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First-Date Expectations

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Abstract

This study investigated the impact of three factors (sex of initiator, alcohol consumption, and relationship type) relevant to the dominant American first-date script concerning communication and sexual expectations for first dates. After reading a hypothetical scenario describing a date initiation, 218 college students indicated the expectations they would have if they were the person going on the date. Results indicated that men have higher sexual expectations than do women and that participants’ sexual expectations are heightened when alcohol is available. Alcohol availability had complex effects on expectations for communication intimacy. Participants expected more intimate communication when dating partners were close friends than when they were casual acquaintances.
10.1177/0093650203260202ARTICLECOMMUNICATION RESEARCH • February 2004Morr, Mongeau • First-Date Expectations
MARY CLAIRE MORR
PAUL A. MONGEAU
First-Date Expectations
The Impact of Sex of Initiator,
Alcohol Consumption, and Relationship Type
This study investigated the impact of three factors (sex of initiator, alcohol
consumption, and relationship type) relevant to the dominant American first-
date script concerning communication and sexual expectations for first dates.
After reading a hypothetical scenario describing a date initiation, 218 college
students indicated the expectations they would have if they were the person
going on the date. Results indicated that men have higher sexual expectations
than do women and that participants sexual expectations are heightened
when alcohol is available. Alcohol availability had complex effects on expecta-
tions for communication intimacy. Participants expected more intimate com-
munication when dating partners were close friends than when they were
casual acquaintances.
Keywords: dating; expectancy; interpersonal; intimacy; sexuality; alcohol
The nature of heterosexual courtship at a particular time and place depends
on a number of historical and cultural factors (Cate & Lloyd, 1992). Since the
1920s, couple dating has been the primary form of premarital romantic
involvement in the United States (Bailey, 1988; Cate & Lloyd, 1992). First
dates represent an important early event in the development of dating rela
-
tionships and have been the focus of recent research interest (e.g., Laner &
Ventrone, 1998, 2000; Mongeau, Carey, & Williams, 1998). There are several
reasons why first dates are of theoretical interest to interpersonal and rela
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tional communication scholars. For example, first dates are inherently am
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biguous, as they represent a potential relational turning point (Baxter &
Bullis, 1986) where a relationship might (or might not) move from platonic to
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romantic. As a consequence, uncertainty about the partner and relationship
is presumed to be high on such occasions.
Recent first-date research by Mongeau and his colleagues indicates that
expectancies and their violations are likely important factors in the enact
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ment of the first date and the generation of a new romantic relationship. Spe
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cifically, in studies based on hypothetical date scenarios, men reported higher
sexual expectations for first dates than did women, particularly when the
woman initiated the date (Mongeau, Aselage, Ficara, & Hart, 1997; Mongeau
& Carey, 1996). Contrary to these expectancies, research on actual first dates
indicates that less sexual and communication intimacy occurs on first dates
initiated by women (Mongeau & Johnson, 1995; Mongeau, Yeazell, & Hale,
1994). The contradiction between men’s predate sexual expectations and the
amount of sexual intimacy experienced on the date has been interpreted from
an expectancy violation perspective (e.g., Mongeau & Carey, 1996; Mongeau
et al., 1998). Specifically, men likely enter female-initiated first dates with
unrealistically high sexual expectations that are violated on the date. In con-
trast, a woman’s expectations may be violated if a man acts on his higher
expectations for sexual intimacy.
Although the accumulated research suggests an expectancy violation
explanation, the nature of students’ expectations for first dates is not entirely
clear. According to expectancy violations theory (EVT) (Burgoon, 1993;
Burgoon & Hale, 1988), expectancies are formed based on information about
the communicator, relationship, and context (Burgoon, 1993). Previous re-
search on first-date expectations and expectancy violations has considered
communicator information—specifically, sex of the participant and sex of the
date initiator—as well as contextual information—specifically, alcohol con
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sumption and date activities. However, research on first dates, including con
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struction of scripts for dates (e.g., Laner & Ventrone, 1998, 2000; Pryor &
Merluzzi, 1985; Rose & Frieze, 1989, 1993), scenario studies (e.g., Mongeau &
Carey, 1996), and retrospective self-reports (e.g., Mongeau, Hale, Johnson, &
Hillis, 1993; Mongeau & Johnson, 1995) have not included information about
the relationship between dating partners (i.e., relationship information)
when asking participants to construct expectations or in considering vari
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ation in participants’ reported expectations for dates.
By itself, relationship information may play an important role in influenc
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ing expectations, thereby affecting crucial behavioral choices made by part
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ners in a dating situation. For example, relationship information may influ
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ence sexual behavior on a first date. Research by Paul, McManus, and Hayes
(2000) on “hookups” (sexual encounters—perhaps including intercourse—
between strangers or acquaintances) is relevant to first-date sexual expecta
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tions. Although hookups differ from first dates, they share commonalities
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with first dates between relative strangers who may or may not engage in
sexual behavior. Paul et al. found that the vast majority of participants who
had experienced a hookup that included sexual intercourse used condoms. As
one of the possible explanations for this finding, Paul et al. argued that people
may be more careful when engaging in sexual intercourse with unknown
partners but less careful with those with whom they wish to form a rela
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tionship. In this way, the existing relationship between partners on a first
date—whether they are strangers or previously platonic friends—may have
profound implications for their expectations for sexual interaction and for
actions they may take to reduce the risk of pregnancy and sexually trans
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mitted diseases.
A second study on hookups, conducted by Paul and Hayes (2002), found
that a common theme in students’ hookup stories was the presumption that
women engaged in hookups to form a romantic relationship. Hookups were,
however, temporary. This finding implies that it would be unlikely for first-
date partners who are relative strangers to engage in sex as a means of initi
-
ating a romantic relationship. However, these relational and sexual expecta-
tions (and their later confirmation or violation) may be affected by factors
such as sex (or sex-role stereotypes) and nature of the partners’ prior rela-
tionship (i.e., strangers or friends). Furthermore, complications may result if,
for instance,two previously platonic friends go on a date and engage in sexual
intercourse. One partner may see the interaction as a hookup, with no expec-
tation of a romantic relationship—not an unlikely possibility, considering
that about half of the college students in a study by Afifi and Faulkner (2000)
reported having sex with a platonic friend. On the other hand, the other part
-
ner may see their sexual interaction as an important step in escalating their
romantic connection.
In short, information about the existing relationship between partners on
a first date is likely to affect the expectations that people form for the commu
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nicative and sexual interaction that will occur on the date. Moreover, infor
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mation about the relationship may interact with information about the com
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municator and the context in complex ways to change these expectations.
Understanding the development of such expectations may shed light on a
variety of important communicative phenomena, such as sex-role stereo
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typing, casual sexual behavior, and sexual coercion. Accordingly, this study
will manipulate factors of sex of the date initiator (i.e., communicator infor
-
mation), alcohol consumption (i.e., contextual information), and relationship
with the dating partner (i.e., relationship information) to consider their effect
on expectations for a hypothetical first date, using research on first-date
scripts and sexual scripts as a basis for developing hypotheses. We offer sep
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arate hypotheses for the effects of each factor on expectations for sexual
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intimacy and for communicative intimacy. This investigation does not test
the predictions of EVT, nor does it directly address expectancy violations.
Rather, this study is grounded in the arguments that EVT makes about the
ways that people develop expectations. Specifically, we apply those argu
-
ments to consider the development of first-date expectations as a necessary
precursor to consideration of actual expectancy confirmation or violation on
first dates.
Dating and Sexual Scripts
Considering the amount of social and cultural change since the 1960s and the
amount of conflicting relational advice available in the media, it sometimes
appears as if there could be no predominant script guiding romantic interac
-
tion (Surra, Batchelder, & Hughes, 1995). However, several studies provide
consistent evidence of coherent first-date scripts (Laner & Ventrone, 1998,
2000; Pryor & Merluzzi, 1985; Rose & Frieze, 1989, 1993; Sherwin & Corbett,
1985). Using different methods, these studies clearly indicate that both men
and women are aware of a predominant first-date script. First-date scripts
consistently depict men as taking an active role and women as taking a pas-
sive one. The man is expected to initiate the date, plan the date activities,
drive, pay for the date, and initiate sexual intimacy, whereas women are
expected to wait for the man to initiate and decide to “accept/reject date’s
moves” (Rose & Frieze, 1993, p. 504). Behaviors in the first-date script are
consistent with traditional sexual script in which men are expected to be the
sexual initiators and women the sexual gatekeepers (LaPlante, McCormick,
& Brannigan, 1980; Metts & Cupach, 1989; Metts & Spitzberg, 1996;
O’Sullivan & Byers, 1992).
