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Feeling Thermometers Versus 7Point Scales: Which are Better?
Abstract
This study addresses the issue of the relation between the number of response categories used in survey questions and the quality of measurement. Several hypotheses, derived from relevant theory and research, are tested through a comparison between 7- and 11-category rating scales used in the 1978 Quality of life Survey. One hypothesis derived from information theory, that rating scales with more response categories transmit a greater amount of information and are therefore inherently more precise in their measurement, is strongly supported A second hypothesis, that questions with greater numbers of response categories are more vulnerable to systematic measurement errors or shared method variance, is rejected. This study supports the conclusion that questions with more categories are both more reliable and more valid.
... Bilgi teorisi, araştırmacının ölçek ifadelerine ilişkin cevap alternatifi sayısını artırdıkça araştırdığı olguya ilişkin elde edeceği bilginin derinleşeceğini savunur (Alwin, 1997). Dolayısıyla teori anket aracılığıyla veri elde etmeyi amaçlayan araştırmacılara 5 yerine 7 cevap alternatifi kullanımı gibi daha fazla cevap alternatifli ölçekler kullanmayı önerir (Alwin, 1997). ...
... Bilgi teorisi, araştırmacının ölçek ifadelerine ilişkin cevap alternatifi sayısını artırdıkça araştırdığı olguya ilişkin elde edeceği bilginin derinleşeceğini savunur (Alwin, 1997). Dolayısıyla teori anket aracılığıyla veri elde etmeyi amaçlayan araştırmacılara 5 yerine 7 cevap alternatifi kullanımı gibi daha fazla cevap alternatifli ölçekler kullanmayı önerir (Alwin, 1997). Dahası Jacoby ve Matell (1971) katılımcıya nispeten az sayıda cevap alternatifi sunmanın katılımcının ayırt etme yeteneğini ortadan kaldırabileceğini belirtmiştir. ...
Pazarlama alanında yapılan çalışmalarda kullanılan ölçeklerin güvenilir olması elde edilecek sonuçların sağlıklı olması açısından büyük önem arz etmektedir. Söz konusu ölçeklerin güvenilirliğinin test edilmesinde farklı değerler ele alınmaktadır. Bunlar içerisinde en çok kullanılan yöntem Cronbach Alfa değerlerinin hesaplanmasıdır. Çalışma yapısında ve veri toplamada kullanılan farklı yöntemler bu değerlerin sonuçlarını etkileyebilmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, pazarlama araştırmalarında kullanılan Likert tipi ölçeklerdeki cevap alternatiflerinin Cronbach Alfa katsayılarında bir değişime neden olup olmadığının belirlenmesidir. Bu doğrultuda, Türkiye’de ULAKBİM indeksinde taranan ve pazarlama alanında yayım yapan iki dergide yayımlanmış 347 makale incelenmiştir. Bu makaleler çalışmanın yazarlarınca içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. Anket yöntemiyle veri toplanan, Cronbach Alfa katsayısı verilen ve 5’li (470 ölçek) ile 7’li (140 ölçek) Likert tipi ölçek kullanılan 197 makale analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler betimleyici analiz ve Bağımsız Örneklemler T-Testi kullanılarak test edilmiştir. Bulgular 7 cevap alternatifli ölçeklerin güvenilirlik ortalamasının 5 cevap alternatifli ölçeklerin ortalamasına göre daha yüksek olduğunu ancak söz konusu farkın istatistiki olarak anlamlı olmadığını ortaya koymuştur. Çalışmanın bulguları doğrultusunda araştırmacılara önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
... We have at least three reasons to introduce such continuity. First, empirically, a dichotomy is not enough in reporting an assessment [20]. Second, in an operational sense, error introduces probabilistic mixing. ...
... The system shows little size dependence in a stationary state [18]. The resident norm is basically obtained from the tri-and bi-linear interpolations of Table 1, but we have to include the regularization parameter ω [see Eq. (20)], which means that both α 1D1 and β 10 have to be identified with ω instead of zero. The results are α SS = yz − z + 1 + ωzx(1 − y), α IS = y + ωzx(1 − y), and β SS = β IS = y + ωx(1 − y). ...
We have developed a continuous model of indirect reciprocity and thereby investigated effects of mutation in assessment rules. Within this continuous framework, the difference between the resident and mutant norms is treated as a small parameter for perturbative expansion. Unfortunately, the linear-order expansion leads to singularity when applied to the leading eight, the cooperative norms that resist invasion of another norm having a different behavioral rule. For this reason, this study aims at a second-order analysis for the effects of mutation when the resident norm is one of the leading eight. We approximately solve a set of coupled nonlinear equations using Newton's method, and the solution is compared with Monte Carlo calculations. The solution indicates how the characteristics of a social norm can shape the response to its close variants appearing through mutation. Specifically, it shows that the resident norm should allow one to refuse to cooperate toward the ill-reputed, while regarding cooperation between two ill-reputed players as good, so as to reduce the impact of mutation.This study enhances our analytic understanding on the organizing principles of successful social norms.
