime, such as biological, social, and psychological factors, and lifespan development theories (see Glueck & Glueck, 1950;Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990;Moffitt, 1993;Sampson & Laub, 1993;Thornberry & Krohn, 2005). Common risk factors to criminality that formed from dominant criminological theories include antisocial personality, antisocial attitudes and beliefs, antisocial peers, substance abuse, low education and low/unstable employment, poor structured leisure time, and poor family relationships (Bonta & Andrews, 2016). ...
Because women are the minority population in correctional settings, they are frequently overlooked and misunderstood as a unique population while serving sentences both in the community and inside institutions. There are myriad misperceptions that correctional staff hold toward justice-involved women. Many of these myths continue to perpetuate harmful stereotypes that become obstacles to effectively supervising and intervening with women. Consequently, treatment options offered to women often mirror the treatment provided to justice-involved men. Given a large body of research highlighting the unique pathways women have to criminality, this should not be the default practice. Many women are carrying with them histories of dysfunctional and traumatic relationships plagued by neglect, abuse, and dependency, with little human and social capital. This chapter begins by discussing the perceptions of women who are serving time in community and institutional correctional settings. Then, the link between women’s behavior and their search for safety within correctional environments, particularly in carceral settings. This is especially important for supervisory staff to understand because it can help explain what is perceived to be dysfunctional behavior while in custody. Lastly, we present various products developed to translate gender-responsive correctional principles into practice, which practitioners and researchers alike may find useful.
... Appropriate and consistent parenting promotes adolescent self-efficacy, leading to improved overall outcomes. 28 Better self-efficacy predicts lesser substance use. 29 Building from these 2 theories are 2 domains of self-efficacy, alcohol refusal-efficacy and alcohol decision-efficacy. ...
... Furthermore, Heatherton and Tice (1994) asserted that people vary in their willingness and ability to exercise self-control and that these individual differences have implications for many aspects of emotional, social, and behavioral adjustment. Likewise, Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990) believe that lack of self-control is key to understanding and predicting many behavioral problems, including serious antisocial behavior. ...
Objective. The objective was to identify and analyze how criminogenic thinking and personality are involved in delinquency and crime in order to prevent criminal behavior.
Material and methods. Data were collected from 300 male inmates, with ages between 21 and 65, definitively sentenced and in custody in seven Romanian penitentiaries. An omnibus questionnaire and two psychological questionnaires were used: the Criminogenic Cognitions Scale and the CP5F Personality Questionnaire.
Results. Compared to the control group, the group of people deprived of liberty convicted of murder obtained a statistically significantly higher mean for the short-term planning subscale and lower for the extraversion, conscientiousness and emotional stability subscales. The variability of the score for the thinking pattern specific to short-term planning is due to 59% of the low conscientiousness score F(148,149) = 9.32, p < .05, and in turn the conscientiousness score is explained in proportion to 38% of the negative cognitive pattern score against authority F(148, 149) = 5.79, p < .05 and 33% of that of insensitivity to impact F(148, 149) = 5.02, p < .05. At the same time, the conscientiousness score explains 35% of the emotional stability score F(148, 149) = 81.69, p < .01.
Conclusions. The specialized intervention regarding social reintegration intended for this category of people requires a careful orientation towards assuming social norms, emotional balancing, adaptation in society, previewing the consequences and developing the ability to make long-term plans.
... In maturational reform theory, ageing would lead to a gradual shift away from the tendency to engage in criminal activities due to maturational reform (Glueck and Glueck, 1937). In age theory, there is a direct relationship between age and crime, and crime declines with an increase in age (Hirschi and Gottfredson,1983;Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). In identity theory, environmental factors foster desistance from crime (Giordano et al., 2002). ...
Although the negative age-crime relationship is a well-tested theory in criminology that has been unanimously supported by empirical evidence, data from the FBI in the United States show an increasing trend in crime rates amongst the elderly in recent times. An increase in crime rates would impede economic progress. The increasing trend in crime rates amongst the elderly has been recognized by researchers, but no scholarly attempt has been made to investigate the negative age-crime relationship using age-specific crime data for the elderly. This is a unique attempt to test the hypothesis that population ageing reduces the share of crimes committed by the elderly in each of the 28 major crime categories under study, controlling for unemployment rate, income-inequality, poverty rate, population density, real national income, and federal expenditures on police force (% of GDP). The study period is 1985-2020. Multiple break tests are performed. Based on the long-run autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) and the dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) estimates, support for the negative age-crime theoretical proposition is observed in just 4 and 6 crime categories, respectively. The hypothesis that population ageing reduces crime rates in the United States is rejected in majority of the crime categories under study.
... Self-control is a process in which individuals endeavor to adapt their reactions to outside stimuli rather than trying to alter the external reality to purposefully control their actions (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1990;Pathak, 2021). Self-control is also defined as a scheme comprised of the goals driven by mental experiences that allow individuals to accomplish their goals and direct disturbing opinions and feelings, put off satisfaction, and handle stressful circumstances (Rosenbaum, 1998). ...