Variations of the First-Date Script
It is clear from previous research (e.g.,Laner & Ventrone, 1998, 2000; Pryor &
Merluzzi, 1985; Rose & Frieze, 1989, 1993) that American college students
are aware of the dating behaviors included in the dominant first-date and
sexual scripts. In studies by Laner and Ventrone (1998, 2000), Rose and
Frieze (1989, 1993), Pryor and Merluzzi (1985), and Sherwin and Corbett
(1985), college students’ responses indicate relatively high levels of agree
-
ment on norms for dating and sexual behavior.
The extent to which students’ behaviors actually follow these traditional
scripts is another matter. As Rose and Frieze (1993) indicated, real-life situa
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tions sometimes vary from the script. Varying one element in the traditional
script may influence several behaviors in, and expectations regarding, the
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sequence of behaviors (Abelson, 1981; Simon & Gagnon, 1986). Therefore,
important changes within the script are likely to affect expectations for the
rest of the interaction. On first dates, factors such as the availability of alco
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hol, the type of relationship with the dating partner, and who initiates the
date represent variations on the basic first-date script. The presence or
absence of alcohol is likely to affect the nature of the first-date script and
one’s expectations for the date. Likewise, a first date with a friend will proba
-
bly lead one to develop different expectations than will a date with a stranger.
Finally, female initiation of a first date represents a clear departure from the
traditional script because asking for the date is a key component of the male
initiative prominent in the cultural first-date script. As a consequence, this
study will focus on the impact of three specific factors, the sex of the date initi
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ator, alcohol availability, and relationship with the dating partner, on expec
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tations for sexual and communication intimacy on first dates.
Sex of the date initiator. As dating implies some level of romantic or sexual
interest (Mongeau & Kendall, 1996), first dates are likely to be sexually
charged events. However, implications of the sexual nature of first dates are
likely to be evident in differences between men’s and women’s sexual expec-
tancies for specific situations. In general, men tend to have more permissive
attitudes toward casual sex than do women, particularly at early relational
stages (Oliver & Hyde, 1993). This sex difference may be particularly rele-
vant to one significant variation on the traditional script: female initiation of
dating.
Although female initiation of a first date represents a change to the script,
this change represents a common event. In one study involving college stu
-
dent participants, 83.5% of men reported that a woman had asked them out
on a first date, whereas 63.1% of women reported that they had asked a man
out on a first date (Mongeau et al., 1993). Previous research using dating
scenarios also indicates that female initiation of a first date influences expec
-
tations for sexual behavior. For instance, Mongeau and Carey (1996) found
that men expected more intimate contact than did women in all treatment
conditions, and men expected the man in the scenario to have greatly height
-
ened expectations when the woman initiated the date.Also, one of two studies
reported by Muehlenhard, Friedman, and Thomas (1985) indicated that men
found date rape to be less unjustifiable when the woman had initiated the
date than when the man had initiated. Our first hypothesis is consistent with
these findings.
Hypothesis 1: Men will report expectations of more intimate sexual
behavior than will women, particularly for female-initiated dates.
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Although many studies have investigated sexual expectations, few have
researched first-date communication expectations. The dimension of commu
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nication that will be investigated in this study is communicative intimacy. I n
defining the concept of intimacy, Prager (1995) argued that it is a super
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ordinate concept that may be divided into the basic concepts of intimate
interactions and intimate relationships. Intimate interactions are character
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ized by verbal and nonverbal sharing and by experiences of understanding
and validation. Intimate relationships are characterized by affection, trust,
and cohesiveness. This investigation will employ multiple measures of com
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municative intimacy to assess both the global intimacy of the relationship
between the dating partners and the particular communication behaviors
that contribute to intimate interactions.
In the only study to date that has investigated first-date communication
expectations, Mongeau et al. (1997) used a similar method of measuring both
intimacy of the relationship and of the interaction behaviors but reported
conflicting findings. Global ratings of intimacy of the relationship on male-
initiated dates were not significantly different for men and women, whereas
men expected a more intimate relationship than did women on female-
initiated dates. However, separate ratings of the dimensions of intimate
interaction behaviors communicated by date partners revealed that par-
ticipants expected the woman to express more immediacy/affection than the
man for all conditions. In contrast, men expected that the man would express
more receptivity/trust than the woman, but women expected the woman to
express more receptivity/trust than the man.
Global and specific ratings of intimacy produced inconsistent results
in the Mongeau et al. (1997) investigation. These inconsistencies may be
due to the differences in the two subordinate intimacy concepts (Prager,
1995). Specifically, male- and female-initiated first dates may not vary in
terms of relational intimacy, but the man or the woman may be expected to
communicate more intimacy in interaction than his or her partner. Because
there is not much existing research on which to base separate hypotheses,
measures of global relationship intimacy and of specific intimate interaction
behavior will be used to test the hypotheses relating to communication
intimacy.
Hypothesis 2: There will be no sex difference in expected communica
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tion intimacy for male-initiated dates, but men will expect more inti
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macy than women will on female-initiated dates.
Alcohol consumption. A second factor that may affect enactment of tradi
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tional scripts is the consumption of alcohol on the date. Drinking and dating
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appears to be a common combination. Drinking alcohol was mentioned in
both men’s and women’s actual first-date experiences but not in their hypo
-
thetical scripts (Rose & Frieze, 1993). In Mongeau and Johnson’s (1995)
study, 51% of participants indicated that either or both partner had con
-
sumed alcohol on their most recent first date and that half of those dates
involved binge drinking.
Alcohol consumption is related to sexual scripts in that it is a commonly
held belief in American society that alcohol reduces sexual inhibitions and
heightens sexual response (Leigh, 1990). In fact, the expectation of drinking
alcohol is related to greater sexual arousal, whereas actual consumption of
alcohol is not (George & Norris, 1991; Goldman & Roehrich, 1991). For exam
-
ple, Brown, Goldman, Inn, and Anderson (1980) found that, at least for heavy
drinkers, alcohol consumption was related to increased sexual expectations.
The impact of this belief on actual behavior is supported by research such as
that of Flanigan and Hitch (1986), who found that 43% of young women
reported that alcohol consumption was involved in their first experience with
sexual intercourse. Alcohol also played an important role in both hookups
(Paul & Hayes, 2002; Paul et al., 2000) and sex between friends (Afifi &
Faulkner, 2000). The influence of alcohol on dating and first-date sexual inti-
macy was documented by Mongeau and Johnson (1995), who found that alco-
hol consumption was the strongest predictor of both sexual expectations and
actual sexual intimacy on first dates.
Hypothesis 3: For both men and women, sexual expectations will be
higher for dates involving alcohol than for dates not involving
alcohol.
Beliefs about the effects of alcohol also extend to communication expecta
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tions. George et al. (1988) examined the anticipated effects of first-date alco
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hol consumption on communication-related factors. In their scenario study,
participants evaluated that the woman who drank alcohol on a first date was
perceived as less socially skillful and more aggressive than was the non
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drinking woman. Participants expected, however, that the drinking woman’s
partner would perceive her as more sexually disinhibited, more socially skill
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ful, and less impaired than did the study participants. This combination of
factors reflects an expectancy that the dating partner will selectively per
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ceive that the woman is more receptive to sexual advances (i.e.,more sexually
disinhibited) but not drunk (i.e., more socially skilled and less impaired)
(George, Gournic, & McAfee, 1988, p. 1311). Through this selective percep
-
tion, he could engage in sexual intimacy with her without feeling that he is
taking advantage of a woman whose judgment is impaired by alcohol.
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Although the drinking woman in the scenario studied by George et al.
