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Some Take the Glass Escalator, Some Hit the Glass Ceiling?: Career Consequences of Occupational Sex Segregation
Abstract
Results from analyses of a large Swedish longitudinal data set suggest that men who work in typically female occupations have substantially better internal promotion chances than have equally qualified women in such occupations. This finding is compatible with the idea that a socalled glass escalator takes underrepresented men on an upwardly mobile internal career path at a speed that their female colleagues can hardly enjoy. Furthermore, the results indicate that men and women have equal internal career chances in male-dominated occupations. Hence, the common assumption that obstacles to women’s internal career growth are especially severe in male-dominated fields of work obtains no support.
... İnsan kaynakları sistemi içerisindeki kariyer olanakları ve bireyin ilerleyişine yönelik engelleyici unsurlar incelendiğinde kadınların kariyer ilerleyişinde karşısına çıkartılan engelleri ifade etmek için kullanılan "cam yürüyen merdiven" metaforu dikkat çekmektedir (Williams, 1992;Lamsa, Jyrkinen, & Heikkinen, 2012;Budig, 2002;Huffman, 2004;Hultin, 2003). Metafor erkek egemen yapıya sunulan olanakları şeffaf ve görünmez bir merdiven olarak ifade etmektedir (Lamsa, Jyrkinen, & Heikkinen, 2012). ...
... Literatür incelendiğinde erkeklere ve egemen gruplara iş hayatında sunulmuş olanakların -cam yürüyen merdivenlerin-olduğunu kanıtlar nitelikte çalışmalar (Williams, 1992;Budig, 2002;Lamsa, Jyrkinen, & Heikkinen, 2012) bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca cam yürüyen merdivenlerin kadınları engelleyen cam tavanların ve cam uçurumların varlığını kanıtlar nitelikte bir metafor olduğu yönünde de çalışmalar (Maume, 1999;Hultin, 2003;Huffman, 2004) bulunmaktadır. Söz konusu cam yürüyen merdiven metaforunun sebebi olarak erkeklerin iş yaşamındaki niceliksel fazlalığı dile getirilmiştir. ...
... Cam yürüyen merdiven kavramı, ağırlıklı olarak kadınların çalıştığı mesleklerde çalışan erkek ve kadınların aldıkları farklı işyeri ödüllerini anlamayı kolaylaştıran bir metafor olarak nitelendirilmektedir (Smith, 2012, s. 150;Williams, 1992;Budig, 2002;Hultin, 2003). Kadınların hâkim oldukları işlerde erkeklerin işe alınması ve terfide tercih edilmesi, olumlu muamele görmeleri erkeklerin kariyerlerini cam yürüyen merdivenlerde bir yolculuk olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Williams, 1992). ...
İnsan kaynakları sistemi içerisindeki kariyer olanakları ve bireyin ilerleyişine yönelik engelleyici unsurlar incelendiğinde kadınların kariyer ilerleyişinde karşısına çıkartılan engelleri ifade etmek için kullanılan “cam yürüyen merdiven” metaforu dikkat çekmektedir. Metafor toplumsal cinsiyet algısındaki egemenlere iş yaşamında da sunulan ayrıcalıklı durumları anlatmak için kullanılmaktadır. Araştırma yükseköğretim kurumlarındaki kadın profesyonellere yönelik toplumsal yaşamda ve iş hayatında tanımlanan rollerin akademideki durumunu ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Türkiye’deki yükseköğretim kurumlarında görev yapan kadın akademisyenlerin yönetici kademede yetersiz temsilinde erkek akademisyenlere sunulan cam yürüyen merdivenlerin etkili olup olmadığı, söz konusu metaforla kadınların idari kademelerdeki yetersiz temsilinin açıklanıp açıklanamayacağı, cam yürüyen merdivenleri erkek akademisyenlere kimlerin sunduğunun anlaşılması ve açıklanması hedeflenmektedir. İstatistiki veriler üzerinden yapılan doküman analizinde kadın akademisyenlerin yükseköğretim kurumlarındaki artan sayısına karşın üst düzey idari pozisyonlarda göstermelik olarak var oldukları, erkeklere sunulan cam asansörlerin kadınları nasıl engellediği ele alınmaktadır. Araştırma ile Türkiye özelinde kadınların akademik iş yaşamının kariyer olanaklarından ne derece yararlandığını, cam yürüyen merdiven metaforu da göz önünde bulundurularak durumun nedenleri ve sonuçları yükseköğretim istatistikleri ve yükseköğretim kurumları verileri kapsamında analiz edilmiştir. Metaforun örgütsel ve psikolojik yönleri incelenerek yükseköğretim profesyonelleri arasında ayrım yaratan cam yürüyen merdivenlerin nasıl aşılacağına yönelik bazı değerlendirmeler yapılmıştır.
... Previous research also demonstrates that it is easier for men to climb up their career ladders and serve at higher-paying jobs since women tend to have intermittent careers because of additional responsibilities of housework and children (Gupta et al., 2023). Therefore, it is harder for women to achieve successful careers and accumulate higher earnings as the gender pay gap widens with age (Becker, 1985;Elliott & Parcel, 1996;Hultin, 2003;Khanna, 2012;Nowrouzi, 2023;Tam, 1997;Weichselbaumer & Winter-Ebmer, 2005). ...
... The Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) and the Equal Educational Opportunity laws were strengthened in 1972 (Reskin & National Research Council (U.S.), 1984), but still, there remained this rising imbalance. The scholarly work that followed, further highlighted the various socio-economic inequities that emerged as a result of occupational sex segregation, such as the concentration of women at lower levels in the organization (Bergmann, 1974;Bose & Rossi, 1983;Mincer & Ofek, 1982;Weeden, 1998), underrepresentation in leadership roles (Acker, 2009;Hultin, 2003;Lepak & Snell, 1999;Maume Jr, 1999;Mincer & Ofek, 1982), lower wages for women (Becker, 1985;Bergmann, 1974;Bose & Rossi, 1983;Polachek, 1987) and an overall devaluation of women's work (England et al., 2000;Grimshaw et al., 2007;Grönlund & Magnusson, 2013;Marshall, 1985;Tam, 1997). ...
... All these factors limit the choices of occupations for women and further lead to overcrowding and imbalance in sex composition across occupations. In addition, women tend to have more interrupted careers than men due to marriage and other responsibilities and, therefore, are underrepresented at higher-paying positions (Hultin, 2003;Manning & Swaffield, 2008;Mincer & Ofek, 1982;Rosenfeld & Spenner, 1992). ...
Employees’ perceived fairness of their pay is critical for their satisfaction, commitment and job engagement. Women comprise nearly 50 per cent of the modern workforce; therefore, their satisfaction with their pay is crucial for organizations. However, statistics show that the gender pay gap is still persistent all around the world, and has even widened post the Covid-19 pandemic. To move ahead, taking a few steps backwards sometimes becomes imperative. This paper is a stepping stone in that direction as it argues that the widening of the ‘gender pay gap’ is deeply rooted in the institutionalization of ‘gendered notions’ in organizations. To efficiently tackle gender-related power imbalance in organizations, it is important to understand how a ‘gendered organization’ came into being and its effects cascaded over the decades. Moreover, this area of research has numerous scholarly contributions that span more than a hundred years. This wide gamut of research not only intimidates new scholars but also makes it extremely difficult for them to extract relevant information. To bridge this gap, the main objective of this study is to present a crisp review on the evolution and institutionalization of ‘Gendered Organizations’ and discuss their impact on gender-related issues, particularly, the ‘Gender Pay Gap’. Drawing on Institutional, Human Capital and Feminist Theories, this paper sheds light on the seminal work by gender scholars and illustrates how gender pay gap is a consequence of institutionalized gendered norms and occupational sex segregation. This review enhances the comprehensive contemplation of gender-related issues in organizations and encourages practitioners to devise concrete means to battle its social impact.
... This is the result of power relations between men and women, largely due to the patriarchal social structure. The power and status brought by the patriarchal social structure provide men with situational dominance, and men effectively utilize their traditional advantages even in professions called women's professions (Cross and Bagilhole, 2002;Cognard-Black, 2004;Floge and Merril, 1986), and they have the chance to succeed thanks to their favored minority status (Evans, 1997;Hultin, 2003). This situation causes men to think that they are more advantageous in terms of wages if they work in women's jobs (Hultin, 2003;Karlsen, 2012;Price-Glynn and Rakocski, 2012). ...
... The power and status brought by the patriarchal social structure provide men with situational dominance, and men effectively utilize their traditional advantages even in professions called women's professions (Cross and Bagilhole, 2002;Cognard-Black, 2004;Floge and Merril, 1986), and they have the chance to succeed thanks to their favored minority status (Evans, 1997;Hultin, 2003). This situation causes men to think that they are more advantageous in terms of wages if they work in women's jobs (Hultin, 2003;Karlsen, 2012;Price-Glynn and Rakocski, 2012). In addition, the fact that women continue their careers at lower ranks or take a break due to family responsibilities divided according to gender roles also supports the concept of glass escalators in favor of men (Evers and Severdiy, 2014). ...
... That men are supported by their female supervisors and colleagues is another issue that supports the formation of the glass escalator concept in the career development process (Budig, 2002;Evans, 1997;Fairhust and Snavely, 1983;Hultin, 2003;Maume, 1999;Morris, 2010;Simpson, 2004;Williams, 1992;Wingfield, 2009;Zimmer, 1998). This situation arises from the belief that men will be more talented and better leaders (Crocker and McGraw, 1984;Floge and Merrill, 1986). ...
The glass escalator is a metaphor used to describe how men in feminized workplaces move up career ladders, and this study aims to determine the experiences of male pre-school principals and the possible effects of cultural values on the results of the glass escalator through the ranks because of gender norms and job expectations. In this context, meetings are held with four school principals, working in Kocaeli and in pre-school education institutions. As an interpretive approach, phenomenology is used in the study. The criterion sampling method and the snowball sampling method, which are among the purposeful sampling methods, are used together in forming the working group. Research findings are discussed in terms of individual and cultural factors. The former is mainly related to the preferences of male principals, who tend to see working in pre-school institutions as an opportunity for promotion. This perspective is discussed from the standpoint of ‘visibility’, which emerges as an advantageous feature for men but not for women. Cultural factors, on the other hand, are related to culturally-influenced beliefs regarding male and female roles. Because management is seen as a male occupation, female teachers also prefer and support male principals.