How the mental health of individuals is affected by the living conditions brought about the COVID-19 pandemic has become an important research topic. Education has been one of the most affected areas in this period, and educational activities have started to be carried out using distance education tools. In the online learning environments, students' ability to manage their behavior and take responsibility for their behavior has come to the fore in terms of protecting their mental health due to the decrease in teacher control. This study aimed to examine the mediating role of self-control in the relationship between loneliness, anxiety and mental well-being. Four hundred twenty-five university students, 304 (71.5%) females and 121 (28.5%) males participated in the study. The mean age of the participants was 21.39, the standard deviation was 2.61, and the ages ranged from 18 to 39. Research data were collected by using the Turkish version of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale, Brief Self-Control Scale, Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale, and UCLA Loneliness Scale. In the study, descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients and correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the relationships among the variables. Two-step structural equation modeling was used to investigate the mediating role of self-control between loneliness and anxiety and mental well-being. The results of the correlation analysis showed that all the variables in the study were significantly related to each other. It was found that the data validated the measurement model tested in the first step. As a result of the structural model analysis performed in the second step, it was found that loneliness and anxiety negatively predicted self-control and mental well-being. In addition, self-control was found to mediate the relationship between loneliness, anxiety and mental well-being. Within the framework of these findings, it can be stated that loneliness and anxiety lead to a decrease in mental well-being by reducing self-control.
... First, in criminological circles the interpretivist/pos tivist debate is heating up, often with reference to the philosophical positions that underlie current theoretical positions. For in stance, juxtaposing Braithwaite's (1993) articulation of interpr tivism, Sampson's (1993) concern with processes and measur ment, and Hirschi and Gottfredson's (1990) interest in the phil sophical foundations of social action reveals how philosophi assumptions are, welcome or not, pushing into current theoret cal debates. These authors' concerns have induced them to look at the roots of theory and beyond to the epistemological concerns that underlie theory. ...
... Rather, they argue against "biological positivism" (just as they argue against psychological and sociological positivism) as a misguided methodology to study crime, delinquency and violence (1990, ch. 3;Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990a), and they critique existing adoption studies purporting to show heritable effects on crime (not studies of the biological causes of self-control). In discussing biological research in criminology, they do not rule out individual differences appearing prior to efforts at early socialization: ...
... https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/193013.pdf, vaadatud10.03.2016 jaHirschi, 1990; White ja Gorman, 2000 jt). Üks võimalus seost selgitada on teha seda läbi uimastite mõju ajule ja käitumisele. ...
Käesoleva uuringu eesmärk oli igakülgselt hinnata Eesti õigussüsteemis pakutava narkosõltlaste ravi- ja rehabilitatsioonisüsteemi vastavust inimeste vajadustele, tuvastada probleemid olemasolevas süsteemis ja teenustes ning teha ettepanekuid süsteemi muutmiseks ja teenuste parandamiseks.
Uuringus kombineeriti kvalitatiivseid ja kvantitatiivseid meetodeid. Andmekogud, mida kasutati: 1.) Statistikaameti, Tervise Arengu Instituudi andmekogud, Justiitsministeeriumi kinnipeeturegistri andmed. 2.) RAKE küsitluse andmed: 2016. a alguses vanglates ja arestimajades viibinute valimisse kuulus 327 õigusrikkujat (sh 3 naist), küsimustikuga koguti andmeid uimastite tarvitamise, ravi- ja rehabilitatsiooniteenuste tõhususe ja hoiakute kohta. 3.) Intervjuude andmed: 13 ravikogemusega õigusrikkujat. Intervjuudes uuriti täpsemalt ravikogemusi. Lisaks viidi läbi fookusgrupid õigussüsteemi esindajatega (kohtunikud, prokurörid, kriminaalhooldajad) ja raviesindajatega. Toimus ringreis vanglatesse ja raviasutustesse koos välisekspert dr Jouni Touruneniga (Soome, A-Klinikka). Küsitluse ja intervjuude teostamiseks said uurijad kooskõlastuse Tartu Ülikooli eetikakomiteelt.
Tulemused ja järeldused. 1.) Ravi- ja rehabilitatsiooniga seotud teenuste pakkumine (süstlavahetus, rehabilitatsiooniprogrammid, nõustamisteenused, asendusravi jm) ning rahastus ei ole erinevate osapoolte hinnangul hetkeseisuga stabiilne ja piisav selleks, et tagada kõigi uimastitarvitajate toimetulek ja naasmine ühiskonda. Üldistatult, praegune Eesti ravi- ja rehabilitatsioonisüsteem ei vasta uimastisõltuvusega õigusrikkujate vajadustele. Soovitatav on jätkata tõenduspõhiste meetmete rahastamist ja stabiilset pakkumist (stabiilsus ajas ja ruumis). 2.) Ravile pöördumisel on eelduseks indiviidi sisemine motivatsioon, mida on võimalik soodustada motiveeriva intervjueerimise kaudu, kuid vastavate oskustega spetsialiste napib nii vanglates, raviasutustes kui ka karistussüsteemis; vaja on koolitada õigussüsteemi töötajaid viimaks läbi esmast motivatsioonihindamist ning õpetada neile probleemi märkamist ja abivajaja suunamist spetsialistide vastuvõtule. 3.) Erinevad õigusrikkujate raviga seotud ametnikud ja asutused (vanglad, raviasutused) on senini tegutsenud pigem autonoomselt ilma regulaarse infovahetuse ja koostööta, kuid soovitatav on informatsiooni vahetamine ja pidev kontakt näiteks ühiste regulaarsete infopäevade kaudu. 4.) Ravi- ja rehabilitatsiooniteenuste kättesaadavus ning kvaliteet vanglates ja arestimajades erineb ravist ja rehabilitatsioonist väljaspool kinnipidamisasutusi, kuid soovitatav on ravi kvaliteet ja kättesaadavus ühtlustada. 5.) Ravi ja rehabilitatsiooni on seni karistuse asemel rakendatud üksikutel juhtudel, kuigi kolmandik vanglas viibivatest õigusrikkujatest on sõltuvushäirega; soovitatav on kasutada sõltuvusravi kõigi nende puhul, kes seda vajavad. 6.) Sõltuvushäirega õigusrikkujad eelistavad ise ravivõimalustest kõige enam individuaalset lähenemist (sotsiaaltöötaja või psühholoogi nõustamine), kuid Eestis on uimastisõltlaste ravis puudus erialaspetsialistidest (sotsiaaltöötajad, psühholoogid, juhtumikorraldajad jt) ja tõenduspõhistest teenustest, mille vahel valida. Soovitatav on suurendada ravi ja rehabilitatsiooni erialaspetsialistide arvu ja laiendada koheselt tõenduspõhiste raviteenuste valikut õigussüsteemis.