(1988) may be perceived as communicating greater intimacy because of her
reduced inhibitions, women do not necessarily expect themselves to behave
in that way. When participants in alcohol expectancy studies anticipated a
need to impress judges of the opposite sex, the belief that they had consumed
alcohol reduced anxiety and increased self-disclosure for men but had the
opposite effect for women. When asked to explain their actions, women re
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ported that they were “worried that men might misinterpret their actions”
(George & Norris, 1991, p. 134). Furthermore, both male and female partici
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pants in George et al.’s (1988) study evaluated the drinking woman more neg
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atively than the nondrinking woman in terms of social appeal and overall
impression. In light of these findings, it seems likely that women will expect
themselves to communicate less intimacy while drinking to avoid negative
evaluation and prevent misinterpretation. The fourth hypothesis is con
-
sistent with the alcohol expectancy literature.
Hypothesis 4: Men will report higher communicative intimacy expecta-
tions for dates involving alcohol than for dates not involving alcohol.
Women will report higher communication intimacy expectations for
dates not involving alcohol than for dates involving alcohol.
Relationship with the dating partner. First dates sometimes occur be-
tween new acquaintances but may also occur between previously platonic
friends (Mongeau & Kendall, 1996). In the case of people who know each
other well, expectations of first-date sexual intimacy may be significantly
altered from the traditional cultural script. Although men tend to have
expectations of more intimate sexual behavior in early stages of relationships
than do women, these differences disappear as the relationship becomes
more developed (McCabe, 1987; McCabe & Collins, 1984; Oliver & Hyde,
1993).
One theoretical perspective that may be used to explain this phenomenon
is social learning theory, which argues that sex differences in attitudes and
behavior are acquired through social processes (Mischel, 1966). Oliver and
Hyde (1993) drew a connection between social learning and gender differ
-
ences in sexuality, explaining that “women are punished for sexual activities
such as having numerous partners or engaging in casual sex, whereas men
are not likely to be punished” (Oliver & Hyde, 1993, p. 31; see also Maccoby,
1998).
Thus, social learning theory supports the notion that women will have
lower sexual expectations than men in casual relationships (Abbey & Melby,
1986). However, for women, a close friendship implies a level of commitment
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and intimacy that may preclude a dating partner evaluating her negatively if
she engages in sexual behavior. Her expectations may more accurately reflect
the relational information available to her (i.e., her date likes and respects
her and is committed to a relatively intimate relationship with her) than the
contextual information that she is on a conventional first date. The following
hypotheses rest on the assumption that a prior friendship with the dating
partner may increase women’s sexual expectations for the date.
Hypothesis 5: Women will report expectations of more intimate sexual
behavior when the dating partner is a friend as compared to when
the dating partner is a new acquaintance.
Hypothesis 6: Men will report expectations of more intimate sexual
behavior than will women whether the partner is a new acquain
-
tance or a friend, but the sex difference will be smaller when the
partner is a friend.
In addition, communication expectations should differ based on the rela-
tionship between the dating partners. Consistent with Altman and Taylor’s
(1973) social penetration theory, acquaintances are at a different relational
stage than are close friends, and communication behaviors should reflect
those varying stages. For acquaintances, the first-date interaction will proba-
bly occur at a surface level as partners attempt to get to know one another.
Communicative intimacy, as a result, should be relatively low. In contrast,
close friends have likely already engaged in significantly more intimate
levels of self-disclosure. Because they are at a more advanced relational
stage, close friends will expect greater intimacy on first dates than will new
acquaintances.
Hypothesis 7: Expectations of communicative intimacy will be higher
when the partner is a friend, as compared to when the partner is an
acquaintance.
Method
Participants
Participants in this study comprised 218 undergraduate students at a
medium-sized, midwestern university (82 males, 37.6%; 136 females, 62.4%),
for whom participation partially fulfilled the research requirement for two
introductory communication classes. Most participants (more than 98%)
were between the ages of 18 and 22 (mean age = 19.87; SD = 1.56). Nearly 94%
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of the sample was Caucasian American, with 2.3% African American, 2.8%
Asian American, and 0.9% indicating other racial/ethnic backgrounds.
Procedures
Participants completed this study in groups of 12 to 25 people. After arriving
at a classroom that served as the laboratory, they initially read and signedan
informed consent form. Participants were then given an experimental packet
containing instructions, a scenario, communication expectancy measures,
the sexual expectancy measure, and other measures beyond the scope of this
study. On completion of the packet, participants were debriefed in writing.
Questions were solicited from participants (and answered if offered). Partici
-
pants were thanked for their participation and excused. Completion of the
questionnaire took between 20 and 35 minutes.
Design
The study used a 2 (sex of initiator: male or female) × 2 (alcohol availability:
alcohol or no alcohol) × 2 (relationship: friend or acquaintance) × 2 (sex of
participant: male or female) mixed groups factorial design. Both male and
female participants were nested within, and randomly assigned to, sex of
initiator, alcohol consumption, and relationship groups. Sex of initiator, al-
cohol consumption, and relationship variables were manipulated in scenar-
ios (see the appendix for examples of the manipulations). These eight scenar-
ios described two students (i.e., Dan and Jane) talking before a group project
meeting.
Sex of initiator. In the female-initiator condition, the scenario ended with
Jane asking Dan out on a date. In the male-initiator condition, the scenario
ended with Dan asking Jane out on a date.
Alcohol availability. In the availability condition, scenarios described the
date activity as going to a movie and then to a keg party. In the no availability
scenarios, the date activity was described as going to a movie and then to a
coffee shop (where alcohol was not available when the study was performed).
Alcohol consumption was not mentioned in either scenario to avoid demand
characteristics and to make the scenario seem more natural.
Relationship type. Finally, the scenarios varied the dating partners’ rela
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tionship with each other. In both cases, Dan and Jane are waiting to meet
their classmates to work on a group project for their public relations class. In
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the friend condition, the scenario described Dan and Jane as close friends
from high school who are attracted to each other but who have always, until
now, been romantically involved with other people. In the acquaintance con
-
dition, the scenario indicated that Dan and Jane were introduced by a mutual
friend prior to the winter break but have only talked briefly during the hectic
beginning of the new semester.
Instrumentation
Participants were asked to take the role of the same-sex individual in the sce
-
nario (i.e., males replied as if they were Dan and females replied as if they
were Jane).
Sexual expectations. Sexual expectations were assessed using Mongeau
and Johnson’s (1995) revision of McCabe and Collins’s (1984) Guttman scale
of sexual behaviors. McCabe and Collins’s scale lists 12 increasingly intimate
sexual behaviors, ranging from handholding to sexual intercourse. Mongeau
and Johnson added a 13th category, “none. Participants checked each behav-
ior that they thought would occur on the date. The most intimate behavior
indicated by participants was used as their sexual expectation for the date.
McCabe and Collins found an acceptable reliability level (α = .87) and coeffi-
cient of reproducibility (.94) for their scale. In this study, data were not coded
in such a way as to allow a replication of their reliability and reproducibility
tests.
Communication expectations. Parts of two different measurement instru
-
ments were used to tap participants’ expectancies of communication inti
-
macy on the date. Intimacy items from a global intimacy scale (Mongeau
et al., 1997) and Burgoon and Hale’s (1987) Relational Message Scales (RMS)
were both used to ascertain participants’ communication expectations, with
the global intimacy scale intended to tap the intimacy of the relationship and
the RMS intended to gauge the intimacy of the interaction. The RMS are ret
-
rospective self-report instruments, phrasing items in the past tense. Because
this study deals with expectancies of a future interaction, all items were
rephrased in the future tense (as performed by Mongeau et al., 1997). In addi
-
tion, the RMS are phrased so that the participant evaluates the conversation
partner’s behavior (e.g., “He/she did not want a deeper relationship between
us.”) (Burgoon & Hale, 1987, p. 36). For this investigation, RMS items were
also rephrased to express expectations of the participant’s own behavior (e.g.,
“I would act like I did not want a deeper relationship between us”).
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The global intimacy measure contained two items (e.g., “How intimate do
you think your date with [Dan/Jane] will be?”) with nine-interval response
scales ranging from 1 (not really intimate)to9(very intimate). The reliability
for this scale was acceptable (α = .80) (see Table 1 for reliabilities and mean
scores for all dependent variables).