... Glass escalator. A metaphor used to describe "men's chances for withinemployer upward career mobility in female-dominated occupations exceed women's" (Hultin, 2003). ...
... Worldwide, countries have denied the existence of this phenomenon, while dozens of scientific studies have found otherwise (Smith, 2012). Even in countries wherein the percentage of women in the workplace is similar to that of men and where the pay gap is nearly gone, there still exists a lack of complete equity based on gender (Hultin, 2003). Further, more recent studies have found that the opposite phenomenon occurs for men who work in female-dominated fields. ...
... Further, more recent studies have found that the opposite phenomenon occurs for men who work in female-dominated fields. Instead of being prevented from the higher echelons in an organization, as women are in male-dominated fields, men in female-dominated fields are ushered into higher positions and given more access to increases in pay and other benefits (Hultin, 2003;Smith, 2012). This phenomenon is called the glass escalator. ...
Statement of the Problem
This quantitative study was conducted to determine if there have been changes in the publication patterns of women in behavior analytic journals compared to an original study done by McSweeney et al. (2000). The field of behavior analysis is dominated by women, and, in previous studies, women have been found to publish in journals at a significantly lower rate than men.
Sources of Data
This study reviewed the same journals as the original study and added four newer journals for comparison, for a total of seven journals. The researcher used a data scrubbing procedure within EBSCOhost and downloaded all article information from 1997-2019 for each of the seven journals.
Conclusions Reached
The researcher found significant relationships between author gender and: overall publication rates, first authorship position, last authorship position, and the gender of the editor. While overall publication rates have improved over time, some journals were not publishing female authors at an equitable rate compared to their male counterparts. The researcher also found that the number of female editors-in-chief were very low compared to the gender makeup of the field.
... Scholars have long recognised the consequences of occupational segregation on glass ceiling inequalities primarily based on specific demographics mapped onto discriminatory processes (Archer, 2011;Hultin, 2003;Maume, 1999). Within this context, gender and race tend to define and classify the capabilities and characteristics that shape career trajectories and limit access to rights and opportunities for women and ethnic minorities (Hultin, 2003). ...
... Scholars have long recognised the consequences of occupational segregation on glass ceiling inequalities primarily based on specific demographics mapped onto discriminatory processes (Archer, 2011;Hultin, 2003;Maume, 1999). Within this context, gender and race tend to define and classify the capabilities and characteristics that shape career trajectories and limit access to rights and opportunities for women and ethnic minorities (Hultin, 2003). ...
This study draws on qualitative semi-structured interviews conducted with a cohort comprising 31 Samoan CEOs and senior managers across various New Zealand industries to explore the phenomenon of a ‘brown glass ceiling’. The results reveal that Samoans encounter barriers in their career trajectories, hindering or stalling their progression into senior management roles. Our study indicates that cross-cultural differences in communication led to missed opportunities in addition to issues, such as racism, occupational segregation, and tokenism. Notably, some Samoan women experienced interracial and gender discrimination, particularly as afa-kasi (half-caste). Samoan career facilitators included mentorship from ‘white’ New Zealand Europeans, establishing future legacies, and a commitment to embracing their Samoan cultural identity. Our results have significant implications regarding how barriers to the glass ceiling shape and impact the careers of Samoans within New Zealand organisations. Consequently, our study contributes to the existing glass ceiling literature by incorporating insights from indigenous Samoans, who have received limited attention in glass ceiling and management research.
... 1 Only a few studies suggest that women's relative mobility chances are higher in mixed-gender occupations (Hultin, 2003) or women-dominated occupations (Budig, 2002;Huffman, 1995;Huffman and Cohen, 2004). Some of these studies use cross-sectional data (Huffman, 1995;Huffman and Cohen, 2004) and thereby measure the representation of women in supervisory positions rather than mobility events. ...
... Some of these studies use cross-sectional data (Huffman, 1995;Huffman and Cohen, 2004) and thereby measure the representation of women in supervisory positions rather than mobility events. Other studies use longitudinal data, but they operationalize promotions by looking at occupational prestige (Hultin, 2003), earnings (Maume, 1999b), or they examine promotions into any jobs, including non-managerial positions (Budig, 2002). ...
Research around the “glass escalator” demonstrates that men receive promotions faster than women in women-dominated occupations. However, it remains unclear how overall establishment composition affects the glass escalator. We use German longitudinal linked employer-employee data (LIAB) between 2012 and 2019 to examine how occupational and establishment gender composition shape gender differences in promotions to management. Establishment gender composition moderates the glass escalator, meaning women’s mobility disadvantages in women-dominated jobs are most pronounced in men-dominated establishments. We hypothesize that changing occupational status is a central mechanism: When occupations mirror the composition of the establishment, their status increases locally. Higher occupational status offsets lower leadership expectations attributed to women and increases women’s promotion odds relative to their male colleagues.
... To address the challenges posed by the maternal wall, organizations need to actively work toward creating inclusive and supportive workplace cultures . Addressing this occurrence of inequity includes implementing policies that promote work-life balance, offering flexible work arrangements, and educating employees about unconscious biases (Hultin, 2003). By recognizing and addressing the maternal wall, organizations can create a more equitable work environment where women can thrive in their careers without facing unjust obstacles (Hultin, 2003). ...
... Addressing this occurrence of inequity includes implementing policies that promote work-life balance, offering flexible work arrangements, and educating employees about unconscious biases (Hultin, 2003). By recognizing and addressing the maternal wall, organizations can create a more equitable work environment where women can thrive in their careers without facing unjust obstacles (Hultin, 2003). ...
Amidst the prevailing scarcity of personnel and leaders within healthcare cybersecurity and technology management, the demand for bolstering the ranks of professionals in these domains has reached unprecedented significance and urgency. Enlisting women leaders and those from diverse backgrounds is imperative to address the deficiencies in workforce development and devise pioneering business strategies. The endeavor to effectively confront the most formidable issues about organizational technology management strategies necessitates women's active participation and contributions. This chapter embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the hurdles, intricacies, and innovative methodologies pertinent to the advancement of women into executive and supervisory positions within the domains of information technology and healthcare cybersecurity.
... The metaphor of the glass escalator alludes to the quicker advancement rates that males have over women in occupations that are predominantly held by women (Carli & Eagly, 2016). Hultin (2003) investigated the career opportunities available to men and women working in traditionally male-dominated and traditionally female-dominated fields of employment. According to the findings of the study, males in professions that are traditionally held by women profit from upward mobility significantly more than women who have the same education and work in the same professions (Hultin, 2003). ...
... Hultin (2003) investigated the career opportunities available to men and women working in traditionally male-dominated and traditionally female-dominated fields of employment. According to the findings of the study, males in professions that are traditionally held by women profit from upward mobility significantly more than women who have the same education and work in the same professions (Hultin, 2003). ...
For a variety of reasons, cybercriminals view healthcare organizations as desirable targets to attack. With significant shortages of employees and managers in cybersecurity and technology management, the need for more professionals in the field have never been more important and necessary. Meeting these workforce development shortfalls and developing innovative business strategies requires leaders from all genders and backgrounds. To effectively meet the most challenging concerns related to organizational technology management strategy will require the contributions of women. This chapter explores the barriers, complexities, and innovative approaches related to developing more women in leadership roles in information technology and cybersecurity in healthcare organizations.
... Yet, men-by virtue of their higher status and associations with leadership-also experience benefits in fields occupied by women. Consistent with the notion of vertical gender segregation, men in these professions sometimes profit from structural advantages that promote their careers more quickly than those of equally qualified women (i.e., the glass escalator; Hultin, 2003;C. L. Williams, 1992). ...
Since 1954, The Handbook of Social Psychology has been the field's most authoritative reference work. The 6th edition of this essential resource contains 50 new chapters on a wide range of topics, written by the world's leading experts. It is available only in digital form and is free to read online and to download.
... Beyond the glass ceiling, women breaking through the inequality barrier are frequently met with the glass cliff, where women hold high-stake leadership positions in the face of organizational crisis (Hultin, 2003). According to Avolio and Bass (1994), women are more than capable leaders; however, they are more commonly found in positions that predispose them to failure. ...
There are still numerous gender-specific hurdles that women face in the professional realm, with the glass ceiling stifling career advancement, and the glass cliff placing women in unwarranted management positions. This investigation explores the attitudinal impression of these phenomena on women professionals in Nagpur, and influences on Career Aspiration, Job Satisfaction, and Professional Resilience. The quantitative research design was implemented, and data was composed through structured surveys from women employees from different sectors. The relationship between perceived workplace barriers and career advancement opportunities was determined using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. The studies show that the glass ceiling denies advancement opportunities, while women are pushed into high-risk leadership roles with insufficient support, the glass cliff. The findings underscore the importance of policy changes and workplace reforms to create a more equitable workspace. Future studies should examine intersectional identity factors impacting these barriers and the influence of mentorship on career progression.
... Beyond the glass ceiling, women breaking through the inequality barrier are frequently met with the glass cliff, where women hold high-stake leadership positions in the face of organizational crisis (Hultin, 2003). According to Avolio and Bass (1994), women are more than capable leaders; however, they are more commonly found in positions that predispose them to failure. ...
There are still numerous gender-specific hurdles that women face in the professional realm, with the glass ceiling stifling career advancement, and the glass cliff placing women in unwarranted management positions. This investigation explores the attitudinal impression of these phenomena on women professionals in Nagpur, and influences on Career Aspiration, Job Satisfaction, and Professional Resilience. The quantitative research design was implemented, and data was composed through structured surveys from women employees from different sectors. The relationship between perceived workplace barriers and career advancement opportunities was determined using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. The studies show that the glass ceiling denies advancement opportunities, while women are pushed into high-risk leadership roles with insufficient support, the glass cliff. The findings underscore the importance of policy changes and workplace reforms to create a more equitable workspace. Future studies should examine intersectional identity factors impacting these barriers and the influence of mentorship on career progression.