IN ENGLISH
The aim of this study was to assess how drug treatment and rehabilitation is organized in the Estonian penal system, and how services provided are in accordance with expectations of clients. Recommendations for improving the system were expected.
Methods: Qualitative and quantitative methods were combined. Databases used: Statistics Estonia, data from The National Institute for Health Development, data from the Ministry of Justice. In addition, a survey about effectiveness of drug treatment and rehabilitation and attitudes was conducted in prisons: 327 criminal offenders (including 3 women) responded. 13 interviews about personal experiences of drug treatment were carried out with criminal offenders and group interviews were conducted with judges, procecutors, probation officers and addiction rehabilitation specialists. An independent expert from Finland (A-Klinikka, Dr Jouni Tourunen) was invited to visit Estonian prisons and rehabilitation centers for criminal offenders. The study was approved by the ethics committee at the University of Tartu.
Results and conclusions: 1.) Estonian rehabilitation services and treatments (needle exchange programs, counselling, substitution therapy, etc.) and funding have not been stable and sufficient to prevent relapses and rehabilitate all criminal offenders. It is recommended to finance and provide scientifically proven services regularly (from the client’s perspective it is necessary to provide stability). 2.) The criteria for entering drug treatment is – internal motivation, this can be enhanced by motivational interviewing; however, offices in the penal system have not received training in motivational interviewing. It is recommended to educate officers to notice the need for motivational interviewing or to provide this service themselves. 3.) Different institutions in the system (prisons, rehabilitation centers, etc.) have been working autonomously, and very little information has been shared between different institutions. It is recommended that information exchange and cooperation should be regular and common between people working in this system. One option would be to organize yearly conferences or information seminars where all parties concerned could meet. 4.) The quality and availability of different services in prisons and outside prisons is different. It is recommended that the services available in prisons and outside prisons would be equal in quality and availability. 5.) Treatment as an alternative punishment has only been used in a few cases in Estonia; in contrast, 1/3 of prisoners are drug addicts. Therefore, it is recommended that treatment and rehabilitation should be available for all criminal offenders who have a drug use disorder. 6.) Drug addicts prefer individual counselling (with a social worker or a psychologist), but the number of specialists (social workers, psychologists, case managers, etc.) and different evidence-based services available in Estonian prisons is extremely low. It is recommended to provide a variety of different alternative evidence-based services, and to include more educated specialists.
... Two strands of the criminology literature provide support for the assumption that there is a negative correlation between people's criminal propensities and their productivity. In particular, the strand of the literature, following Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990), identifies self-control as a central factor in criminal or deviant conduct. out of self-interest, offer lower wages to ex-convicts. 2 I investigate the impact of decriminalization on deterrence effects, caused by changes in the labor market consequences of having a criminal record. ...
Criminalizing an act that provides weak signals about a person's productivity and character can dilute the stigma attached
to having a criminal record. This reduces the deterrence of serious crimes that do provide strong signals regarding the offender's
character. Over-criminalization occurs when the costs associated with reduced deterrence due to stigma dilution off-set potential
benefits associated with criminalizing the less harmful act. Identifying conditions under which stigma dilution is likely
and comparatively costly allows the determination of factors that affect the desirability of (de)criminalizing various acts.
These factors are discussed in the context of marijuana possession offenses to illustrate how over-criminalization may reduce
social welfare. The normative desirability of various practices in criminal law are also discussed vis-à-vis their impacts
on stigma dilution.
... El modelo de desarrollo social fue elaborado por Catalano y Hawkins (1996) a partir de una integración de la teoría de la asociación diferencial (Cressey, 1953;Matsueda, 1988), la teoría del control social (Hirschi, 1969) y la del aprendizaje social (Bandura, 1977). Howell (1997) y Battin-Pearson et al., (1998) proponen como punto de partida la siguiente hipótesis: "La socialización sigue el mismo proceso tanto si produce comportamientos prosociales o comportamientos antisociales" (Battin-Pearson et al., 1998), sugiriendo que el desarrollo de comportamientos prosociales o antisociales viene influenciado por el grado de implicación e interacción con amigos prosociales o delincuentes (teoría de la asociación diferencial); la habilidad, los costos y recompensas que requiere esa interacción (teoría del aprendizaje social); y la mayor o menor vinculación que los jóvenes adquieran con individuos prosociales o antisociales (teoría del control social). ...