In addition, five-interval, Likert-type scales measured the RMS’s three
distinct dimensions of intimacy (Burgoon & Hale, 1987). The questionnaire
used a stem (i.e., “If I were [Jane/Dan], on the date I would . . . ”), followed by
the items. Six items, which indicate interest, involvement, and warmth (e.g.,
“be intensely involved with our conversation”), measured the first dimension,
immediacy/affection. After deleting one item from this scale due to low inter-
item correlations, the scale exhibited acceptable reliability (α = .73).
The four items from the similarity/depth dimension did not exhibit ac-
ceptable reliability (α = .44) and were eliminated from the analysis. The
similarity/depth dimension was also discarded by Mongeau et al. (1997)
because of low reliability. It appears that rephrasing the similarity/depth
items to reflect expectations of one’s own future behavior, rather than recol
-
lections of another person’s behavior, changes the meaning of the items such
that they do not relate to one another as intended.
Finally, five items measured receptivity/trust, indicating openness and
honesty (e.g., “be interested in talking with [Dan/Jane]”). Reliability for the
receptivity/trust dimension was acceptable (α = .76).
Manipulation checks. The sex-of-initiator manipulation check was per
-
formed by asking participants how active a role Dan (men’s questionnaire) or
Jane (women’s questionnaire) took in making the date. Two seven-interval
semantic differential scales (e.g., “active-passive”) measured this variable
with acceptable reliability (α = .83).
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Table 1
Mean Scores and Reliabilities for Dependent Variables
Scale MSD α Items
Sexual expectations
a
2.66 2.11 1
Intimacy (global scale)
b
4.67 1.37 .80 2
Immediacy/affection
c
4.07 0.41 .73 5
Receptivity/trust
c
4.39 0.39 .76 5
a. Scale ranges from 0 (no sexual expectancies) to 12 (expecting sexual intercourse).
b. Scale ranges from 1 (low) to 9 (high).
c. Scale ranges from 1 (low) to 5 (high).
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Perceived alcohol consumption was measured by two items asking how
many beers, glasses of wine, or mixed drinks participants think Dan or Jane
would consume during the date. Reliability for this measure was high (α =
.95).
Finally, perceived relationship closeness was measured with four seven-
interval semantic differential scales (e.g., “were friends-were strangers”) and
exhibited strong reliability (α = .93).
Results
Manipulation Checks
Each manipulation check was tested with a 2 (sex of initiator: male or female)
× 2 (alcohol consumption: alcohol or no alcohol) × 2 (relationship: friend or
acquaintance) × 2 (sex of participant: male or female) mixed-factors ANOVA.
In addition, Table 2 shows correlations among the three manipulation check
scales and the dependent variables.
Sex of initiator. Participants were asked how active a role Dan (for male
participants) or Jane (for female participants) took in making the date as a
test of the sex of initiator manipulation. There was a significant main effect
for sex of initiator on activity ratings, F(1, 196) = 46.22, p < .001, η
2
= .08.
Both Dan and Jane were rated as more active in the female-initiator con-
dition (M = 5.03, SD = 1.66) than in the male-initiator condition (M = 4.06,
SD = 1.43). There was also a significant main effect for sex of participant,
F(1, 196) = 6.68, p < .02, η
2
= .01. Although this effect was small, Jane was
rated as taking a more active role than Dan (M = 4.69, SD = 1.69 versus M =
4.29, SD = 1.48).
These main effects, however, must be considered in light of a significant
two-way interaction effect. As expected, there was a significant and substan
-
tial Sex of Participant × Sex of Initiator two-way interaction effect on these
activity ratings, F(1, 196) = 285.25, p < .001, η
2
= .52. Dan was rated as much
more active than Jane in the male-initiator condition (M = 5.29, SD = .91 ver
-
sus M = 3.31, SD = 1.14), whereas Jane was rated as much more active than
Dan in the female-initiator condition (M = 6.09, SD = .71 versus M = 3.26,
SD = 1.22). Moreover, the woman is perceived as taking a more active role
when she initiates the date than the man is when he initiates. Both of the sig
-
nificant main effects were due, in large part, to the particularly high activity
ratings for Jane when she initiated the date.
Finally, there was a significant, though small, three-way interaction effect
for Sex of Participant × Sex of Initiator × Relationship Type, F(1, 196) = 6.47,
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16
Table 2
Correlation Matrix for Manipulation Checks and Dependent Variables
Role in Alcohol Relationship Immediacy/ Receptivity/
Initiation Consumption With Partner Affection Trust Global Intimacy
Role in initiation
Alcohol consumption .04 (212)
Relationship with partner .03 (216) .08 (214)
Immediacy/affection .18** (216) –.14* (214) .41** (218)
Receptivity/trust .10 (216) –.16* (214) .27** (218) .67** (218)
Global intimacy .04 (216) .15* (214) .52** (218) .31**(218) .15* (218)
Sexual expectations .10 (213) .35** (212) .13 (215) .01 (215) –.19** (215) .29** (215)
Note. Numbers in parentheses represent n for the corresponding correlation.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
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p < .05, η
2
= .01. The initiator was seen as taking a slightly more active role
when the date partners are acquaintances compared to when they are
friends. Moreover, the person being asked is evaluated as taking a more
active role when date partners are described as close friends compared to
when they are described as new acquaintances (see Table 3).
Perceived alcohol consumption. As expected, there was a significant and
substantial main effect for alcohol availability on expected alcohol consump-
tion, F(1, 197) = 236.52, p < .001, η
2
= .53. Expected alcohol consumption was
calculated by adding the responses to items asking how many drinks Jane
would have and how many drinks Dan would have. Participants expected
that Dan and Jane together would consume more alcoholic beverages in the
keg party condition (M = 10.06, SD = 4.11) than in the coffee shop condition
(M = 2.07, SD = 2.45).
Relationship type. As anticipated, there was a significant and substantial
main effect for the relationship manipulation in the scenario on how well par
-
ticipants thought Dan and Jane knew each other, F(1, 196) = 521.22, p < .001,
η
2
= .71. Dan and Jane were perceived to know each other better in the friend
condition (M = 6.02, SD = 0.78) than in the acquaintance condition (M = 3.27,
SD = 0.95).
There was also a significant Relationship Type × Sex of Initiator two-way
interaction effect, F(1, 196) = 3.90, p = .05, η
2
= .01. There was a smaller differ
-
ence in perceived partner familiarity in the female-initiator conditions(M =
5.90, SD = 0.78 in the friend condition versus M = 3.35, SD = 1.05 in the
acquaintance condition) than in the male-initiator conditions (M = 6.15, SD =
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Morr, Mongeau • First-Date Expectations
Table 3
Impact of Sex of Participant, Sex of Initiator, and Relationship Type on Activity
Ratings
Sex of Participant Relationship Type MSD n
Male initiator
Male Friend 5.23 0.80 20
Acquaintance 5.36 1.01 21
Female Friend 3.47 1.17 34
Acquaintance 3.15 1.10 34
Female initiator
Male Friend 3.68 1.32 20
Acquaintance 2.85 0.97 20
Female Friend 6.00 0.80 34
Acquaintance 6.18 0.61 33
Note. Means can range from 1 (low) to 7 (high).
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0.77 in the friend condition versus M = 3.19, SD = 0.85 in the acquaintance
condition). In other words, the relationship type manipulation had slightly
less impact in the female-initiator condition.
Sexual Expectations
Hypotheses 1, 3, 5, and 6 were tested with a 2 (sex of initiator: male or female)
× 2 (alcohol consumption: alcohol or no alcohol) × 2 (relationship: friend or
acquaintance) × 2 (sex of participant: male or female) ANOVA, with sexual
expectations as the dependent variable.
Sex of participant and sex of initiator. Hypothesis 1 predicted that men
would report expectations of more intimate sexual behavior than women,
especially for female-initiated dates.This hypothesis was partially supported
by the data. There was a significant main effect for sex of participant, F(1,
199) = 5.87, p < .02, η
2
= .03. Men’s sexual expectations (M = 3.11, SD = 2.89)
were higher than women’s sexual expectations (M = 2.38, SD = 1.63) across
all scenarios. The hypothesized interaction effect between sex of participant
and sex of initiator was not significant.