... Bu bağlamda kadınların işgücü piyasası deneyimleri farklı metaforlarla açıklanabilmektedir. Kadın çalışanlarla ilgili literatürde "cam tavan" (Wirth, 2001), "cam uçurum" (Ryan ve Haslam, 2005), "cam kapı" (Hassink ve Russo, 2010), "cam duvar" (Sneed, 2007), "kraliçe arı sendromu" (Ellemers, Van den Heuvel, De Gilder, Maass ve Bonvini, 2004), "yengeç sepeti" (Bulloch, 2013), "yapışkan zemin" (Davidson ve Cooper, 1992), "cam yürüyen merdiven" (Hultin, 2003), "cam labirent" (Carli ve Eagly, 2016), " beton tavan" (Henley, 2010) ve "sızdıran boru", (Cabrera, 2009: 41) metaforlarına rastlanmaktadır. ...
... Al romper el techo de cristal, las mujeres enfrentan percepciones estereotipadas que influyen en la valoración de sus habilidades y capacidades. Mientras que los hombres que asumen roles tradicionalmente femeninos obtienen reconocimiento y avanzan hacia posiciones de liderazgo a través de una "escalera mecánica de cristal" (Hultin, 2003), las mujeres suelen ser marginadas y consideradas inadecuadas para ocupar esos mismos puestos (Ridgeway et al., 2022). ...
A través de un estudio longitudinal de colaboración en investigación entre Universidad e Industria en los campos STEM de Argentina, hacemos visible cómo el decir y el hacer del género se co-constituyen intra-activamente en sus interacciones cotidianas.Exploramos cómo el orden de género patriarcal, impulsado por codirectores masculinos, impacta significativamente la colaboración científica, revelando desafíos organizacionales de importancia. Observamos una resistencia entre los científicos más jóvenes frente a la presencia de una científica en un rol de mayor jerarquía, lo que lleva a prácticas de marginación y apoyo selectivo. Lo que conduce a un patrón recurrente de incumplimiento en las tareas asignadas, donde las responsabilidades se minimizan y se perpetúa una jerarquía de género. Destacamos asimismo, cómo las científicas ajustan su comportamiento, utilizando diferentes “tácticas” para resaltar su feminidad a fin de obtener reconocimiento y colaboración. Finalmente, subrayamos tanto la influencia de las prácticas de género en la dinámica del grupo, como el papel clave de los codirectores al fomentar ciertas representaciones de género con las que se sienten más a gusto. Este análisis busca mejorar la comprensión de la diversidad, inclusión y feminidad en entornos de trabajo científico, desafiando las normas de género arraigadas en contextos de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (CTI).
... Even though workplaces today have a nearly equal number of men and women, men ride what is known as a glass escalator and women are blocked by the glass ceiling in their career development path (Hultin, 2003). Solutions to gender inequalities and segregation, thus, depend on factors that reside not only within the organisation but also in family and society. ...
Women face numerous challenges in building a successful career. The hospitality industry exemplifies workplaces where women find progressing careers to senior management very challenging. This paper explores barriers to women's career progression in the hospitality industry in the United Kingdom (UK). The study analyses the views of women in management positions in the UK hospitality industry on challenges they face in career progression. The findings indicate that women face numerous barriers in their career paths, and these include gender bias, microaggressions, work‐life balance issues, lack of gender diversity, inflexibility, and mentoring.
... Additionally, female CEOs were 40% less likely to face turnover than male CEOs, which diverges from prior research indicating only a slightly lower risk for women. Hultin (2003) finds a "glass escalator" effect in Swedish female-dominated occupations, with men having better promotion prospects than equally qualified women. Promotion chances are similar in male-dominated fields. ...
... This is well established in the literature (Blossfeld and Hamerle 1989;Chamberlain 1979;Heckman 1985;Jost 2022;Lancaster 1990;Lopes 2021;Nicoletti and Rondinelli 2010;Trussell and Richards 1985;Van den Berg 2001;Van den Berg and Van Ours 1996;Zorn 2000). In general, evidence of negative duration dependence is widespread in sociological research on upward mobility and promotions (Becker and Blossfeld 2017;Bukodi and Dex 2010;Holmes and Tholen 2013;Hultin 2003;Ishida et al. 2002;Sacchi et al. 2016). Van den Berg (2001:3407) refers to negative duration dependence as the result of a process of "weeding out" or "sorting" that occurs in duration models, and Blossfeld and Hamerle (1989:131) note that "failure to control for unobserved variables leads to a bias towards negative duration dependence." 12 While it is important to be cautious regarding claims about the effect of unobserved heterogeneity in general, we argue that in this specific case, unobserved heterogeneity that is not captured by our random effects will tend to cause a downward (negative) bias in our estimates of the effect of work experience, resulting in more conservative tests of the expectation of a positive effect of work experience on mobility in Hypotheses 1 and 2. The expectation of downward bias on estimates of duration dependence (i.e., the coefficient on β EXP ) can be contrasted with the indeterminate (+ or -) effect of unobserved heterogeneity on the coefficients on occupational dummy variables (discussed earlier in the review of the additive effects approach) and on the coefficient on the occupation-specific constant term (α j ) in Equation 1. 13 Part A2 of the online supplement provides computer code to allow readers to simulate data and explore this result in more detail by testing the effect of unobserved heterogeneity on estimates of duration dependence in models with and without random effects. ...
Does working in a low-wage job lead to increased opportunities for upward mobility, or is it a dead-end that traps workers? In this article, we examine whether low-wage jobs are “stepping-stones” that enable workers to move to higher-paid jobs that are linked by institutional mobility ladders and skill transferability. To identify occupational linkages, we create two measures of occupational similarity using data on occupational mobility from matched samples of the Current Population Survey (CPS) and data on multiple dimensions of job skills from the O*NET. We test whether work experience in low-wage occupations increases mobility between linked occupations that results in upward wage mobility. Our analysis uses longitudinal data on low-wage workers from the 1979 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY) and the 1996 to 2008 panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). We test the stepping-stone perspective using multinomial conditional logit (MCL) models, which allow us to analyze the joint effects of work experience and occupational linkages on achieving upward wage mobility. We find evidence for stepping-stone mobility in certain areas of the low-wage occupational structure. In these occupations, low-wage workers can acquire skills through work experience that facilitate upward mobility through occupational changes to skill and institutionally linked occupations.
... For men's steeper career ascendance outside academia in occupations that are initially dominated by women (e.g., nursing; Evans, 1997), Williams (1992) coined the term glass escalator in contrast to the glass ceiling that women in management careers may hit (for a recent discussion, see also Williams, 2013). Illustrating the occupational glass escalator, a Swedish longitudinal study (Hultin, 2003), for instance, found that men in typically women-dominated occupations had greater chances of being promoted than equally qualified women, whereas, in men-dominated occupations, men and women had equal chances of being promoted. However, other studies have revealed backlash effects for men in typically feminine occupations (e.g., Moss-Racusin & Johnson, 2016), such as being perceived as ineffectual and less respected than men working in typically masculine occupations (e.g., Heilman & Wallen, 2010). ...
Even in academic fields dominated by women students (e.g., educational research), academic careers are characterized by vertical gender segregation in favor of men. This clashes with the public understanding of educational research as a women's domain that is more strongly associated with warmth (a stereotypically feminine trait) than competence (a stereotypically masculine trait), as revealed in our first study. We thus conducted an experimental vignette study of 189 adults from the general public to explore how women versus men researchers working in educational research versus physics (as a contrasting domain clearly dominated by men) were perceived on several dimensions of competence and warmth. Whereas the female researcher in physics was rated as more competent than the female researcher in educational research, the woman in physics was penalized for her gender stereotype-incongruent domain choice by being perceived as less warm. However, the male researcher in educational research was perceived as both warmer and more competent than his man counterpart in physics, and as smarter than the female researcher in educational research. These findings suggest rewards instead of penalties for men pursuing academic careers in initially women-dominated domains, likely contributing to the increasing gender gap in academic careers in these domains.
... Enquanto isso, no estudo de Hultin (2003) é demonstrado que, mesmo quando os homens optam por profissões consideradas femininas (por exemplo, setor de recursos humanos, professor dos ensinos fundamental ou médio) têm maior probabilidade de promoção do que mulheres na mesma profissão. Ou seja, não é o tipo de profissão que as mulheres escolhem que causa uma demora na promoção, mas sim, o fato de serem mulheres. ...
O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a diferença salarial em razão do gênero nas regiões do Brasil, a partir dos microdados da Relação Anual de Informações Sociais (RAIS), entre os anos de 2010 e 2017. Para isso, o trabalho utilizou a aplicação do teste-t de diferença de média dos rendimentos; estimação de regressões e a decomposição salarial Blinder-Oaxaca. Os resultados indicaram que independente da metodologia utilizada constatou-se que o gap salarial entre os homens e mulheres é persistente no período do estudo. Para todos os modelos, a média do salário da mulher é inferior ao do homem. As regiões brasileiras possuem efeitos específicos na renda dos trabalhadores e nas diferenças salariais.
... While there is question as to why, exactly, the wage gap exists in the field, there is little question that the gap exists and reflects systematic hindrances to women's success. One explanation for this phenomenon is that it is harder for women in law to move up into maledominated positions which make more money (Kay, Alaire, and Jones 2016;Hagan, et al. 1991;Spurr 1990; but also see Hultin 2003). For instance, in 2007, only a fifth of partners were women, while women made up a little under half of associates at law firms (National Association for Law Placement, 2017). ...