El presente estudio tiene como objetivo evaluar los factores psicosociales
de riesgo y de protección de violencia juvenil en El Salvador. Tras la construcción
de cuatro instrumentos que miden los factores psicosociales de riesgo de violencia
juvenil (Fase I), se aplicaron a escala nacional junto con el Cuestionario de Agresión
(AQ). El presente estudio es de tipo expos facto (Montero & León, 2007). En el
estudio se utilizó un muestreo probabilístico, para ello fueron seleccionados entre
dos a tres complejos educativos e institutos nacionales en cada departamento (los
más grandes), aplicándose las pruebas a una muestra de 3.349 jovenes de ambos
sexos. En el estudio fueron evaluados 1.708 (51.0 %) mujeres y 1.640 (49.0 %)
hombres. La media de edad total fue de 16.47 años (DT = 1.38); para las mujeres
fue de 16.38 años (DT = 1.33), y para los hombres de 16.56 años (DT = 1.43).
En los resultados, se tiene que los jóvenes más afectados o con mayor riesgo de
incurrir en conductas violentas son del sexo masculino, quienes viven con un
padre o pariente cercano, los residentes urbanos, la mayoría que asiste a centros
educativos privados, los jóvenes que trabajan, y por departamento, aquellos más
densamente poblados, como son: San Salvador, San Miguel, La Libertad y Santa
Ana; también se encontró una correlación significativa entre la violencia recibida
en la familia y la conducta agresiva en los jóvenes.
... Control theories rose to prominence in modern criminology in large part as a reaction to sociological theories that were seen to be too deterministic (Hirschi, 1969;Kornhauser, 1974;Matza, 1964) The motivational force implicit in sociological theories requires crime from those bound up in the causal throes of the theory -too much crime, since even the most active offenders do not offend most of the time and nearly everyone begins to stop committing crime (from whatever level they have achieved) as soon they enter adulthood (producing an embarrassment of riches, as Matza called it). This overdetermination is a result of what Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990) termed substantive positivism and characterizes nearly all behavioral explanations for crime. Control theories brought the actor back in to sociological criminology, providing choice or agency as an essential element. ...
Control theory remains a prominent explanation for crime and delinquency, generating a considerable body of empirical studies and frequent theoretical discussion. Although much of this scholarship lends support to the perspective, important issues have been raised as the perspective is extended, modified, and refined; among these are that the theory places too much emphasis on compulsion and too little on choice in the causation of crime, that it neglects the role of morality in decisions about crime, and that the theory needs to be reconciled with results of research about criminal deterrence. This paper considers each of these issues. A framework is presented to describe essential elements of all control theories and finds no inconsistency between some types of control theory and evidence about situational effects, evidence of moral elements of decision-making, and the lack of severity effects in the deterrence literature for the criminal law.
... Among school-based outcomes, self-control is significantly related to academic cheating, cutting class, truancy, and academic suspension or expulsion (Cochran, Wood, Sellers, Wilkerson, & Chamlin, 1998;Gibbs, Giever, & Martin, 1998). Persons with low self-control are also significantly likely to engage in criminal acts of force and fraud, such as violent, property, and public-order crimes, imprudent behaviors, and forms of victimization (for reviews, see Britt & Gottfredson, 2003;DeLisi, 2005;Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1994;Pratt & Cullen, 2000). ...
Building on an extension of self-control theory to criminal justice, the current study explored Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory with data from a sample of 208 male parolees selected from the midwestern United States. Ordered logit regression models linked offender low self-control to an array of outcomes, including social interactions with prison staff, correctional substance abuse, physical assaults against correctional staff, weapon carrying, placement in a disciplinary unit, infraction history, and retaliation against another inmate. Overall, the study demonstrated promising empirical links between low self-control and criminal justice noncompliance as one or both self-control measures (attitudinal Grasmick scale and 3-item disputatiousness scale) were significantly related to every criminal justice outcome net the effects of 20 controls for criminal career, demographic, social background and risk factors, and various correctional risk measures.
... Hirschi and Gottfredson have argued that efforts to construct theories based on a priori disciplinary principles have been woefully unsatisfying (1990; see also Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990: chapters 3 and 4). This is " substantive positivism—the view that 'science' favors or even requires particular theories or modes of explanation " (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1990: 426, note 1). When criminology looks to single disciplines such as sociology, psychology, or economics, the field does not advance in large part because those disciplines seek to establish institutional hegemony by imposing their research agenda on the field of criminology. ...
In response to a devastating critique of the state of criminology known as the Michael-Adler Report, Edwin H. Sutherland created differential association theory as a paradigm for the field of criminology. I contend that Sutherland's strategy was flawed because he embraced a sociological model of crime and in doing so adopted a form of sociological positivism. Furthermore, Sutherland ignored key facts about crime that were contrary to his theoretical predilections. Recognizing that facts must come first and that criminology is an interdisciplinary field of study, I offer life-course criminology as a paradigm for understanding the causes and dynamics of crime. In addition, I identify three warning signs that I believe inhibit the advancement of criminology as a science and a serious intellectual enterprise.