Alcohol availability. Hypothesis 3 predicted that sexual expectations
would be higher for dates on which alcohol was available than for dates on
which alcohol was not available. This hypothesis was supported by the data.
There was a significant main effect for alcohol availability, F(1, 199) = 12.91,
p < .001, η
2
= .06. As predicted, sexual expectations were higher in the keg
party condition (M = 3.19, SD = 2.59) than in the coffee shop condition (M =
2.14, SD = 1.62).
Relationship type. Hypothesis 5 predicted that women would report
higher sexual expectations when the partner is a friend than when the part
-
ner is a casual acquaintance. Hypothesis 6 predicted that men would report
higher sexual expectations than would women whether the partner is a new
acquaintance or a friend, but the sex difference would be smaller when the
partner is a friend. The data are inconsistent with both hypotheses, as nei
-
ther partner knowledge nor the interaction of partner knowledge and sex of
participant influenced sexual expectations.
Communication Expectations
Hypotheses 2, 4, and 7 were tested with 2 (sex of initiator: male or female) × 2
(alcohol consumption: alcohol or no alcohol) × 2 (relationship: friend or
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acquaintance) × 2 (sex of participant: male or female) ANOVAs, with commu
-
nicative expectations as the dependent variable.
Sex of initiator. Hypothesis 2 predicted that there would be no sex differ
-
ence in expected communication intimacy for male-initiated dates, but men
would expect more intimacy than women on female-initiated dates. This
hypothesis was not supported by the data.
Alcohol availability. Hypothesis 4 predicted that men would report higher
communication expectations for dates involving alcohol when compared to
dates not involving alcohol, whereas women would report higher communica
-
tion expectations for dates not involving alcohol when compared to dates
involving alcohol. This hypothesis was not supported by the data. The pre
-
dicted interaction between sex of participant and alcohol availability was not
significant.
There were, however, four significant effects on communication expecta
-
tions involving alcohol availability. First, there was a significant main effect
for alcohol availability on the receptivity/trust measure, F(1, 196) = 4.65, p <
.04, η
2
= .02. Receptivity/trust was found to be slightly greater for the keg
party date (M = 4.44, SD = 0.41) than for the coffee shop date (M = 4.34, SD =
0.38).
Second, there was a significant Sex of Initiator × Alcohol Availability two-
way interaction effect on the global intimacy measure, F(1, 199) = 7.30, p <
.01, η
2
= .03. In the male-initiator condition, expected intimacy is higher
when alcohol is available (M = 5.03, SD = 1.52) than when alcohol is not avail
-
able (M = 4.40, SD = 1.60). In the female-initiator condition, the means are in
the opposite direction; expected intimacy is higher in the coffee shop condi
-
tion (M = 4.79, SD = 1.54) than in the keg party condition (M = 4.50, SD =
1.53).
Third, there was a significant Sex of Participant × Alcohol Availability ×
Relationship three-way interaction effect on the global intimacy measure,
F(1, 199) = 7.15; p < .01, η
2
= .03. In the acquaintance condition, men expect
greater intimacy when alcohol is available than when alcohol is not available.
However, when the date is a friend, men expect less intimacy when alcohol is
available than when alcohol is not available. Women did not expect a differ
-
ence in intimacy related to alcohol availability in the acquaintance condition.
In the friend condition, however, women reported higher global intimacy
expectations when alcohol was available than when it was not available (see
Table 4).
Fourth, there was a significant four-way interaction effect (Sex of Partici
-
pant × Sex of Initiator × Alcohol Availability × Relationship) on the expecta
-
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tions of receptivity/trust, F(1, 196) = 11.36, p < .002, η
2
= .05. In general, par
-
ticipants expected greater receptivity/trust when the date partners were
friends than when they were acquaintances. There are two instances in
which this is not the case. Specifically, when the man initiates and there is
alcohol available and when the woman initiates and no alcohol is available,
men expect greater receptivity/trust between acquaintances than between
friends (see Table 5).
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Table 4
Impact of Alcohol Availability, Relationship Type, and Sex of Participant on Global
Intimacy Ratings
Relationship Type Date Activity MSD n
Men
Acquaintance Keg party 4.53 1.30 20
Coffee shop 3.86 1.44 21
Friend Keg party 5.10 1.33 21
Coffee shop 5.80 1.49 20
Women
Acquaintance Keg party 3.78 1.49 34
Coffee shop 3.79 1.28 34
Friend Keg party 5.70 1.22 33
Coffee shop 5.11 1.33 35
Note. Means can range from 1 (low) to 9 (high).
Table 5
Impact of Independent Variables on Ratings of Receptivity/Trust
Men Women
Date Activity Relationship Type MSD n MSD n
Male initiator
Keg party
Acquaintance 4.46 0.40 10 4.07 0.22 17
Friend 4.16 0.35 10 4.56 0.29 16
Coffee shop
Acquaintance 4.25 0.39 11 4.29 0.43 17
Friend 4.56 0.39 10 4.53 0.39 18
Female initiator
Keg party
Acquaintance 4.28 0.41 10 4.21 0.30 17
Friend 4.58 0.37 11 4.46 0.44 17
Coffee shop
Acquaintance 4.60 0.38 10 4.48 0.38 17
Friend 4.20 0.41 10 4.60 0.39 17
Note. Means can range from 1 (low) to 5 (high).
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Relationship type. Hypothesis 7 predicted that expectations of communi
-
cative intimacy would be higher in the friend condition than in the acquain
-
tance condition. This hypothesis was supported by the data for all three com
-
munication intimacy measures. On the global measure, there was a
significant main effect for relationship, F(1, 199) = 62.59, p < .001, η
2
= .22.
Greater intimacy was expected in the friend condition (M = 5.41, SD = 1.35)
than in the acquaintance condition (M = 3.94, SD = 1.39).
Second, on the immediacy/affection measure, the main effect for rela
-
tionship was also significant, F(1, 196) = 44.22, p < .001, η
2
= .17. Immediacy/
affection was expected to be higher in the friend condition (M = 4.26, SD =
0.39) than in the acquaintance condition (M = 3.89, SD = 0.43).
Third, on the receptivity/trust measure, there was also a significant main
effect for relationship, F(1, 196) = 11.40, p < .002, η
2
= .05. Again, the means
were in the expected direction, with greater receptivity/trust expected in the
friend condition (M = 4.48, SD = .40) than in the acquaintance condition (M =
4.31, SD = .38).
In addition to these anticipated effects, there were also significant Re-
lationship Type × Sex of Participant two-way interaction effects on both
immediacy/affection, F(1, 196) = 3.91, p < .05, η
2
= .01, and receptivity/trust,
F(1, 196) = 7.48, p < .01, η
2
= .03. For the immediacy/affection measure,
women (M = 3.82; SD = 0.43) expected less intimacy than men (M = 4.02, SD =
0.40) in the acquaintance condition. In the friend condition, this difference
between men (M = 4.24, SD = 0.42) and women (M = 4.27, SD = 0.38) was not
apparent.
For the receptivity/trust measure, men’s intimacy expectations for the
friend condition (M = 4.38, SD = 0.42) did not differ from their expectations in
the acquaintance condition (M = 4.40, SD = 0.41). Women expected less inti
-
macy than men in the acquaintance condition (M = 4.26, SD = 0.36) but
expected more intimacy than men in the friend condition (M = 4.54, SD =
0.38). For both of these effects, relationship type had a greater impact on
expectations for women than for men.
Discussion
The goal of this study was to determine the effects of variations on the domi
-
nant first-date script on communicative and sexual expectations for a hypo
-
thetical first date. The main assertion of the study is that sex of initiator,
alcohol consumption, and relationship with the dating partner will influ
-
ence communication and sexual expectations for a first date. These aspectsof
the traditional cultural script for a first date provide the types of
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information on which communicators base their expectancies for social
interaction (Burgoon, 1993).
In general, expectancies for communication intimacy were high, although
sexual expectations for the date were fairly low (see Table 1). Ratings on
Burgoon and Hale’s (1987) RMS were quite high. The average ratings on
these scales (which range from 1 to 5) were 4.08 for immediacy/affection and
4.39 for receptivity/trust. Ratings on the global intimacy scale were more
moderate, with an average of 4.67 on a scale from 0 to 9. Sexual expectations
averaged 2.66 on a 0 to 12 scale, between the scale points for light kissing and
necking.