... A dificuldade de ascensão na carreira em uma organização ou profissão já foi constatada em estudos que destacam a existência do chamado Teto de Vidro, uma barreira invisível que impede o avanço da mulher para posições de maior hierarquia ou comando, e as mantêm nos níveis mais baixos da estrutura organizacional (STEIL, 1997;HULTIN, 2003;DOWLING, 2017). No Brasil, esse fenômeno foi identificado em empresas privadas de auditoria contábil (CRUZ et al., 2018), nos níveis estratégicos da governança corporativa de empresas familiares listadas em bolsa (VACCARI, BEUREN, 2017), no departamento de contabilidade de grandes empresas (SILVA, MAGRO, SILVA, 2016), assim como em empresas da iniciativa privada, em geral (LIMA, LUCAS, FISCHER, 2011;SANTOS, TANURE, CARVALHO, 2014) De modo semelhante ao meio corporativo do setor privado, observa-se o efeito teto de vidro na administração pública em cargos de gestão em IFES (instituições federais de ensino superior) (MIRANDA et al., 2012(MIRANDA et al., , 2013SIQUEIRA et al., 2016;GONTIJO, MELO, 2017;GRANGEIRO, MILITÃO, 2020). ...
O objetivo do estudo é analisar a percepção das mulheres quanto às condições de igualdade de oportunidades para ascensão na carreira dentro de um banco público, buscando identificar a existência do Teto de vidro. A pesquisa é do tipo exploratória, de cunho quantitativo, com aplicação de questionário. Os resultados destacam a presença de barreiras e a desproporcionalidade na participação feminina em cargos de gerência e liderança. Pode-se afirmar que, em um contexto profissional específico, no qual existe o acesso igualitário aos cargos iniciais, as condições de igualdade para a ascensão feminina nas carreiras internas da organização ainda não foram alcançadas.
... Regarding the pathways of men who enter female-dominated occupations, the 'glass escalator' metaphor has been evoked to describe the phenomenon that males are usually treated favourably and more often proceed along the promotional ladder in these occupations (Williams 1992). According to this view, men anticipate the promotional advantages associated with a career in femaledominated occupations, making them less likely to change occupations (for supportive evidence see Hultin 2003;Malin and Wise 2018). Contrary to this view, recent evidence suggests that this male advantage cannot be generalised, but is limited to certain occupations and individuals (Snyder and Green 2008;Williams 2015). ...
Germany’s VET system is highly gender-segregated and marked by high dropout rates. This article investigates the dropout behaviour of apprentices in gender-atypical training occupations. First, we investigate whether gender-atypical apprentices drop out at a higher rate than their majority peers. Second, we examine differences in the self-reported reasons for dropping out among gender-typical and gender-atypical apprentices. Results show that gender-atypical apprentices, and particularly males in female-dominated occupations, are more likely to prematurely leave their apprenticeship. The self-reported reasons for dropping out differed by gender minority status: female minorities weremore likely to drop out due to a lack of social integration, while male minorities were more likely to drop out due to unfulfilled aspirations in comparison to the gender majority. These results show that gender-specific perceptions and experiences are related to the higher dropout rates of gender-atypical apprentices.
... Although we cannot demonstrate this claim with experimental evidence, we would extrapolate from our meta-analysis that the gender gradient that we see across occupations would also occur within occupations. To the extent that higher ranks within an occupation are dominated by men, we would expect bias against women for promotion, i.e., a glass ceiling (117,118). ...
Since 1983, more than 70 employment audit experiments, carried out in more than 26 countries across five continents, have randomized the gender of fictitious applicants to measure the extent of hiring discrimination on the basis of gender. The results are mixed: Some studies find discrimination against men, and others find discrimination against women. We reconcile these heterogeneous findings through a "meta-reanalysis" of the average effects of being described as a woman (versus a man), conditional on occupation. We find a strongly positive gender gradient. In (relatively better paying) occupations dominated by men, the effect of being a woman is negative, while in the (relatively lower paying) occupations dominated by women, the effect is positive. In this way, heterogeneous employment discrimination on the basis of gender preserves status quo gender distributions and earnings gaps. These patterns hold among both minority and majority status applicants.
... However, studies on men's experiences in "female-dominated" occupations reveal the opposite: there is a preference for hiring men in these occupations. Men at higher levels receive preferential treatment, which closes off advancement opportunities for women with the same qualifications (Brandford and Brandford-Stevenson 2021;Hultin 2003;Simpson 2004;Williams 1992;Wingfield 2009). Williams (1992) termed this the "glass escalator" effect that men experience in traditionally female professions. ...
Using the Survey of Income and Program Participation panel data, this study compares women’s and men’s pay increase trajectories and patterns of job mobility in the nonprofit and for-profit sectors. As recent studies suggested that industry-specific rather than economy-wide analysis is more appropriate in nonprofit/for-profit comparison, this study only focuses on the human services field. The results indicate that: (1) there was a selection in workers’ choices regarding staying or changing sector of employment; (2) nonprofit workers who chose to move to the for-profit sector tended to be those worse off in the nonprofit sector, whereas for-profit workers who chose to move to the nonprofit sector tended to be those better off in the for-profit sector, and both of the mover groups gained by moving; (3) in both nonprofits and for-profits, men enjoyed a steeper pay increase curve by occupying more managerial positions, having higher levels of education, and working longer hours; (4) on average, there was no statistically significant difference in pay increase trajectories between workers who chose to stay in their sector of employment. Consistent with previous studies, the regression analyses further support the argument that, within human services, there is not necessarily a sectoral difference in the gender pay gap—in other words, nonprofits are not necessarily more equitable than for-profits.
... The results appear to suggest that lesbian and bisexual women have a higher probability of holding workplace supervisory authority in female-dominated occupations. Previous research reports such a 'glass escalator' for heterosexual men in female-dominated occupations (Hultin, 2003;Williams, 1992). Other explanations could be that women are more tolerant toward LGB people (Ayoub and Garretson, 2017), that lesbian and bisexual women have advantages in balancing family and career caused by a lower amount of children and a less traditional division of care work in female same-sex partnerships compared to heterosexual partnerships, or the perception of employers that lesbian and bisexual women have lower employment interruptions caused by childbirth. ...
An extensive body of research has documented the relationship between sexual orientation and income, but only a few studies have examined the effects of sexual orientation on workplace authority. This article investigates the probability of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) people having (high-level) workplace authority and the effects of occupational gender segregation. It analyses four waves of data from the German Socio-Economic Panel study (N=37.288 heterosexual and N=739 LGB observations). The results show that gay and bisexual men do not differ from
heterosexual men in their probability of having workplace authority, but they have a lower probability of attaining high-level authority. Lesbian and bisexual women have a higher probability than heterosexual women of having workplace authority, but no advantages in attaining high-level authority. These insights into occupational segregation suggest that gay and bisexual men experience similar levels of disadvantages across occupations, whereas lesbian and bisexual women have an advantage in female-dominated occupations.
... Thus, males may be able to ride a "glass escalator" to move up the career ladder, possibly due to their organization's attempt to better reconcile the gender of the employee and the job. 6 Indeed, for example Hultin (2003) has shown that in female-dominated jobs, men have much better promotion possibilities than women with similar characteristics. It may also be that because men are considered more status worthy (Correll and Ridgeway 2003), 7 they are pushed into more supervisory and management positions within their occupational field. ...
In this paper we examine the gender wage gap among university graduates in Germany from 1997 to 2013 based on the DZHW (the German Centre for Higher Education Research and Science Studies) Absolventenpanel. We focus in particular on the effect of female presence in a subject or occupation on wage inequality. Earlier research has shown not only that female-dominated university subjects or occupations pay less, but also that men face a higher wage penalty than women when they graduated in a female-dominated subject and experience a lower penalty for working in a female-dominated occupation. For the five waves considered, we confirm the very strong negative association between female presence in a subject or occupation and wages. However, no consistent pattern emerges with regard to whether men’s or women’s wages suffer larger penalties. There is also no time trend observable with regard to the wage penalty that is associated with female-dominated fields. We further show that significant gender wage gaps exist within fields of studies, especially in male-dominated fields like engineering and natural science.
... Derinleşen bu cinsiyet eşitsizliği algısı kadının iş hayatında engellerle karşılaşmasına sebep olmaktadır. Literatüre baktığımızda, bahsedilen engellerin; "cam tavan" (Albrecht, Björklund ve Vroman, 2003), "cam yürüyen merdiven" (Hultin, 2003), "yapışkan zemin" (Bootha, Francesconia ve Frank, 2003), "kraliçe arı sendromu" (Ellemers, Van den Heuvel, De Gilder, Maass ve Bonvini, 2004), "cam uçurum" (Ryan ve Haslam, 2005), "cam duvar" (Sneed, 2007), "sızdıran boru" (Cabrera, 2009), "beton tavan" (Henley, 2010) ve "cam kapı" (Hassink ve Russo, 2010) gibi metaforlar şeklinde ifade edildiği görülmektedir. Coşkun'un (2021) "Kadınların Kariyer Yolculuklarındaki Engellere Metaforik Bir Bakış" çalışmasında kadının örgüt içindeki ilerlemesini durdurmaya çalışan ama görünmeyen engellerin "cam" a benzetildiği; örgütün bina gibi düşünüldüğü, engellerin de binanın yapıları "tavan, merdiven, kapı, zemin" gibi kavramlarla metaforlaştırıldığı belirtilmektedir. ...
Public School Female Teachers’ Metaphorical Perceptions Towards Female School Administrators
It is believed that negative perceptions about women's existence at the administrative positions in masculine societies are one of the reasons behind the fact that female administrators remain in the minority. The same situation is experienced in the number of women in school administration. Female teachers, who are outnumbered compared to men, are also represented in small numbers when it comes to school administration. The aim of this study is to reveal the perceptions of female teachers, who are more in number, about female school administrators, who are less in number, through metaphors. This study is designed as metaphor analysis, one of the qualitative research methods. The study group of the study consists of 123 public school female teachers from different cities, school types and branches who are teaching in the 2020-2021 academic year. The data are collected using a ‘Metaphor Form’ in which the sentence ‘A woman school administrator is like…, because …” is included. The data are analyzed using content analysis. The metaphors are grouped under three themes and seventeen sub-themes. Eight sub-themes are named as, Unconcerned, Confrontational, Altruistic, Distant, Positive Emotional Environment Builder, Negative Emotional Dominance, Inconsistent/Unpredictable under Emotional Characteristics theme; four as Organized, Knowledgeable/Supportive, Multitasker, Hardworking under Technical Specifications theme and five as Detailed/Meticulous, Authoritarian, Guide, Resilient, Demanding, Bureaucratic under Administrative theme. The results are discussed with previous research and suggestions are developed to improve women’ perceptions towards their positions in school management.