... La Teoría General del Crimen de Gottfredson y Hirschi (1990) propone el concepto de autocontrol (self-control), que se adquiere durante la infancia, como el elemento más influyente sobre los comportamientos convencionales o antisociales. Por tanto, aumentando el autocontrol de los niños se evitarán futuros comportamientos delictivos (Gottfredson y Hirschi, 1990;Hirschi y Gottfredson, 1994a). Por su parte, el Modelo de Acumulación de Riesgos de Yoshikawa (1994) sugiere unas complejas interacciones entre factores tempranos de riesgo, entre posteriores desórdenes y entre factores de riesgo y desórdenes (Tremblay y Craig, 1995). ...
Tesis Univ. Granada. Departamento de Didáctica y Organización Escolar. Leída el 14 de octubre de 2008
Introduction
Youth involvement in violence and delinquency has received widespread attention in the literature. However, little is known about youth involvement in political violence, especially among youth who live in conflict areas. The current study examined the mechanisms that underlie youth involvement in serious physical and political violence. We explored the similarities and differences in the association between both individual factors (including religiosity and school commitment) and parental factors (including parental control and education), and the two types of violent behaviors.
Method
A large representative sample of 814 Arab male students from neighborhoods located in East Jerusalem, aged 12–18 years, completed a structured, anonymous, self‐report questionnaire. The data was collected between February and May 2019.
Results
Over half of the participants reported that they had been involved in political violence (55.1%) or serious physical violence (58.8%) during the previous year. Youth involvement in serious physical violence was positively associated with involvement in political violence. Furthermore, we found that greater parental control and lower impulsivity are associated with lower levels of political and physical violence. School commitment was associated negatively with serious physical violence but not with involvement in political violence. Youth work was positively correlated with involvement in political violence but not in serious physical violence.
Conclusion
The results of the current study show that Arab youth from East Jerusalem are highly involved in political and serious physical violence. The risk and protective factors identified here should inform the design of specific intervention strategies.
Academic, legal and practitioner responses to cyber threats have been predominantly reactive, punitive, and deterrence‐based, with limited attention given to the motives underlying computer criminals' behaviors. This paper reasons that new and better theoretical perspectives are needed to explain computer criminals' motives. Following a review of the computer crime behavioral literature, a summary review of core philosophies and theories used to explain generalized crime and criminal motives is provided. A framework is proposed suggesting that criminological theories have evolved along two categorical dimensions: determinism‐indeterminism, and individualism‐collectivism. The paper then reasons that future computer crime research will benefit by considering indeterminist‐collectivist (constructivist) theories. Two such theories, social construction of technology, and actor‐network theory, are proposed in the discussion section, along with some cybercrime examples. The paper invites a deeper consideration of the origins and motivations of computer‐based criminality as a means of building stronger theory and ultimately advancing more proactive and effective solutions.
Çocuk ve suç kavramı 20.yy. başlarından itibaren çokça anılmaya başlanmıştır. Çocuk haklarının korunmasına yönelik bazı düzenlemelerin uluslararası camiada yapılması ihtiyacıyla birlikte çocukların suçtan korunması gerektiği anlayışı da ortaya çıkmıştır. Dünya da hiçbir çalışma suçun kaynağını açıklayan, oluşumuna neden olan temel bir neden ortaya koyamamıştır. Artık günümüzde bir gerçek var ki oda suçun oluşumuna etki eden birçok faktörün olduğudur. Ve suçun tamamen önlenmesi mümkün değildir. Ancak suç minimize edilerek asgari seviyeye indirilebilir. İnsanlar üzerindeki suç korkusu azaltılarak daha mutlu daha özgür, suç korkusunun olmadığı ya da çok az olduğu bir toplum meydana getirilebilir. İşte burada suçun oluşumunun temel nedenlerinden birisi olan çocuk suçluluğunun engellenmesi veya olabildiğince minimize edilmesi hayati önem kazanmaktadır. Çünkü küçük yaşta suça sürüklenen çocukların büyük bölümü ileriki yaşlarda suç kariyerlerini artırdıkları bilinen bir gerçektir. Bu makalede Türkiye’nin çocuk suçluluğu haritası çıkartılarak, çocukların suça sürüklenmesine neden olan faktörlerin kriminal açıdan incelemesi yapılmıştır.
Several influential sociologists have questioned the wisdom of criminology's departure from sociology. Omitted from these reflections are the rationale explaining the schism. The present work grants a historical account to fill that absence. Oral histories with 17 leading criminologists, 13 of whom trained as sociologists, have been collected and analyzed. Two domains are explored, professional/organizational and informal/intellectual. First, the departments evidence different hiring patterns, journal content preferences, and journal structures over the past half‐century. Second, there are contrasts regarding ideology; sociology trends leftward. Criminological research concentrates on a dependent variable; sociology links to a unifying orientation. There are concerns that the field's training and research may be too narrow and that the lure of influencing policy could undermine its opportunity to offer critical commentary. Criminology's focus on addressing crime as a practical concern serves some advantages. However, many respondents were conflicted over the loss of an abiding identity. If the field fails to confront its preference for multitheoretical, policy‐driven discussion, it risks being pruned or subsumed without a more fixed sense of identity.