... VASs are known for their simplicity, speed, and reliability and are often used to measure explicit attitudes in political science and chronic disease research (e.g., Bijur et al., 2001;Maarj et al., 2022). Compared to the Likert-type scale, the VAS has been shown to be more reliable and valid (Alwin, 1997;Reips & Funke, 2008) and less susceptible to confounding factors and ceiling effects (Voutilainen et al., 2016). In addition, due to its minimum requirement of reading and writing skills and its quick and simple administration, we believe that this measure is a promising tool for assessing children's beliefs and preferences. ...
Worldwide, obesity is a growing concern. The implicit belief that healthiness and tastiness in food are inversely related (the Unhealthy = Tasty Intuition or UTI) decreases healthy food consumption and increases the risk of obesity. Since also childhood obesity has increased at an alarming rate and a large component of adult obesity is established during childhood, questions about children's own food beliefs and preferences are important. However, methods currently used to assess the UTI are either unvalidated Likert scales or implicit measures that are time intensive and too complex to be used for children. Two studies presented here offer an alternative measurement - the simple visual analogue scale. The findings show that this measure is more effective in predicting dietary quality in adults and the frequency of healthy food consumption in children compared to more traditional measures. This simple and effective tool could be used by academics and health practitioners alike to better understand children's food beliefs at an early age, which is a critical step when addressing the increasing obesity problem.
... Attitudes were measured both pre-and post-VR using an affective feeling thermometer scale (Alwin, 1997). Participants were asked to "indicate their attitudes towards PRC Chinese" across three dimensions: "cold (1)…warm (100), " "unfavorable (1)…favorable (100), " and "negative (1) ...
Research in the past decade has demonstrated the potential of virtual reality perspective-taking (VRPT) to reduce bias against salient outgroups. In the perspective-taking literature, both affective and cognitive mechanisms have been theorized and identified as plausible pathways to prejudice reduction. Few studies have systematically compared affective and cognitive mediators, especially in relation to virtual reality, a medium posited to produce visceral, affective experiences. The present study seeks to extend current research on VRPT's mechanisms by comparing empathy (affective) and situational attributions (cognitive) as dual mediators influencing intergroup attitudes (affective) and stereotypes (cognitive). In a between-subjects experiment, 84 participants were randomly assigned to embody a VR ingroup or outgroup waiting staff at a local food establishment, interacting with an impolite ingroup customer. Results indicated that participants in the outgroup VRPT condition reported significantly more positive attitudes and stereotypes towards outgroup members than those in the ingroup VRPT condition. For both attitudes and stereotypes, empathy significantly mediated the effect of VRPT, but situational attributions did not. Findings from this research provide support for affect as a key component of virtual experiences and how they shape intergroup perceptions. Implications and directions for further research are discussed.
... Ingroup and outgroup attitudes were measured using a six-item group affinity measure (Paolini, Hewstone, Cairns, & Voci, 2004;Tam et al., 2007;. Items from this scale were rated using commonly used 11-point feeling thermometers (e.g., Alwin, 1997;Brown & Marinthe, 2022;Goren & Plaut, 2012;Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004) ranging from 0-10 along bipolar scales (e.g., coldwarm, negative-positive, hostile-friendly, suspicioustrusting, contempt-respect, disgust-admiration), with higher numbers indicating more positive sentiments about a target group. Scores for outgroup hostility were reverse coded so that higher values indicated more hostility. ...
Limited guidance exists to support investigators in the choice, adaptation, validation and use of implementation measures for global mental health implementation research. Our objectives were to develop consensus on best practices for implementation measurement and identify strengths and opportunities in current practice. We convened seven expert panelists. Participants rated approaches to measure adaptation and validation according to appropriateness and feasibility. Follow-up interviews were conducted and a group discussion was held. We then surveyed investigators who have used quantitative implementation measures in global mental health implementation research. Participants described their use of implementation measures, including approaches to adaptation and validation, alongside challenges and opportunities. Panelists agreed that investigators could rely on evidence of a measure’s validity, reliability and dimensionality from similar contexts. Panelists did not reach consensus on whether to establish the pragmatic qualities of measures in novel settings. Survey respondents ( n = 28) most commonly reported using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research Inner Setting Measures ( n = 9) and the Program Assessment Sustainability Tool ( n = 5). All reported adapting measures to their settings; only two reported validating their measures. These results will support guidance for implementation measurement in support of mental health services in diverse global settings.