... Women often feel unable to excel beyond lower management (Hoobler et al., 2009), and their pay level is not comparable to that of their male counterparts (Cloninger et al., 2015;Yanadori et al., 2018). Indeed, women's underrepresentation in managerial positions can be seen in most industries (Orser et al., 2012), even in female-dominant professions (Hultin, 2003). ...
In this study, we focus on glass ceiling perceptions, characterized by women’s subjective feelings about their ability to move upward in their organization. Drawing on social information processing and hope theory, we propose that glass ceiling perceptions decrease women’s citizenship behaviors and increase their turnover intentions by draining their hope in the workplace. Moreover, we suggest that the strength of the association between glass ceiling perceptions, drained hope in the workplace, and these two outcomes is conditional upon women’s perceptions of their work–family conflict. Using a two-study design, we tested our hypothesized relationships. We found a mediating effect of drained hope in the workplace between glass ceiling perceptions and (a) turnover intention and (b) organizational citizenship behaviors. This effect is significant when work–family conflict is high. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings regarding the tensions that women experience with simultaneously managing their careers and conflict in the family.
... The security sector continues to be considered a masculine occupation,' with senior positions predominantly held by men associated with greater confidence in their physical ability than female counterparts (Monaghan, 2002). The glass elevator refers to a set of invisible factors that facilitate the professional advancement of men in female-dominated jobs (Casini, 2016;Hultin, 2003). For male care workers, no 'glass elevator' effect was perceived within the present study, indeed the opposite emerged where men described being overlooked for promotion as management sought to retain males in challenging front-line roles. ...
Purpose
Drawing on Bourdieu's conceptualisation of physical capital, this article explores the experiences of male and female employees in non-traditional occupations where body work is an integral part of the role. Specifically, the authors examine how being an underrepresented gender in this context impacts the experience of work, including challenges faced and perceptions for future opportunities in the role.
Design/methodology/approach
The research is based on two in-depth case studies undertaken in the social care and security/door work sector. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with male social care workers and female security workers in the night-time hospitality sector. Management representatives were also interviewed in each case. The interviews examined how the nature of the work in these roles impacted on the underrepresented gender's perceptions of various aspects of their working lives.
Findings
The findings illustrate how many of the challenges associated with non-traditional occupations are experienced differently in body work roles, either being amplified or instead presenting opportunities for the role holder with implications for the day-to-day and longer-term experience of work. The findings illustrate how the actions and behaviour of management and colleagues can exacerbate the extent to which underrepresented gender feel accepted within their role and organisation.
Practical implications
Organisational decision makers need to be aware of the importance of reviewing practices regarding hiring, promotion and the allocation of tasks and duties for non-traditional role holders engaged in body work.
Originality/value
The article contributes to understandings of “body work” and physical capital in non-traditional occupations, illustrating how gender-based assumptions can restrict individuals in these roles to a greater extent than in other forms of work where the body is salient to the performance of the role.
... Esse tipo de segregação corresponde a uma distinção social ainda mais imperceptível, até mesmo invisível, uma vez que as mulheres acabam por se manter em posições aquém de suas capacidades e não se permitem fazer escolhas que reflitam em progressões profissionais (OLINTO, 2011). Segundo Hultin (2003), esse fenômeno social é identificado como teto de vidro, que corresponde a uma conduta preconceituosa que bloqueia o avanço hierárquico das mulheres em suas carreiras. ...
The presence of women in the educational sphere and in the labor market, in addition to being a struggle with historical roots, has contemporary characteristics rooted in society, requiring knowledge and diagnosis of the most diverse forms of female performance, here dealing with the public environment. Therefore, the objective of this article was to carry out a temporal survey on the representation of women in the teaching position within the coordination of extension activities in a public university, with study object being the Viçosa Federal University, Rio Paranaíba Campus, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Data collection was carried out on websites that provide reports on servers and on the institution's internal system for recording outreach activities. Among the surveys with greater evidence and theoretical proof, it could be diagnosed that women, although they do not represent the majority of university professors, are predominantly more present in the coordination of different types of extension activities (programs, projects, courses and events) than men, with emphasis on actions related to the Institute of Biological and Health Sciences, which have greater representation.
... Regarding gender diversity in managerial positions, while male status position comes under pressure when women enter male domains, it results in men's negative response to gender diversity (Nielsen & Madsen, 2017); on the other hand, men are welcomed warmly in typically female-dominated occupations, such as nursing (Heikes, 1991;Hultin, 2003;Williams, 1992). Together, all these perspectives on gender provide significant insights into some of the universal processes involved in women-dominated interdisciplinary teams. ...
The purpose of this study was to analyze the role of emotional skills and gender in the workplace affect through non-hierarchical level and multilevel analyses. Data were collected through self-reported questionnaires completed by 19 directors and 128 subordinates working in interdisciplinary teams of Centers of Educational and Counselling Support. At non-hierarchical level, higher-order emotional skills (use of emotions and cognitive reappraisal) were positively related to positive affect in the workplace. Negative affect was negatively associated with the ability to regulate emotions and positively associated with the strategy of emotional suppression. From the multilevel analyses, cognitive reappraisal was a significant predictor for both positive and negative affect (inversed) of subordinates. Gender differences were observed in multilevel analyses. We also explored possible tensions between emotional competencies and emotional outcomes (workplace affect) at non-hierarchical and managerial level in interdisciplinary teams. We suggest training programs that promote group emotional empowerment and focus on higher-order emotional skills. At managerial level, we suggest training programs that penetrate cognitive reappraisal of emotions since this is an emotion regulation strategy that promotes safer emotional affect in the workplace.
... Another barrier that women face is the gender pay gap, in which women earn 80 cents on the dollar that their male counterparts make (Dickler, 2019). Connected is the glass ceiling hypothesis that argues the existence of an invisible barrier that blocks women's upward mobility and limits career advancement for women (Hultin, 2003). Dickler (2019) argues that this gap is far wider between mothers and fathers. ...
Since the COVID-19 pandemic hit North America in 2020 life has yet to return to “normal.” New realities included remote learning, physical distancing, lockdown measures, and mandatory masking. The pandemic has increased social isolation, stress and anxiety, employment loss, and financial instability. Even more, the domestic workload that mothers are usually responsible for in addition to their paid work, what Arlie Hochschild (2012) refers to as 'the second shift,' has been compounded and expanded, creating a 'third' and 'fourth' shift that involves homeschooling, increased carework, and 'worrywork' that burdens mothers during a crisis (O'Reilly & Green, 2021, p. 21). Mothers are the unrecognized 'front-line workers' of the pandemic – caring for sick family members, trying to balance working from home with childcare and homeschooling that has pushed mothers to their breaking points. This has left many mothers overworked, overstressed, overwhelmed, taking a substantial toll on their well-being. The purpose of this research is to examine the pressures, changes, and challenges around paid work, care, and family during the pandemic that mothers face– and the strategies they use to navigate these difficult situations. This study involves 11 qualitative interviews with Canadian mothers. The aim was to discover how women define and understand their own experiences of pandemic parenting, and how their experiences and choices were shaped by their constraining circumstances and contexts. This study examines the norms surrounding ‘who cares?’ and how disparities in carework underpin many of the gender inequalities women experience that blur the boundaries between their private and public lives.
... Nesses casos, ser mulher é um aspecto negativo por si só. Por exemplo, uma pesquisa conduzida por Hultin (2003) concluiu que homens que optaram por profissões femininas tinham maior probabilidade de promoção do que elas (homens em áreas de gestão de recursos humanos ou professores de ensino fundamental tem carreiras mais ascendentes e rápidas do que suas colegas mulheres). Outras pesquisas mostraram que mesmo mulheres avaliam outras de forma mais rígida do que avaliam homens. ...
An important challenge faced by women CEOs is that their firms tend to receive more shareholder activism than firms with men CEOs. Frequently, this activism represents attempts by shareholders to direct or override the decisions made by the firms’ leaders. The current paper integrates micro and macro perspectives to explore the factors influencing gender differences in shareholder activism. Drawing on social psychology research, we examine gender role expectations and perceived lack of fit as underlying psychological mechanisms, and we use industry gender type (i.e., men- or women-dominated industry) as an important structural factor that shapes the effects of these psychological mechanisms and women CEOs’ propensity to be targeted by shareholder activism. We test the hypotheses using archival data of shareholder activism at S&P 1500 companies. We also use two vignette-based experiments to examine the underlying mechanisms for why CEO gender relates to shareholder activism differently across industries. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Italy stands out for being a very peculiar country when it comes to women at work. European data suggest that low female labour market participation coexists with low gender segregation, which entails a significant presence of women in the professions, even in the scientific sector. The reasons and the implications of what seems to be a paradox have been under-explored so far. This chapter attempts to provide a contribution to the debate by going through the literature on gender paradoxes and by retracing the main results of an empirical case study conducted on a highly skilled profession: that of physicians. The reasons for the Italian paradox are grounded in the intertwining of poor work–life balance policies and limited market opportunities. Its implications involve unexpected—and highly problematic—spaces of “gender equality”, due to a strong selection and self-selection of women in the Italian labour market.