Sexual Expectations
Sex of participant and sex of initiator. As anticipated, men’s sexual expec
-
tations for a first date were higher than women’s sexual expectations,
but, contrary to predictions, the difference was not heightened for a female-
initiated date. This finding is consistent with other research reporting that
men have higher sexual expectations at the early stages of romantic relation-
ships (McCabe & Collins, 1984; Mongeau & Carey, 1996;Mongeau & Johnson,
1995; Oliver & Hyde, 1993).
The sex difference in sexual expectations, however, was not very large;
male participants’ average expectation was at the necking level (a 3 on the
scale), whereas female participants’ average expectation was at the light
kissing level (a 2 on the scale). The size of the sex difference in expectancy lev-
els was consistent with the findings of Mongeau and Johnson (1995) but was
somewhat smaller than that reported by Mongeau and Carey (1996). In
Mongeau and Carey’s study, male participants predicted that the man in the
scenario would expect sexual intimacy at the heavy breast petting level,
whereas female participants predicted that the woman in the scenario would
expect light kissing. The results of the present study and of Mongeau and
Johnson (1995) probably describe men’s own expectations for first dates more
accurately, whereas Mongeau and Carey’s participants, who described expec
-
tations of a hypothetical person, reported a stereotypical prediction based on
sexual scripts.
The second part of Hypothesis 1, that men’s sexual expectations would be
heightened for female-initiated dates, was not supported. Again, this is in
-
consistent with the findings of Mongeau and Carey (1996) and Mongeau et al.
(1997; another scenario study) but consistent with the findings of Mongeau
and Johnson (1995), perhaps for the same reasons described above.
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Alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption was not manipulated directly
in the scenarios to avoid a demand effect. The perceived alcohol consumption
manipulation check showed that the increased availability of alcohol in the
keg party scenario resulted in an expectation of considerably more alcohol
consumption than the coffee shop scenario. The difference, however, was be
-
tween more and less drinking, not between drinking and no drinking. Even in
the coffee shop scenario (at the time of the data collection, local coffee shops
did not serve alcohol), approximately one third of participants (39 of 110)
assumed that some drinking would take place. In the keg party scenario, on
the other hand, all participants reported that either they, their date, or both
would consume alcohol.
Many participants assumed that the keg party scenario involved binge
drinking. Binge drinking may be defined as five drinks in one sitting for men
and four drinks in one sitting for women (Weschler, Davenport, Dowdall,
Moeykens, & Castillo, 1994). In the keg party condition, participants as
-
sumed that Dan and Jane would consume an average of 10.06 drinks, with
Dan having an average of 6.30 drinks and Jane having an average of 3.75
drinks. Because behavior that is considered alcohol abuse by the wider soci-
ety is perceived as less dangerous, and perhaps even socially desirable, ina
college setting (Weschler et al., 1994), students likely do not perceive that this
level of alcohol consumption has the potential for dangerous results. None-
theless, as the frequency of binge drinking by college students has been
linked to such problematic outcomes as injuries, drunk driving, and un-
planned sexual activity, this finding is important (Weschler et al., 1994).
As anticipated, the availability of alcohol in the scenario was related to
sexual expectations. Participants expected greater sexual intimacy on a keg
party date when compared to a coffee shop date. In addition to the findings
from the hypothesis tests, there was a moderate, positive correlation between
participants’ expectations regarding the number of drinks they expect to be
consumed on the date (i.e., the alcohol consumption manipulation check) and
their sexual expectations for the date (see Table 2). These findings are consis
-
tent with the alcohol expectancy perspective. Expectations about alcohol’s
reduction of inhibitions and enhancement of sexual response have greater
impact than the actual physiological effects of alcohol (Goldman & Roehrich,
1991). There is danger, however, in this expectancy effect. George and
Norris (1991) state that “men have learned to view men and women drinking
together as a potential sexual situation in which men have an exploitable
advantage” (p. 134). When coupled with the knowledge that alcohol expectan
-
cies can also be used to excuse deviant sexual behavior, especially by those
with high levels of guilt about sexuality, the potential for exploitation
increases (George & Norris, 1991).
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Relationship type. In this study, women were predicted to report expecta
-
tions of more intimate sexual behavior for a date with a friend when com
-
pared to a date with a new acquaintance. Also, although men were antici
-
pated to expect greater sexual intimacy than women across conditions, this
difference was expected to be smaller in the friend condition. Quite surpris
-
ingly, the relationship between the dating partners was unrelated to sexual
expectations for first dates.
One possible explanation for the lack of significant effects is that greater
risk is involved in dating a friend. If the relational transition from a platonic
to a romantic relationship should fail, the friendship may be lost as well. In
comparison, less is at stake on a first date with an acquaintance because
there is no prior relationship to spoil. In addition, typical date activities such
as those specified in this study (going to the movies, to a coffee shop, or to a
party) are also activities often shared by platonic friends, so few markers
exist to differentiate the date from spending time with a friend. The higher
stakes involved, combined with uncertainty about the state of the relation
-
ship, probably inhibit sexual intimacy on a first date between friends. The
point at which romantic commitment reaches an adequate level for women to
escalate intimacy may come sooner when the partner is a close friend. How-
ever, that point may not necessarily coincide with the first date. This is
consistent with Mongeau et al. (1998), who argue that the assumption that
first dates mark a relationship’s transition from platonic to romantic maybe
untenable.
Close friends likely have replaced the cultural script with their own idio-
syncratic interpersonal script specific to their relationship. With this script in
place, partners may chart a relational trajectory that has little to do with the
traditional cultural script, so that the point at which, and how, the relation
-
ship makes the transition from close friendship to romantic entanglement
may vary widely depending on individual and relational characteristics.
Communication Expectations
Sex of participant and sex of initiator. Contrary to hypotheses, these data did
not indicate a difference in communication expectations related to sex of par
-
ticipant and sex of initiator. Although prior research (Mongeau et al., 1997)
indicated that men would expect more intimacy than women on female-initi
-
ated dates, that pattern was not evident in this study. Mongeau et al. (1997)
found this effect to be significant for the global intimacy ratings. In their
study, however, there were four different initiation types. The exclusion of the
“female hints” and “male hints” initiation types (which imply that the dating
partners have a mutual interest because both participated in the date
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initiation) may be the cause of the nonsignificant effect found in this study. In
many of the significant effects involving initiation type in the Mongeau et al.
(1997) study, one or both of the “hinting” initiations differed from the other
initiation types. In fact, in evaluating expectations of communication equal
-
ity, the significant effect that Mongeau et al. (1997) found appeared to be due
to a difference between the hinting initiations and the initiations that did not
involve hints (i.e., the equivalent of the female initiation and male initiation
types used in the present study). This may also be the reason that significant
effects on the RMS found by Mongeau et al. (1997) were not apparent in this
study.
Alcohol consumption. The impact of alcohol on expectations of communi
-
cation intimacy is mixed and somewhat confusing. Participants expected
that partners would exhibit more receptivity/trust on a date where alcohol
was available than on a date where alcohol was not available. This result is
consistent with the alcohol expectancy explanation that men experience
reduced anxiety and increased disclosure when they believe they have con-
sumed alcohol (George & Norris, 1991). Finding this relationship for women
is puzzling, because women have been found to self-disclose less when they
believe they have consumed alcohol to avoid negative evaluation by men
(George & Norris, 1991). However, in the studies described by George and
Norris (1991), participants were told they would have to impress judges of the
opposite sex whose task it was to evaluate participants’ attractiveness.
Women’s fear of negative evaluation may have been alleviated by the knowl-
edge that going on a date with someone implies some level of attraction
(Mongeau & Kendall, 1996). Moreover, college students’ goals for first dates
differ from the goal of impressing a judge (Mongeau, Morr, & Ficara, 2003),
and, as many researchers argue, self-disclosure is not synonymous with the
communication of intimacy (e.g., Petronio, 2002). The differences in goals for
the interaction and in outcome behaviors likely result in inconsistency of this
study’s results with George and Norris’ findings.
