... Some threads of research discuss the validity or usefulness of graffiti as an object of research (Lynn & Lea, 2005;Schreer & Strichartz, 1997;Klofas & Cutshall, 1985;Sechrest & Belew, 1983;Buser & Ferreira, 1980;Bates & Martin, 1980;Deiulio, 1973;Rhyne & Ullmann, 1972;Collins & Batzie, 1970), how to deter graffitists (Craw, Leland, Bussell, et al., 2006;Mueller, Moore, Doggett, & Tingstrom, 2000;Watson, 1996;Brewer, 1992;Brewer & Miller, 1990;Collins & Batzie, 1970), racial conflict in graffiti (Gyasi Obeng, 2000;Jones, 1991), gender or cultural characteristics in graffiti (Green, 2003;Norlander, Erixon, & Archer, 2000;Goikoetxea, 1998;Teixeira & Otta, 1998;Schreer & Strichartz, 1997;Otta, Santana, Lafraia, et al., 1996;Otta,1993;McMenemy & Cornish, 1993;Arluke, Kutakoff, & Levin, 1987;Olowu, 1983;Loewenstine, Ponticos, & Paludi, 1982;Ahmed, 1981;Bates & Martin, 1980;Peretti, Carter, & McLinton, 1977;Wales & Brewer, 1976;Jefferson, 1976;Farr & Gordon, 1975;Sechrest & Olson, 1971;Sechrest & Flores, 1969;Landy & Steele, 1967), and graffiti's relation to sexual issues (Livia, 2002;Weinberg, 1994Weinberg, , 2006Innala & Ernulf, 1992;Arluke, Kutakoff, & Levin, 1987). From a counter-cultural perspective, one study described official regulatory signs, such as speed or directional markers, as "official graffiti" from the perspective of the sociology of governance (Hermer & Hunt, 1996). ...