Expungement refers to the legal practice of having one's criminal record sealed. These legal devices lower the visibility of a person's criminal record, and thereby reduce the informal sanctions that may be imposed on him. This reduction is enjoyed by the ex-convict only if he does not become a repeat offender, because otherwise he re-obtains a criminal record. Thus, the value a person attaches to having his record expunged is inversely related to his criminal tendency. Therefore, by making expungements costly, the criminal justice system can sort out low criminal tendency individuals – who are unlikely to recidivate – from people who have high criminal tendencies. Moreover, the availability of expungements does not substantially affect a first time offender's incentive to commit crime, because one incurs a cost close to the reduction in informal sanctions that he enjoys by sealing his criminal record. On the other hand, expungements increase specific deterrence, because a person who has no visible record suffers informal sanctions if he is convicted a second time. Thus, perhaps counter-intuitively, allowing ex-convicts to seal their records at substantial costs reduces crime.
Although New Zealand is home to the largest Samoan population outside of Samoa, there have been few studies of Samoan youth in gangs in New Zealand. This study sought to establish why Samoan youth gangs have formed in New Zealand urban centres, and why some young Samoan males are attracted to these gangs. This study used Delinquency Theory to explore the reasons for Samoan youth gang formation, and Socialization Theory to explore both how the cultural and societal socialization of young Samoan males lead them to gangs as well as how socialization within gangs secures their commitment to high risk and potentially dangerous behaviour. Life histories were collected over an eighteen month period from 25 young Samoan males aged over sixteen years who were members of various Bloods gangs. Findings from studies of socialization experiences confirmed that various socio-cultural strains weaken controls and led people into gangs, where they are then ‘re-socialized’ by their new gang peers. These life histories revealed gang members’ reasons for both joining and for leaving gangs and the extent to which Samoan cultural values and practices shape gang values and practices.
This study also sought to establish whether these insights might suggest strategies which would make gangs less attractive and save young men from dangerous behaviour which impacted on their life chances in later life. A comprehensive overview of anti-gang strategies suggested that, in the light of these findings, some are likely to be more effective than others. It is recommended that a Pacific criminology should be developed to supplement existing theoretical perspectives on youth gangs and that a multi-faceted approach is required in order to address the Samoan youth gang phenomenon and to account for unique cultural factors of the local social context.
In order to answer the question 'what is criminology?', it is necessary to first answer the question 'what is crime?'. If criminology is the scientific study of the causes and consequences of crime, then the first order problem for criminology is to define the proper scope for the field-what might be termed the 'problem of the dependent variable'. This chapter discusses the following: some key facts about crime and offending, a crime-based theory of crime, behavioural-based versus legal-based (deterrence) theories in criminology, evidence on deterrence and policing on crime, and the future of crime in criminology.
A substantial body of research suggests that, in spite of the risks associated with co-offending, offenders frequently choose to work together. Dominant theories of crime, as well as those of decision making in general (e.g., game theory), typically assume that people's choises are based on instrumentally rational calculations; however, research on decision making highlights the limitations of this assumption for understanding decisions to cooperate in both noncriminal and criminal activities. We draw on work on social dilemma theories, as well as James Coleman's treatise on collective action (1990), for other insights into the motivation to cooperate. We extend these ideas and argue that the challenges of everyday adversity and contacts with potential co-offenders may increase people's willingness to trust others and co-offend. Employing data from a two-wave panel of street youth in Toronto and Vancouver, we test these ideas in multivariate models of street theft. We find that of the various cooperative styles examined, a form we call collaboration is most important in facilitating crime.
This article explores the relationship between social control theory (Hirschi, 1969) and self-control theory (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990), with reference to Travis Hirschi's criminological career. It is suggested that focusing on Hirschi's intellectual development enables us to appreciate some of the theoretical shifts between his early and later work. How far there is a connection between social and self-control theory is a matter of some debate among commentators in the field. However, it is argued here that the two theoretical positions are based on fundamentally different principles, particularly in relation to the core concept of control.
Developmental criminology has raised the prospect that empirical classifications of offenders based on variations in the age of offending will assist in the prediction of and explanation for crime and delinquency. Additionally, developmental criminology suggests that events late in the life course may alter offending propensities in significant ways. Recent empirical works provide compelling evidence about these claims and provide support for general theories of the causes of crime and delinquency. Some of this recent research is analyzed from the perspective of a propensity/event theory.
Gottfredson and Hirschi's recently introduced general theory of crime has received considerable empirical support. Researchers have found that low self-control, the general theory's core concept, is related to lawbreaking and to deviant behaviors considered by Gottfredson and Hirschi to be “analogous” to crime. In this article, we extend this research by assessing the effects of low self-control on crime and analogous behaviors and by using two distinct measures of self-control, an attitudinal measure and the analogous/behavior scale. Thus, following Gottfredson and Hirschi, we use analogous imprudent behaviors as outcomes of low self-control and as indicators of low self-control's effects on crime. We also examine an important but thus far neglected part of the theory: the claim that low self-control has effects not only on crime but also on life chances, life quality, and other social consequences. Consistent with the general theory, we found that both measures of self-control, attitudinal and behavioral, have effects on crime, even when controlling for a range of social factors. Further, the analysis revealed general support for the theory's prediction of negative relationships between low self-control and social consequences other than crime—life outcomes and quality of life.
Numerous studies have attempted to test Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime. The present article outlines the view that virtually every empirical test of the theory is based on serious misinterpretations of its core construct, self-control. A reinterpretation of self-control is proposed and seven requirements for its construct-valid measurement are specified. A review of self-control measures used in previous research shows that these requirements are more often violated than met. As a consequence, the empirical status of self-control theory is held to be still largely unknown, despite all apparent evidence.