Second, the data for a significant three-way interaction effect (Sex of
Participant × Alcohol Availability × Relationship Type) on global intimacy
ratings indicate that for a date with a new acquaintance, men expect greater
intimacy when alcohol is available than when alcohol is not available. How
-
ever, when the date is a friend, men expect less intimacy when alcohol is
available than when alcohol is not available. The way that the global inti
-
macy items are phrased may also imply a sexual element in the goals for the
date.If participants are interpreting the word “intimacy”to mean sexual inti
-
macy (as suggested by Mongeau et al., 1997, and corroborated by the positive
correlation between global intimacy and sexual expectations [see Table 2]in
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this study), the relationship of alcohol and intimacy in the acquaintance con
-
dition may be explained by alcohol expectancy research. That is, the expecta
-
tion of drinking alcohol is related to greater sexual arousal (George & Norris,
1991; Goldman & Roehrich, 1991) and the perception that a woman will be
more sexually available (George et al., 1988).
The alcohol-intimacy relationship in the friend condition requires addi
-
tional explanation. The reason that men’s global intimacy expectations in the
friend condition are lower with alcohol is probably an effect of the date activ
-
ity. For two friends on a first date, a coffee shop setting may be more conducive
to communicating closeness than a (presumably) noisy and crowded keg
party. In addition, these date activities may imply different goals (Mongeau
et al., 2003), which in turn have different implications for communication
intimacy. A coffee shop date may imply a goal of getting to know the partner
and/or relational escalation, which may suggest greater communication inti
-
macy than a keg party date (which may imply a goal of having fun and/or
increasing the probability of sexual interaction). Considering the likely sex
-
ual implications of the global intimacy scale, men might be reluctant to
engage in sexual intimacy with a close friend who has been drinking. Men
may be more sensitive to the possibility for exploitation and for the repercus-
sions that exploitation might have on the relationship when the date is a
friend than when she is a new acquaintance.
The data for the interaction effect on global intimacy ratings indicate a dif-
ferent relationship between alcohol and intimacy for women than for men.
Contrary to predictions, women did not expect a difference in intimacy re-
lated to alcohol availability in the acquaintance condition. Perhaps women
simply do not expect a very intimate date/relationship with a new acquain
-
tance on a first date, regardless of alcohol availability.
In the friend condition, however, women reported higher global intimacy
expectations when alcohol was available than when it was not available.
Women may feel that they can let down their guard more around a man who
is a friend. If a sexual interpretation of the global intimacy items is a factor in
this instance, it may be that women would like to engage in higher levels of
sexual intimacy on a first date with a friend than with a new acquaintance. In
this case, perhaps, the woman might be using alcohol to give her friendship a
romantic nudge.In this case, the excuse of alcohol consumption may facilitate
increased sexual intimacy for women.
Third, there was a significant effect on global intimacy ratings due to Alco
-
hol Availability × Sex of Initiator. On male-initiated dates, intimacy is ex
-
pected to be greater with alcohol. On female-initiated dates, intimacy is
expected to be greater without alcohol. In one study investigating female ini
-
tiation of sexual intimacy, O’Sullivan and Byers (1993) suggested that people
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are less comfortable with sex-role-reversed behavior in sexual situations
than they are with behavior consistent with sex roles. Because female initia
-
tion of a date runs counter to the sex roles prescribed by the traditional date
script, partners on a female-initiated date might be less comfortable with
each other. Their discomfort may result in less communication of intimacy on
the date, especially for dates when alcohol is available, because the potential
negative evaluation of the woman due to alcohol consumption may be com
-
pounded by her sex-role-reversed behavior in initiating the date.
Finally, there was a significant four-way interaction effect on ratings of
receptivity/trust. This effect likely is due to the low ratings of receptivity/
trust expectations in two cells: men in the male initiator, friend, keg party
condition, and men in the female initiator, acquaintance, coffee shop condi
-
tion. The cause of this finding is difficult to determine. For now, it remains a
puzzle.
Relationship type. For all measurement scales, participants indicated that
they expected greater communication intimacy with a friend than with an
acquaintance. The effects on immediacy/affection (η
2
= .17) and global inti-
macy (η
2
= .22) were the strongest effects in the study aside from manipula-
tion checks. No other effect explained more than 6% of the variance in a
dependent variable. This finding is consistent with a number of theoretical
positions including Altman and Taylor’s (1973) social penetration theory.
Relational development is marked in several ways but importantly by
increasing breadth and depth (i.e., intimacy) of self-disclosures. Uncertainty
reduction theory (Berger & Calabrese, 1975) and Sunnafrank (1986) both
argued that as partners get to know each other better, the intimacy level of
communication contact will increase (although in the latter theory, this effect
should only occur if the partner is evaluated in positive terms). Together,
these theories, as well as models of relational development (e.g., Knapp &
Vangelisti, 2000), would all predict that close friends likely will communicate
at a more intimate level (and will have done so before the date) than will
acquaintances.
In addition to the expected main effects, there were also significant two-
way interaction effects for Sex of Participant × Relationship Type on ratings
of immediacy/affection and receptivity/trust. On both measures, women
expected less intimacy than men in the acquaintance condition. In the friend
condition, women expected greater receptivity/trust than men, but there was
no sex difference in immediacy/affection. Although the effect sizes were
small, relationship type apparently is more significant for women than for
men. In fact, the receptivity/trust finding must be considered in light of the
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significant four-way interaction effect on ratings of this variable discussed
earlier.
Conclusion
This study differed from previous investigations of first-date expectations in
that the manipulated variables included all three categories of information
that EVT argues are relevant to the development of expectancies: communi
-
cator, relationship, and contextual information. Relationship information,
which had not been included as a variable in previous studies, was the inde
-
pendent variable that resulted in the largest effect sizes in this investigation.
These results indicate that the prior relationship between dating partners is
of relevance to the initiation of a dating relationship and that just knowing
that two individuals are going on a first date does not provide complete infor
-
mation about the nature of their relationship. Moreover, these results pro
-
vide corroboration of previous research indicating that sex differences and
expected alcohol consumption affect dating expectations. However, this
study’s findings that the sex of the date initiator does not influence expecta-
tions contradicts previous investigations of the hypothetical expectations of
a generalized other—perhaps indicating that, although sex-role stereotypes
persist, people’s expectations of their own behavior may run counter to the
stereotype. Furthermore, in this investigation, sex, alcohol, and relationship
interacted in subtle and complex ways to influence expectations, demonstrat-
ing that individuals attend to many factors simultaneously in forming their
expectations.
Findings relative to sexual expectations in this study also have practi
-
cal implications for understanding sexual coercion in dating relationships.
Spitzberg’s (1998) delineation of the interactional approach establishes that
“the stage of the dating relationship may influence the occurrence of sexual
coercion” (p. 207). This perspective connects the greater prevalence of sexual
coercion early in dating relationships with findings that men expect greater
sexual involvement than women (Spitzberg, 1998). This study provides fur
-
ther support for the sex difference in sexual expectations. Furthermore, the
unique contribution of this study is to demonstrate that these differences are
robust across different types of relationships between the dating partners.
Individuals may expect less discrepancy in expectations when they begin a
romantic relationship with a close friend; however, our findings indicate that
the sex difference persists, perhaps increasing the chances for misunder
-
standing, which has been argued to be a possible cause of sexual coercion in
dating relationships (Spitzberg, 1998).
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Limitations
The present study has three main limitations. First, the manipulation of the
alcohol consumption variable is somewhat problematic. Alcohol consumption
was not manipulated explicitly in the scenarios to avoid demand characteris
-
tics and to make the scenario as natural as possible. (“Would you like to con
-
sume mass quantities of alcohol with me?” does not seem like a natural date
initiation.) In addition, alcohol availability may have been confounded with
other factors. The two date activities included in the scenarios (i.e., going to a
coffee shop and going to a keg party) likely differ in more than just the
differential availability of alcohol.