Bu çalışmanın amacı klinik görüşmeye yönelik duyulan, durum temelli kaygının değerlendirilmesi için pratik bir araç geliştirmeye yönelik bir pilot uygulama yapmaktır. Ölçüm aracı ilgili yapılan alanyazının incelenmesi sonrasında, ilk görüşme esnasında olabilecek çeşitli durumları içeren yüzlük bir derecelendirmeye sahip 21 maddelik Klinik Görüşme Kaygısı Durum Listesi (GKDL) hazırlanmıştır. Listenin genel psikometrik özelliklerinin incelenmesi amacı ile yapılan bu çalışmaya 335 psikoloji bölümü lisans öğrencisi katılmıştır. Katılımcılar bilgi formu, GKDL ve Psikolojik Danışma Öz-Yeterlik Ölçeğinden (PDÖÖ) oluşan ölçek bataryasını doldurmuşlardır. Açımlayıcı faktör analizinin sonucuna göre ölçüm aracının genel ve ilk görüşmeye özgü durumlar olmak üzere iki alt boyuttan oluştuğu ve bu boyutların kabul edilebilir güvenirlik değerlerine sahip olduğu görülmüştür. Ayrıca değişkenler arası korelasyon ve grup farkı analizleri, hem toplam puan hem alt boyutlar için GKDL’nin eş zaman ve ölçüt geçerliğini destekler nitelikte olduğuna işaret etmektedir. İlgili alanyazında klinik görüşme kaygısının değerlendirilmesi konusunda çok sayıda araç olmaması ve bu yöndeki ihtiyaç da düşünüldüğünde, GKDL’nin öğrencilerin klinik görüşmedeki durumlara yönelik kaygısının değerlendirilmesi ile ilgili bilimsel çalışmalarda ve bu kaygıya yönelik yapılacak uygulama ve müdahalelerde kullanılmak üzere önemli bir potansiyele sahip olduğu düşünülmektedir.
Over 95% of veterinarians report believing that dog breeds differ in pain sensitivity. Ratings made by veterinarians differ from those of the general public, suggesting these beliefs may be learned during veterinary training or clinical experiences. Therefore, the current study’s primary objective was to evaluate dog breed pain sensitivity ratings during veterinary training and compare these ratings to those of the general public and undergraduates in animal-health related fields. Using an online survey, members of the general public, undergraduates, veterinary students across all four years, and veterinary faculty and staff rated pain sensitivity of 10 different dog breeds, identified only by their pictures. Compared to the general public and undergraduates, veterinary students rated pain sensitivity across breeds of dog more similarly to veterinary faculty and staff. Further, when undergraduates had clinical experience, they also rated certain dog breeds in a similar way to the veterinary students and professionals. Our findings suggest that veterinary education and clinical experiences influence pain sensitivity ratings across dog breeds. Future research should identify how these pain sensitivity beliefs are communicated and whether these beliefs affect recognition and treatment of pain by veterinarians.
We have developed a continuous model of indirect reciprocity and thereby investigated effects of mutation in assessment rules. Within this continuous framework, the difference between the resident and mutant norms is treated as a small parameter for perturbative expansion. Unfortunately, the linear-order expansion leads to singularity when applied to the leading eight, the cooperative norms that resist invasion of another norm having a different behavioral rule. For this reason, this study aims at a second-order analysis for the effects of mutation when the resident norm is one of the leading eight. We approximately solve a set of coupled nonlinear equations using Newton’s method, and the solution is compared with Monte Carlo calculations. The solution indicates how the characteristics of a social norm can shape the response to its close variants appearing through mutation. Specifically, it shows that the resident norm should allow one to refuse to cooperate toward the ill-reputed, while regarding cooperation between two ill-reputed players as good, so as to reduce the impact of mutation. This study enhances our analytic understanding on the organizing principles of successful social norms.
Recent work by Jacoby and Mattell [6] has suggested that three-point Likert scales are sufficient to meet criteria of test-retest reliability, concurrent validity, and predictive validity. Green and Rao [3], using the criterion of data configuration recovery, concluded that sixor seven-point scales are preferable, and the authors are "skeptical about the ability of large numbers of such scales (three- or two-point scales) to 'make up' for the limited information provided by each scale separately." In a reply to Green and Rao, Benson [1] argued that the frequent applicability and practical convenience of twoor three-point scales are strong points in their favor. Moreover, the focus of marketing research on population averages, rather than individuals, suggests that scales with few categories are adequate. This article delineates the conditions under which a two- or three-point scale may be good enough. BACKGROUND
A conceptual framework employing the distinction between stimulus-centered and subject-centered scales is presented as a basis for reviewing 80 years of literature on the optimal number of response alternatives for a scale. Concepts and research from information theory and the absolute judgment paradigm of psychophysics are used. The author reviews the major factors influencing the quality of scaled information, points out areas in particular need of additional research, and makes some recommendations for the applied researcher.
The author questions the procedure and the advice given researchers in a previously published analysis of simulated data.
Managers and researchers concerned with marketing and attitudinal research frequently encounter the problem of determining the number of rating scales to use and the number of response categories to provide for each scale that is used. This article approaches the problem through a numerical simulation designed to measure the sensitivity of "solution recovery" to changes in these variables.
Formulas are developed for estimating the true reliability of a measure from data collected at three points in time. The procedure can be applied to a single question, and unlike traditional test-retest reliabilities, this measure is not reduced in value when changes occur during the testing interval. A related coefficient of stability also is introduced, and a procedure is presented for examining the credibility of required assumptions.