Prior research on law enforcement and court system actions suggests that offender demeanor influences practitioner decision making. However, few studies have examined a key implication of this body of work—namely, criminogenic factors associated not only with offending but also with demeanor may result in a greater likelihood of contact with and formal processing by law enforcement and the courts. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we test the hypothesis that low self-control, which is associated with a range of characteristics that might influence practitioner perceptions of individual offenders' demeanors, will predict greater contact and formal processing. Briefly, we found that low self-control was consistently related to criminal justice system involvement as measured by police contacts, arrests, age at first police contact, and arrest onset. The implications of the findings for theory and research are discussed.
Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime is widely tested and commented upon and just as widely misapprehended. Criminologists have paid insufficient attention to the implications of the theory's rootedness in classical criminological and rational choice principles and its steadfast rejection of positivism. As a result, much of the beauty of the theory remains unappreciated. A more serious consequence is that criminologists have overlooked what careful attention to the classical and rational choice underpinnings of the theory discloses: the logical inconsistency of two fundamental claims made by Gottfiredson and Hirschi. This paper shows that on pain of logical inconsistency one cannot simultaneously assert, as Gottfredson and Hirschi wish to do, that rational judgment is the ultimate causal determinant of behavior and that variation in parental management practices explains variation in self-control. The proof consists of a demonstration that parental management practices can explain variation in self-control only if rational judgment is not, contrary to what Gottfredson and Hirschi assert, the ultimate causal determinant of behavior. Subsequent to presentation of the proof, implications are discussed, and the logical form of an alternative account of self-control suggested by the manner of resolution of the contradiction is offered.
Previous research has identified both individual differences and perceived situational variables such as self-esteem and organizational
justice as the antecedents of counterproductive work behaviors (CWB). This article focuses on employees’ perceived interpersonal
interaction. More specifically, the relation between abusive supervision and subordinates’ counterproductive work behaviors
toward the organization is examined. Using a sample of 198 dyads employees and their immediate supervisor (N = 396) from a multinational company in China, this research finds that abusive supervision results in increased levels of
sabotage, withdrawal, production deviance, and theft. This research also examines the moderating effects of locus of control
and perceived mobility on the relationships between abusive supervision and subordinates’ CWB toward the organization. The
results suggest that locus of control moderates the relationship between abusive supervision and sabotage, production deviance
and theft, but not abusive supervision and withdrawal; perceived mobility moderates the relationship between abusive supervision
and withdrawal and theft, but not abusive supervision and sabotage and production deviance. Practical implications for human
resource management are discussed.
Low self-control theory will have an impact on criminological theory. G&H's arguments are too forcefully and intelligently made to be ignored. I anticipate that the theory will inspire a great deal of attention and research (and much of it may be in an attempt to prove them wrong). The value of self-control theory would be advanced even more, however, if G&H would grapple with the tautology problem, attend to theoretical linkages with prior control theory, and ease off a bit from the oppositional strategy in comparing their theory with other theories.
Asthma is associated with autonomic nervous imbalance: an increased bronchial sensitivity to cholinergic constrictors and possibly a decreased sensitivity to beta2-adrenergic dilators have been reported in this disease. Also, non-adrenergic and non-cholinergic (NANC) mediators have a small regulatory effect on airway function. These mediators contribute to the pathogenesis of asthma not only by regulating smooth muscle tone in the airways but also by affecting pulmonary blood flow, endothelial permeability and airway secretions. In many studies increased parasympathetic responsiveness has been associated with clinical asthma or the worsening of asthma in adults. However, most of the studies in children have not found association between autonomic dysfunction and asthma. Therefore, the autonomic dysfunction in asthma may be related to more advanced disease or long-term asthma medication in adults. This article briefly reviews the relationships between airway inflammation, beta2-agonist, anticholinergic and glucocorticoid medication as well as autonomic nervous function in asthma.
In this paper we present a "routine activity approach" for analyzing crime rate trends and cycles. Rather than emphasizing the characteristics of offenders, with this approach we concentrate upon the circumstances in which they carry out predatory criminal acts. Most criminal acts require convergence in space and time of likely offenders, suitable targets and the absence of capable guardians against crime. Human ecological theory facilitates an investigation into the way in which social structure produces this convergence, hence allowing illegal activities to feed upon the legal activities of everyday life. In particular, we hypothesize that the dispersion of activities away from households and families increases the opportunity for crime and thus generates higher crime rates. A variety of data is presented in support of the hypothesis, which helps explain crime rate trends in the United States 1947-1974 as a byproduct of changes in such variables as labor force participation and single-adult households.
Sex differences in genetic and environmental influences on criminal behavior against property were studied in a birth cohort of 6129 male and 7065 female Danish adoptees and their biological and adoptive parents. Both genetic and environmental factors were found to contribute to variation in liability to property criminality, the relative proportions of variance explained being similar in males and females. Important shared- and nonshared-family environmental factors were present. In separate analyses of average liability toward property criminality, however, convicted females appeared to be more genetically predisposed than convicted males, a conclusion based on the finding that female property offenders were more likely than male offenders to have convicted biological (but adopted-away) offspring. On the other hand, property-offending males and females did not appear to differ in their average shared-family environmental liabilities, since conviction rates did not differ for adoptees of convicted adoptive mothers and fathers. Also, social class in the adopitive parents of convicted sons and daughters were comparable, further indicating that average shared-family environmental liabilities do not differ between the sexes.