A second concern with variable manipulation is in the manipulation of
relationship type. The friend scenarios described Dan and Jane as close
friends who are attracted to each other but have never acted on their feelings
because one or the other has always been involved with someone else. The
acquaintance scenario does not include any information about liking or
attraction between Dan and Jane. As a result, relationship type may be con-
founded with liking and romantic attraction in this study. However, the lack
of a main effect for relationship type on sexual expectations indicates that the
sexual attraction implication may not have been highly problematic.
Finally, the generalizability of these results is limited by characteristics of
the sample and the method. The vast majority of the participants were White
undergraduate college students between the ages of 18 and 22. The lack of
racial, ethnic, and age diversity are important concerns, as these factors are
likely to influence norms and expectations for relational events like first
dates. In addition, this particular campus population is unusual in its pre
-
dominance of relatively conservative and affluent students. These character
-
istics are also likely to impact expectations for dates. Furthermore, the hypo
-
thetical scenario method was chosen for the control that it allows over the
independent variables. However, generalizability of results gained through
this method is questionable.
Directions for Future Research
Future research in this area should focus on addressing the limitations of
this investigation and on furthering our knowledge of dating expectations
and their consequences for relational communication. Using populations
other than college students is important. Because cultural influences change
over time, it is likely that there are generational differences in dating norms
and expectations. An older population of adults who may be dating again fol
-
lowing divorce or death of a spouse would probably have different
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expectations for dates than a 19-year-old college sophomore. In particular,
the influence of alcohol may be different for a nonstudent population because
of the party culture on many college campuses. As mentioned previously, fur
-
ther research should include populations that are more diverse with regard
to racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic characteristics. Furthermore, this study
was limited to expectations for cross-sex first dates. Expectations for the ini
-
tiation of same-sex romantic relationships require further investigation.
Expanding the population included in this research is important for expand
-
ing the generalizability of our knowledge of the expectations people bringto
dates—and the confirmation or violation of those expectations may have
important effects on their later relationships and sexual behavior.
Second, the application of expectancy violations principles to the first-date
context should be expanded. This study manipulated the information sources
that EVT argues should contribute to expectations for interaction: communi
-
cator, contextual, and relationship information (Burgoon, 1993). Obvious and
inherent difficulties (both pragmatic and ethical) exist in conducting obser
-
vational research in this context. However, collecting information about
expectations prior to actual dates would increase ecological validity of re-
sults. Furthermore, collecting information about the consequences of per-
ceived violations or confirmations of expectations following dates would
allow testing of predictions based on EVT.
Finally, the nature of first dates themselves should be further investi-
gated. The lack of support for our hypotheses implies that the first date may
not function as the turning point marking a relationship’s transition from
platonic to romantic. Additional research should be undertaken to determine
when and how this transition takes place to increase our understanding of
the ways that people achieve successful relational development.
Appendix
Examples of Experimental Scenarios Manipulating
Sex of Date Initiator, Alcohol Availability, and Relationship Type
Example 1: Scenario with male initiator,
no alcohol availability, and acquaintance condition
Dan and Jane are sitting together at the Food Court in Shriver Center waiting for
the rest of their communication group to show up for a meeting. They are working to
-
gether with four other people on a group project for their public relations class. Because
the semester has just begun, this is their group’s first meeting.
Dan and Jane first met just before winter break when a mutual friend introduced
them. They didn’t see each [sic] over the break and because of the hectic nature of the
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new semester, they have only talked briefly since classes began. On this particular day,
they have both arrived early for the group meeting. As they wait for the other group
members, they talk about current events on and off campus and end up talking about
movies. After discussing a particular new movie, Dan says, “That movie is uptown at
the Princess. If you’re not busy this weekend, would you like to go see it with me and
then go to the coffee shop afterward?”
Example 2: Scenario with female initiator,
alcohol availability, and friend condition
Dan and Jane are sitting together at the Food Court in Shriver Center waiting for
the rest of their communication group to show up for a meeting. They are working to
-
gether with four other people on a group project for their public relations class. Because
the semester has just begun, this is their group’s first meeting.
Dan and Jane know each other very well and have remained close friends since they
first met during their freshman year in high school. They are attracted to each other
but have never had the opportunity to act on those feelings because one or the other has
always been involved with someone else. For the first time since they met, neither Dan
nor Jane is involved with another person. On this particular day,they have both arrived
early for the group meeting. As they wait for the other group members, they talk about
current events on and off campus and end up talking about movies. After discussing a
particular new movie, Jane says, “That movie is uptown at the Princess. If you’re not
busy this weekend, would you like to go see it with me and then go to a keg party at my
friends’ house afterward?”
Note
This article is based on Mary Claire Morr’s master’s thesis, directed by Paul
Mongeau at Miami University. Previous versions of this article were presented at the
1999 National Communication Association Convention in Chicago and the 2000
National Communication Association Doctoral Honors Seminar in Evanston, Illinois.
The authors would like to thank Sandra Metts and thesis committee members Larry
Nadler and Debra Hughes for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this article.
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Mary Claire Morr (Ph.D., Arizona State University, 2002) is an assistant
professor in the Department of Human Communication Studies at the Uni
-
versity of Denver. Her research interests include privacy in family relation
-
ships, in-law relationships, and transitions in romantic relationships.
Paul A. Mongeau (Ph.D., Michigan State University, 1988) is a professor at
the Hugh Downs School of Human Communication at Arizona State Univer
-
sity. His research interests center on the earliest stages of romantic
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relationships including how relationships make the transitions from being
platonic (or nonexistent) to being romantic. He is also interested in the cogni
-
tive processing of persuasive messages.
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Scholars have highlighted that incidents of dating violence are quite frequent among college students, and subsequent consequence can be devastating. A key factor that has been singled out in most studies on dating violence concerns an individual's attitudes toward dating violence. It is assumed that there is a link between one's attitudes and associated behaviors. The purpose of this study is to investigate correlates of attitudes toward dating violence among police cadets in a 4-year university in China. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first time that police cadets were the subjects of research on this important topic. Besides several commonly adopted variables in the analysis in the United States, we incorporated three variables that were unique to this study (the assistance-oriented police strategy, internship experience, and knowing anti-domestic violence law). The findings revealed that preference of gender-role, perceptions of the nature of dating, and police strategies have significant effect on cadets' sentiment of dating violence. We also discussed the limitations of this study and highlight several areas that future research needs to focus on.
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Guided by descriptions of the traditional sexual script, researchers have examined men's, but not women's, attempts to influence a reluctant dating partner to engage in sex. In the current study, we examined both men's and women's experiences of women's attempts to influence a reluctant male dating partner to engage in sexual activity. Ninety male and 111 female participants completed a series of questionnaires assessing sexual/dating histories and attitudes toward sexuality. Participants also completed the Sexual Situation Questionnaire designed to assess the situational and behavioral characteristics of disagreements in which a woman attempted to influence a reluctant man to engage in sex. Fifty‐six percent of the participants reported having experienced such a disagreement interaction in the year prior to the study. In accordance with attribution theory, men were expected to be more likely than were women to make personal attributions for their reluctance, whereas women were expected to be more likely than were men to make situational attributions for men's refusals. Our findings supported these predictions. Most participants indicated that the woman complied with the man's indication of reluctance and used no influence behaviors. Somewhat fewer indicated that the woman complied but also used some form of influence, whereas a distinct minority indicated that the woman did not comply with the man's refusal. No influence strategy was rated consistently as having had a positive, negative, or neutral impact on the man, which indicates that influence behaviors can have varying impacts depending on the context in which the influence occurs. In general, few negative emotional or relational consequences were found to be associated with these disagreements. As most disagreements did not result in engaging in the disputed level of sexual activity, women appear to have had little success in their attempts to orchestrate sexual encounters (traditionally men's role in sexual dating interactions).
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Four experiments examined the role of expertise in processing scripted information. Studies 1,2, and 3 showed high consensual agreement in the contents, meaning, and constituent organization of subjects' scripted knowledge about “getting a data” and going on a ”first date”. No differences in the general understanding of these scripts were detected as a function of dating expertise or subject sex. Study 4 showed that while dating experts and novices agreed upon the general order of these two scripts, experts were able to arrange randomly ordered scripts appropriately in a much shorter time. It is argued that experts have a more cohesive representation of these scripted activities than novices. The findings are discussed with regard to their relevance for a cognitive theory of social skills.
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