THE NEW BARRIERS WOMEN FACE IN THE WORKPLACE: THE METAPHORS OF THE GLASS ESCALATOR AND THE GLASS ELEVATOR
Bölüm 1
EVSIZLIĞI SONLANDIRMAK: DÜNYADA VE TÜRKIYE’DEKI
SOSYAL POLITIKA VE SOSYAL HIZMET UYGULAMALARININ
KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI
Yasin AKYILDIZ.................................................................................. 1
Bölüm 2
KADIN YOĞUN MESLEKLERDE CAM ASANSÖR: SOSYAL
HİZMET ÖRNEĞİ ÜZERİNDEN BİR DEĞERLENDİRME
Emine ATAMAN ................................................................................ 33
Şeniz ASLAN ....................................................................................................33
Bölüm 3
EKOLOJİK/YEŞİL/ SOSYAL ÇALIŞMA VE AFETLER
METİN ZAFER................................................................................... 49
Bölüm 4
TÜRKIYE’DE SOSYAL HIZMET EĞITIMI VE SOSYAL HIZMET
BÖLÜMLERI
Adem KALEBAŞI................................................................................ 63
Bölüm 5
AKTIF YAŞLANMA POLITIKALARI BAĞLAMINDA
TAZELENME ÜNIVERSITELERI VE SOSYAL HIZMETIN ROLÜ
Habibullah AKINCI............................................................................ 81
Bölüm 6
BİYOPSİKOSOSYOTİNSEL VE EKOSİSTEM YAKLAŞIMLARI
BAĞLAMINDA YAŞLILIKTA SOSYALLEŞME
Şeyda DEMİR.....................................................................................95
Although researchers have suggested that work–life programs (WLPs) help increase the representation of women in management (WIM), stigmatization and gender stereotyping can prevent this beneficial effect. We adopt a contingency approach by taking the roles of time, gender context, and the purposes of different practices into consideration and examine the effects of WLPs on WIM longitudinally. Our analysis of a sample of Japanese public firms spanning 14 years addresses endogeneity concerns and shows that: (1) increases in WLPs are weakly associated with subsequent increases in the proportion of WIM within firms; (2) this positive effect is stronger in organizations where the percentage of female employees is growing; and (3) there is no evidence to suggest an effect in the opposite direction. We further propose different temporal patterns by which the effects of flexibility practices (e.g., remote work) and resource practices (e.g., childcare benefits) emerge due to the varying degree of changes in job structures and work norms involved in their implementation. Our analysis provides supportive evidence that the effects of flexibility practices that require more changes inconveniencing decision-makers, users, and coworkers take longer to emerge compared to resource practices that incur fewer changes and inconveniences. These findings contribute to a more detailed understanding of the WLPs–WIM relationship and offer insights for research on WLPs and women's career advancement.
El efecto del techo de cristal explica las barreras invisibles que afectan a la promoción laboral de las mujeres, asociadas a desigualdades de género. El objetivo del presente estudio cualitativo fue identificar las desigualdades en la promoción de las mujeres en la carrera académica e investigadora en el ámbito de la biomedicina en España. Se realizaron 22 entrevistas individuales a mujeres investigadoras en biomedicina en puestos de liderazgo en 2018 en Madrid. Las transcripciones se importaron al software informático Open Code y se analizaron de acuerdo con el método del análisis del discurso. Se identificaron 3 categorías: Reafirmación de la existencia del techo de cristal, Las barreras para la promoción de las mujeres y Necesidades para romper el Techo de cristal. Los resultados indicaron que las mujeres investigadoras sintieron seguir enfrentándose a dificultades adicionales a las de los hombres para progresar en sus carreras profesionales. Entre ellas, destacan la falta de corresponsabilidad en los hogares entre hombres y mujeres, debido a la asunción del rol tradicional de cuidadoras, y la falta de apoyo y medidas efectivas en las instituciones que favorezcan la conciliación, pese a que la legislación requiere que el sector público tome medidas proactivas para ello. Para romper el techo de cristal en las carreras de las mujeres investigadoras en biomedicina es necesario distribuir equitativamente el tiempo dedicado al ámbito laboral y personal de mujeres y hombres, y que las políticas de igualdad de género se implementen de manera efectiva, no sólo limitándose a establecer recomendaciones, sino concretarse mediante acciones y sancionando los incumplimientos.
The wholesale changes brought about by the COVID‐19 pandemic to men and women's paid work arrangements and work–family balance provide a natural experiment for testing the common elements of two theories, needs exposure (Schafer et al. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne De Sociologie, 57(4);2020:523–549) and parental proximity (Sullivan et al. Family Theory & Review, 2018;10(1):263–279) against a third theory also suggested by Schafer et al. (2020), and labelled in this article, entrenchment/exacerbation of gender inequality. Both needs exposure and parental proximity suggest that by being home because of the pandemic, in proximity to their children, fathers are exposed to new and enduring family needs, which may move them toward more equal sharing in childcare and other domestic responsibilities. By contrast to studies that have tested such theories using retrospective, self‐report survey data over a 2‐year period, we analyse more than a decade of time‐use diary data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) that covers the first 2 years of the pandemic. We model the secular and quarterly trends to predict what would have occurred in the absence of the pandemic, contrasting this to what indeed happened. Our analyses consider aggregate and individual impacts, using methods of sequence analysis, clustering, and matching. Among our results, we find that the division of childcare responsibilities did not become more equitable during the pandemic. Suggestions for future research are provided as are suggestions for the implementation of social policies that could influence greater gender equity in unpaid work and childcare.
The study seeks to investigate the perceived organizational barriers on women career progression in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). A descriptive survey was carried out in an attempt to examine the barriers that female face in educational organizations when trying to empower their careers. The sample of the study were composed 21 women who were selected randomly. The data were collected using quantitative research model. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance were used to explain the results. The results revealed that the female education administrators career advancement was not affected by biological make up of female in family live % 57.14 (N=12) and female education administrators perceived their career progression to be not affected by male dominated hierarchies in the workplace %71.43 (N=15). In addition, the biological make up of women was not block from any promotions while female moving up the senior positions in the workplace %76.19 (N= 16). However, the results revealed that female education administrators face with career barriers during their career advancement % 76.19 (N=16). The results revealed that female education administrators overcame challenges in their career progression while they persisted in gender equality, empathy, patience, responsible decision making, collaboration and Corporation with men and seeking legal right in the workplace. In addition, the participants stated that there was no prejudice about female biological make up against of female career progressions in the educational organizational settings of TRNC %66.67 (N=14). However, female education administrators need organizational support in TRNC. They should confront the challenge and responsibility of identifying work-live balance requirements which should provide adequate opportunities with male education administrators.
We analyze the relationship between social gender norms and adolescents' occupational choices by combining regional votes on constitutional amendments on gender equality with job application data from a large job board for apprenticeships. The results show that adolescent males in regions with stronger traditional social gender norms are more likely to apply for typically male occupations. This finding does not hold for females, suggesting that incentivizing men to break the norms and choose gender‐atypical occupations (e.g., in healthcare) can be even more effective in accelerating advancement toward gender equality in the labor market than incentivizing women to choose STEM occupations.
In gender studies, there is a lack of instruments to assess the severity of gender inequality in an organization. Gender inequality at the structural level of the organization manifests itself as gender asymmetry in an organization and in certain status positions. It is indicated by metaphors of “glass” phenomena: “glass ceiling”, “sticky floor”, “glass walls”, “glass escalator”, “glass rock”, “glass box”. The article is devoted to the development and testing of the author’s methodology for assessing structural gender barriers in an organization. The study was conducted using an online survey in 2020, with a sample of 273 employees aged 18 to 62 years (median 34 years) from various organizations. The survey included, in addition to the developed questionnaire for assessing structural gender barriers, a methodology for assessing gen- der inequality at the individual-behavioral and normative levels in an organization (“Doing gender” and “Undoing gender” scales, “Scale for the severity of norms that support gender inequality” (author’s development), “Perceptions of Politics Scale” (author’s modification of the methodology of K.Kacmar and D.Carlson). The survey also included questions about the characteristics of the organization to assess the criterion validity. Reliability analysis, correla- tion analysis, and structural modeling were used. The results of the study showed good reli- ability of the scales, the results of SEM analysis show that the obtained data do not correspond to the six-factor model. An exploratory factor analysis was carried out, the resulting one- factor solution explains 54% of the variance. A positive correlation was found between the severity of structural gender barriers and the severity of norms that support gender inequality, with the presence of unfair policies in the organization and with the use of the “Undoing gender” individual behavioral strategy. A negative correlation was obtained with the number of women in high leadership positions in the organization. The obtained results testify in favor of the reliability, constructive and criterion validity of the new instrument. It is planned to further test the properties of the questionnaire on a larger sample.
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The purpose of this paper is to offer descriptions of the possible next steps in the evolution of the climb to executive leadership positions, termed the glass cave . The discussion concludes with suggestions for moving beyond the glass cave to create a glass tunnel, or broad path to growth and advancement as well as recommendations for future research directions.</p
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The purpose of this paper is to offer descriptions of the possible next steps in the evolution of the climb to executive leadership positions, termed the glass cave . The discussion concludes with suggestions for moving beyond the glass cave to create a glass tunnel, or broad path to growth and advancement as well as recommendations for future research directions.</p
This article examines a pathway whereby occupational sex composition widens gender gap in pay, asking how differently gender tokens—men and women in the numeric minority in opposite-sex occupations—derive monetary rewards from engaging in managerial tasks. Using a dataset of job tasks from the Princeton Data Improvement Initiative, I find that a large portion of the cross-occupation variation in wage returns to managerial work is attributed to the sex composition of occupations. Female tokens derive lower returns to managerial tasks compared to their non-token counterparts, whereas male tokens benefit from managerial work to a greater extent than when they are in mixed-sex or male-dominated occupations. The study concludes by discussing the gendered outcomes of engaging in managerial tasks, typically sex-typed as being “men’s work,” in gender-atypical work environments.
Objectives
To describe the association between occupations and suicide, and to explore the effect of gender dominance in the occupation and in the workplace on the risk of suicide.
Design
Register-based cohort study.
Participants
3 318 050 workers in Sweden in 2005 and followed up until 2010. Exclusion criteria for the study were: missing information in the occupational codes, yearly income of <100 Swedish krona, missing information of the employer, death or migration, and registered occupational code reported from more than 5 years ago.
Outcome
Suicides occurring during 2006–2010 identified in the cause of death register by the International Classification of Diagnoses-10 codes X60–84 and Y10–34.