Reviews 16 studies on the stability of aggressive behavior and reaction patterns. There is great variation among the studies in sample composition, definition of variables, method of data collection, and the ages and intervals studied. Generally, the size of a (disattenuated) stability coefficient tends to decrease linearly as the interval between the 2 times of measurement (T2––iT^n1) increases. Furthermore, the degree of stability can be broadly described as a positive linear function of the interval covered and the S's age at the time of first measurement, expressed in the age ratio ^h T1/T2. ^H The degree of stability that exists in the area of aggression was found to be quite substantial; it was, in fact, not much lower than the stability typically found in the domain of intelligence testing. Marked individual differences in habitual aggression level manifest themselves early in life, certainly by the age of 3. It is generally concluded that (a) the degree of longitudinal consistency in aggressive behavior patterns is much greater than has been maintained by proponents of a behavioral specificity position, and (b) important determinants of the observed longitudinal consistency are to be found in relatively stable, individual-differentiating reaction tendencies or motive systems (personality variables) within individuals. (56 ref)
This study examines the deterrent effect of formal sanctions on criminal behavior. While most research on deterrence assumes a rational-choice model of criminal decision-making, few studies consider all of the major elements of the model. In particular, three critical limitations characterize the empirical literature on deterrence: the failure to establish a causal ordering of sanctions and crime consistent with their temporal ordering; the focus on conventional populations and nonserious criminal acts, which are of less interest to the question of how society controls its members; and the inattention to the return or reward component of the decision-making process. To address these issues, we specify, estimate, and test a rational-choice model of crime on data that were collected on individuals, gathered within a longitudinal design, and derived from three distinct populations of persons at high risk of formal sanction. The results support the reward component of the rational-choice model, but fail to support the cost or deterrent component, as measured by perceived risks of formal sanctions.
After an extraordinarily promising beginning in 1937 with The Structure of Social Action, Talcott Parsons abandoned his attempt to ground social theory in a theory of purposive action. The functionalism that resulted moved in one direction, while social research has progressively moved in an individual-behavioristic direction, resulting in an ever-widening divergence between research and theory. This paper describes paths in research and in theory development, that will reconstitute relevance of each for the other. The essential elements are two. The first is use of a theory of purposive action as a foundation for social theory; this entails acceptance of a form of methodological individualism and rejection of holism. The second is a focus in social research and theory on the movement from the level of individual actions to macrosocial functioning, that is, the level of system behavior.
One of the few facts agreed on in criminology is the age distribution of crime. This fact has been used to criticize social theories of crime causation, to provide the foundation for other theories, to justify recent emphases on career criminals, and to support claims of superiority for longitudinal designs in criminological research. In the present paper, we argue that the age distribution of crime is sufficiently invariant over a broad range of social conditions that these uses of the age distribution are not justified by available evidence.
Because a wide variety of deviant behaviors are positively correlated with one another, some researchers conclude that all are manifestations of a single general tendency. The present analysis incorporated three waves of self-reports about heavy alcohol use, marijuana use, use of other illicit drugs, dangerous driving, and other criminal behavior for a nationally representative sample of high school seniors. A relatively stable general involvement in deviance accounted for virtually all association between different types of deviance, but the stability of each behavior could only be explained by equally important and stable specific influences. Thus, theories that treat different deviant behaviors as alternative manifestations of a single general tendency can account for some, but far from all, of the meaningful variance in these behaviors. The only significant influence of one type of deviance on another was that of marijuana use on later use of other illicit drugs. The causal model also revealed interpretable shifts in the associations among these behaviors over the four years following high school.
The career model reappears with some consistency in the history of criminology. It consistently fails, however, to organize the facts about crime in a meaningful way. As a consequence, we predict that criminology will once again abandon career models in favor of theories of crime.
The possibility that genetic factors are among the causes of criminal behavior was tested by comparing court convictions of
14,427 adoptees with those of their biological and adoptive parents. A statistically significant correlation was found between
the adoptees and their biological parents for convictions of property crimes. This was not true with respect to violent crimes.
There was no statistically significant correlation between adoptee and adoptive parent court convictions. Siblings adopted
separately into different homes tended to be concordant for convictions, especially if the shared biological father also had
a record of criminal behavior.
Studies on the stability of antisocial and delinquent behavior are reviewed, showing that children who initially display high rates of antisocial behavior are more likely to persist in this behavior than children who initially show lower rates of antisocial behavior. Evidence is presented that chronic delinquents, compared with nonchronic or nondelinquent individuals, tend to have been children who were antisocial in more than 1 setting, who displayed a higher variety of antisocial behaviors, and who showed an early onset of such behaviors. Once high levels of antisocial behavior have been established, youths tend to maintain such levels rather than to revert to lower levels of antisocial behavior. Studies suggest that more children drift into higher levels of antisocial behavior than revert to a lower level. Patterns of antisocial behavior tend to change during preadolescence and adolescence: the number of youths who engage in overt antisocial acts (fighting, disobedience, etc.) declines between ages 6 and 16, whereas in that period the number of youths who engage in covert antisocial acts (theft, alcohol and drug use, etc.) increases. Implications are discussed for the early identification of chronic offenders.
- Cloward, Richard