Results
Occupations with increased suicide were life science and health professionals (OR: 2.8, 95% CI: 1.50 to 5.26) among women. In men, these were metal, machinery and related workers (OR: 1.5, 95% CI: 1.09 to 2.05) and personal and protective service workers (OR: 1.59, 95% CI: 1.14 to 2.22). In terms of gender dominance in the occupation, borderline associations with increased suicide risk were found for men in both male-dominated (OR: 1.32, 95% CI: 0.98 to 1.79) and female-dominated (OR: 1.37, 95% CI: 0.99 to 1.91) occupations. For women, borderline increased risk of suicide was found in female-dominated occupations (OR: 1.51, 95% CI: 0.95 to 2.40). Finally, men showed a borderline increased risk of suicide in female-dominated workplaces (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 0.94 to 1.81).
Conclusions
This study found that women in the ‘life science and health professionals’ group and men in the ‘metal, machinery and related workers’ as well as ‘personal and protective service workers’ groups have increased incidence of suicide also when adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, precariousness of the employment relationship, spells of unemployment, previous mental disorders and suicide attempts. Moreover, gender dominance at workplace and occupation seems to be associated with the risk of suicide among men. The results of our study are novel and are worth exploring in future qualitative studies.
O artigo analisa as relações de poder e gênero no acesso à direção de escolas municipais de Curitiba. A autora utilizou dados da eleição escolar de 2008 e de questionário on line para profissionais da educação. Concluiu que o fenômeno do glass ceiling está presente e se manifesta de maneira muito contundente quando há homens concorrendo com mulheres no acesso às principais funções da gestão escolar
Men who do 'women's work' have consistently been the butt of jokes, derided for their lack of drive and masculinity. In this eye-opening study, Christine Williams provides a wholly new look at men who work in predominantly female jobs. Having conducted extensive interviews in four cities, Williams uncovers how men in four occupations - nursing, elementary school teaching, librarian ship, and social work - think about themselves and experience their work. Contrary to popular imagery, men in traditionally female occupations do not define themselves differently from men in more traditional occupations. Williams finds that most embrace conventional, masculine values. Her findings about how these men fare in their jobs are also counterintuitive. Rather than being surpassed by the larger number of women around them, these men experience the 'glass escalator effect', rising in disproportionate numbers to administrative jobs at the top of their professions. Williams finds that a complex interplay between gendered expectations embedded in organizations, and the socially determined ideas workers bring to their jobs, contribute to mens' advantages in these occupations. Using a feminist psychoanalytic perspective, Williams calls for more men not only to cross over to women's occupations, but also to develop alternative masculinities that find common ground with traditionally female norms of cooperation and caring. Until the workplace is sexually integrated and masculine and feminine norms equally valued, it will unfortunately remain 'still a man's world'.
A regression model with fixed-effects and national individual-level panel data (1966-81) is used to decompose the sex gap in pay. In accordance with neoclassical predictions from human capital theory, net positive returns to individuals' education and experience and to occupations' cognitive and physical skills are found. While sex differences in experience have large effects on the sex gap skin contributes little to the gap. In accordance with cultural feminist predictions, negative returns to being in an occupation with a higher percentage of females or requiring more nurturant social skill are found. These forms of gendered valuation contribute significantly to the sex gap in pay. In contrast to the neoclassical prediction of compensating differentials, the analysis did not find consistently positive effects for onerous physical conditions, nor did these have much effect on the gap.
Many have researched the effect of occupational segregation on race and gender gaps in pay, but few have examined segregation's impact on promotions. This article uses the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to examine the effect of race and gender composition in the origin occupation on movement to a managerial position. Findings show that for men, percentage of women in the origin occupation positively affected the chances of men moving to a supervisory position and that Blacks were less likely than Whites to be promoted. For women, percentage of women and percentage of Blacks in the origin occupation significantly decreased chances of women attaining a management position. Subsequent analyses showed that Black men, Black women, and White women waited longer than did White men for the managerial promotions they received. The findings suggest the impact of a “glass escalator” for White men, a “glass ceiling” for others, and contradict the notion of a “declining significance of race.”
We explore a range of issues concerning the gender gap in workplace authority in seven countries (the United Stares, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Sweden, Norway and Japan). There are six main empirical conclusions. First, there is considerable cross-national variation in the gender gap in authority: The gap is lowest in the four English-speaking countries (especially the United States and Australia) and highest in Japan. Second, the gender gap in authority within countries and the pattern of cross-national variation do not appear to be the result of gender differences in personal attributes or employment settings. Third, the self-selection hypothesis (that women choose nor to seek authority because of family responsibilities) does not appear to account for much of the gender gap in authority, except perhaps in Canada. Fourth, we find little support for the ''glass-ceiling'' hypothesis that barriers to upward promotions for women in authority hierarchies are greater than the barriers they face in getting into hierarchies in the first place. Fifth, in the United States the barriers faced by women already in hierarchies are weaker than in other countries, and probably weaker than the barriers they faced to enter hierarchies in the first place. Finally we find suggestive evidence that these variations across countries in the gender gap in authority are explained by the interaction between the availability of managerial positions and the capacity of politically organized women's movements to challenge barriers to women gaining authority in the workplace.
To reduce sex differences in employment outcomes, we must examine them in the context of the sex-gender hierarchy. The conventional explanation for wage gap—job segregation—is incorrect because it ignores men's incentive to preserve their advantages and their ability to do so by establishing the rules that distribute rewards. The primary method through which all dominant groups maintain their hegemony is by differentiating the subordinate group and defining it as inferior and hence meriting inferior treatment. My argument implies that neither sex-integrating jobs nor implementing comparable worth will markedly improve women's employment status because men can subvert these mechanisms or even change the rules by which rewards are allocated. As evidence, I show that occupational integration has failed to advance women appreciably, and I argue that comparable worth is not likely to be much more effective. Instead, we must seek political analyses and political solutions.
Research on stratification has shifted from a focus on the characteristics of individuals to a focus on the characteristics of larger social structures such as organizations and industries. Structuralist perspectives have developed primarily in isolation from each other. Using new life-history data from the Federal Republic of Germany, we draw on three structuralist perspectives to specify more complete models of the mobility process. Specifically, we investigate the effects of organizational size, social class and industrial segmentation on job-shift patterns, using event-history methods. The findings show that recent structuralist perspectives which are commonly thought to be contradictory are in fact complementary.
Aggregate analyses of sexual inequality fail to explore directly the resources of structurally induced earnings differences.
These differences may derive from between- and/or within-employer differences in the reward-attainment processes of working
men and women. This paper examines the second of these two issues, i.e., within-employer sex differences in salary for the
same job. Two hypotheses are considered: the so-called wage discrimination hypothesis refers to inequality generated by male-female
differences in the direct rates of return to productive resources and hierarchical rank; the rank segregation hypothesis refers
to inequality generated by denying women equal access to the higher-paying ranks to which a particular job ladder leads. Our
results suggest that sex differences in salary attainment result more from rank segregation than from wage discrimination
per se. The implications for the problem of sexual discrimination and the generalizability of the findings are discussed.
Examines the relationship between the occupational distributions of men and women in 25 industrial countries and selected social, economic, and cultural factors. The same economic structures that are associated with women's greater integration into the formal labor force also contributes to a deepening institutionalization of gender within the occupational structure. This may occur through the incorporation of women's traditional tasks into the formal economy, and/or through the hierarchical and functional differentiation of economic activity in highly industrial societies. Results indicate that some primary structural characteristics of modern economies (a relatively large service sector and a large employee class) are associated with greater female concentration in clerical, sales, and service occupations. Other social and cultural characteristics of these countries - low rates of fertility and more favorable ideological environments - partially offset these segregative forces. The actual penetration of egalitarian principles into the labor market appears to be mediated by the structure of interest articulation, with corporatist systems showing greater propensity toward segregations. -from Author
This study examines the effects of five attributes - authority, education, sex, race, and branch assignment - on the proximities among the members of five professional organizations in networks of instrumental and primary relations. Sex and race are found to have greater influence on primary ties than instrumental ties. While there is some evidence in two organizations that authority and education affect instrumental ties more than primary ties, the data as a whole favor the hypothesis that these two attributes, which are associated with position in the formal division of labor, give rise to both instrumental and primary ties. These attributes generally serve to place high status persons in central network positions. In one organization where these attributes prove to have little predictive power, we examine the effects on network form of a conflict which led to the disintegration of the organization shortly after it was surveyed. The factions into which the organization was divided are readily apparent in a spatial representation of the network. In conclusion we review the implications for organizational theory and research of the attribute analysis in conjunction with the case study findings.
White-collar internal labor markets are typically segmented in various ways. Job ladders, job ladder groupings, and tiers create a complicated set of boundaries that make advancement contingent on such factors as the chances for advancement in a job ladder, the chances to move to other job ladders that offer greater opportunity, and the distribution of preferred statuses that influence promotion outcomes. This paper shows how these contingencies created gender differences in promotion rates in the federal civil service during the middle 1970s. Gender promotions varied by level. The greatest female disadvantage occurred near the boundary between the lower- and upper-tier grades. No gender difference was found in the higher grades, and no zero-order difference existed in the lower grades. Gender differences in grade promotion were largely explained by differences in ladder-specific opportunities. But significant gender differences in promotion from the lower- to the upper-tier remained, even when personal attributes and organizational location were controlled.
Recent work on the organized sources of network ties and on the social structural determinants of association are synthesized to produce several hypotheses about homophily. These hypotheses are tested with data on 304 face-to-face groups from 10 communities. We find that friends are more similar on status dimensions than chance and that this homophily is produced both by the restricted opportunity structure offered by the group and by homophilous choices made within the group. Organizational heterogeneity leads to substantially greater dyadic status distance within the organization, while organization size consistently reduces dyadic status distance. At a given level of diversity, a larger group will permit more homophilous friendship pairing. However, correlated status dimensions create little reduction in dyadic social distance. In general, homogeneity within groups is the overwhelming determinant of homophily.
Our main objective is the measurement of prestige for the full range of men's and women's occupations and of gender incumbency effects on prestige; subsidiary goals include examination of rater and job characteristics. The research design combines the approach of controlled experiments with that of the sample survey. Household and college sample respondents each rate 110 occupations using standard NORC prestige methods and metrics. Our findings support the theoretical assumption that incumbent prestige ratings represent achieved occupational status as modified by ascribed sex of incumbent, rather than as some more equal mix of gender prestige and occupational prestige. Occupation remains the major contributor to prestige. Sex of incumbent affects householders' ratings, while college students do not make this differentiation. Sex composition influences female and high-status raters in each sample. However, the near equity in subjective occupational repute is unrelated to the actual resources of jobs. Methodological conclusions are also drawn.
This research examines the role of the firm in women's job mobility using a dynamic approach. Rates of women's job to job transitions are analyzed with a multivariate, stochastic model. The data are employment histories derived from the National Longitudinal Survey of Young Women (1968-1973). The results demonstrate the significance and the advantages of firm-internal labor markets in women's employment. First, the process of job mobility differs greatly within and between employers. Voluntary job changes made between employers rely on observable job rewards and general individual resources. Shifts within a firm depend largely on a woman's age and job duration, signifying the importance of seniority and job-specific resources in determining promotions. Second, jobs in firm-internal labor markets offer higher wages and socioeconomic status to women than other jobs.
This analysis uses data from the 1977 Quality of Employment Survey to investigate the impact of occupational sex segregation on a select set of working conditions. In particular, the contention that sex segregation arises from women's preferences for jobs that mesh easily with family caregiving is addressed. Controlling for the gender of the respondent, results show that occupational segregation does account for observed gender differences in unsupervised break time, fairness of promotion policies, and job flexibility, and reduces the sex differential in benefits and chances for promotion. However, it does not explain gender differences in social rewards, interpersonal stress, or job challenge and interest. Finally, evidence here suggests that predominantly female jobs are not necessarily jobs with characteristics that accommodate family responsibilities. On the contrary, workers in predominantly female jobs were less likely to report that their jobs were flexible or easy to perform. Results are discussed with respect to human capital and segmented market theories of gender differentiation in the labor force.
This study of Swedish workers investigates gender wage inequality, specifically, whether earnings are affected by the gender composition of establishments' managerial and supervisory staff. Theoretical arguments focus on managers' propensity to create and maintain or to undermine institutionalized gender bias and employees' capacity to mobilize resources and establish claims in the wage distribution process, mainly through social networks. Results show that gender-differentiated access to organizational power structures is essential in explaining women's relatively low wages. Women who work in establishments in which relatively many of the managers are men have lower wages than women with similar qualifications and job demands in establishments with more women in the power structure.
The application of a system of measurement structures for category-rating and magnitude scales is tested with regard to numerous sensory and social judgment scales. Results indicate that, on the average, category-rating scales yield interval scales and multimodality matching scales yield logarithmic interval scales. However, marked interindividual differences are detected, pointing to different capabilities subjects have in coping with both methods. It is asked, therefore, how suboptimal scale quality affects the results of parameter estimation in structural equation models in which judgment scales serve as indicator variables. Based on a general psychophysical judgment model it is shown that the measurement theoretical properties of magnitude scales of individual respondents account for large proportions of the variation of estimated coefficients and of goodness of fit. For category-rating scales the effects scale properties have on parameter estimation cannot be determined because of nonhomogeneous judgment functions.
Cross-national studies of occupational sex segregation have shown not only that industrial countries are markedly segregated by sex, but also that the level of sex segregation varies substantially between countries. The overall aim of this article is to study any association between patterns of cross-national variation in levels of sex segregation and the structuring of welfare states. It represents a new approach to comparative studies of occupational sex segregation as it uses log-linear modelling and comparable micro data from the Luxembourg Employment Study (LES) to describe patterns of sex segregation in the labour market. The results presented here demonstrate some cross-national variation in levels of sex segregation. However, considering substantial cross-national differences in the structure of the welfare state, the relative distribution of women and men in the occupational structure largely follows the same pattern in the Western countries included. Cross-national variation in the structure of the welfare state seems therefore to be of primary importance for understanding the cross-national variation in sex segregation between unpaid labour in the home and paid labour in the market.
This research examines gender differences in job mobility rates, especially rates of movement into supervisory and managerial positions. Informed by human capital and segmentation theory, hypotheses concerning the effects of labor force withdrawals and gender-based occupational segregation on mobility are investigated. Using job history data and event history analysis a series of models of both voluntary moves and upward authority moves are specified and estimated. Results indicate that while labor force withdrawals and the percentage female in an occupation are related to these mobility rates, net of these factors, women continue to have lower rates of upward authority moves.
This article examines trends in sex segregation by occupation and industry in 56 countries. International Labor Organization (ILO) data from roughly 1960 to 1980 for both developed and developing countries are included in the analysis. Evidence presented suggests that these data are reliable measures of the direction and rate of change in segregation. It was found that a majority of countries experienced declines in sex segregation between 1960 and 1980 and nearly all countries experienced declines in a size-standardized measure of segregation. A striking asymmetry in the experience of these changes for men and women was also found. In the great majority of countries, men experienced an increased chance of sharing an occupation (and industry) with women during this period, whereas women often (but not always) experienced a decline in the chances of being in the same occupational (and industrial) group as men. Finally, the article examines the effects on segregation of per capita GNP, women's labor force participation, the total fertility rate, women's educational levels, and urbanization, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The regression results are generally inconsistent with the predictions of the modernization perspective.
This study examines job mobility patterns in the United States through the analysis of job mobility rates. Utilizing event history analysis and retrospective job history data, a variety of job mobility rates are modeled. Besides the overall rate of job exiting, this study also examines rates of voluntary and involuntary exits, within- and between-employer moves, and upward job shifts. Informed by three theoretical models of job mobility—the reward-resource model, the limited opportunity model, and the vacancy competition model—hypotheses concerning the effects of education, occupational status, supervision, time in the labor force, gender, race, and economic sector on various job shift rates are formulated and tested. Among the major conclusions are (a) education increases job mobility, but does not uniquely determine the paths; (b) gender and racial differences pertain more to differences in mobility channels than to differences in the overall rate of job moving; and (c) dualistic accounts of labor market structures are problematic in that they tend to conflate several basic dimensions of job mobility patterns.
This article develops and tests hypotheses about the determinants of sex segregation in occupations employing both men and women, analyzing data on a diverse sample of California establishments. In the few instances in which men and women perform similar work roles, the jobs are typically done in distinct organizational settings, and when an enterprise employs both sexes in the same occupation, men and women are usually assigned different job titles. The findings are consistent with the theory of statistical discrimination, wich posits that employers reserve some jobs for men and others for women. However, little evidence is found that employers' practices reflect efficient and rational responses to sex differences in skills and turnover costs. Alternative explanations for gender segregation within and among organizations are suggested and the research necessary to develop a more accurate account of the sexual division of labor in the workplace is outlined.
This paper addresses men's underrepresentation in four predominantly female professions: nursing, elementary school teaching, librarianship, and social work. Specifically, it examines the degree to which discrimination disadvantages men in hiring and promotion decisions, the work place culture, and in interactions with clients. In-depth interviews were conducted with 99 men and women in these professions in four major U.S. cities. The interview data suggest that men do not face discrimination in these occupations; however, they do encounter prejudice from individuals outside their professions. In contrast to the experience of women who enter male-dominated professions, men generally encounter structural advantages in these occupations which tend to enhance their careers. Because men face different barriers to integrating nontraditional occupations than women face, the need for different remedies to dismantle segregation in predominantly female jobs is emphasized.
Kanter argued that men's and women's positions in workplace opportunity structures, not their sex, shape their career attitudes. Women attached less importance to promotion than men, according to 1991 General Social Survey data. The authors examine the extent to which this difference stems from the sexes' segregation into jobs with unequal opportunities, as Kanter argued. The findings are largely consistent with Kanter's thesis: Men attached greater importance to promotion than women because they were more likely to be located in organizational positions that encourage workers to hope for a promotion. Net of the effects of workers' organizational locations and prior promotion by their employer, sex was not associated with promotion attitudes.
This article addresses trends in the level of occupational sex segregation in Sweden between 1968 and 1991. During this period, the sex composition as well as the structure of the labor market has changed considerably. For instance, today, the labor market comprises a large female-dominated public sector. This study demonstrates a fall in the level of occupational sex segregation in the labor market, in spite of the expansion of traditional female jobs in the public sector (Data are from the Swedish Level of Living Surveys conducted in 1968, 1981 and, 1991).
A comparative statics model is utilized to examine mechanisms of gender inequality: gender distribution (skew), gender segregation (composition), occupational captivity, hierarchical ceilings, glass ceilings, and internal labor market (ILM) structure/network linkages. The analysis examines new linkages between ses segregation and glass ceilings; two elements of ses segregation-composition and captivity; and two elements of glass ceilings-pathways inside and outside one's original ILM. Gender-specific career trajectories were constructed to analyze women's career opportunities in 22 occupational ILMs in the U.S. federal government for two periods between 1962 and 1989, demonstrating how to extract career implications from much shorter periods of time. There is a very large differential effect by gender when staying within one's occupational ILM; however, when pathways that include changing ILMs are considered, women's opportunities to enter the top tier become almost equivalent to those for men in the second period.
The fundamental issue addressed in this paper is why women receive lower wages than men. The relevance of four explanations is investigated: women's responsibility for family and household work, women's lower human capital, compensating wage differentials between men and women, and job segregation The job segregation explanation is given primary attention in these analyses, given that solidarity wage bargaining in Sweden is generally assumed to have promoted equal pay for equal type of job, and hence that no male-female wage differentials ought to exist once the relevant job characteristics are controlled for. Empirical analyses, based on Swedish labour-market data in 1981, show that job segregation indeed explains a sizeable proportion of the gender wage gap, much more than the other three types of factors. A substantial unexplained residual remains, however, net of a large number of individual, family, job and industry characteristics. It is argued that this unexplained wage differential is too large to be explained by misspecification or coarseness of measures The most reasonable interpretation instead is that male and female workers with the same productive attributes, family obligations, and job characteristics receive different hourly wages. The result thus indicates the presence of sex discrimination in the Swedish labour-market, i.e., that solidarity wage bargaining, even at its peak in 1981, did not result in equal treatment of men and women