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Discurso expositivo e interacción en el aula. El uso de las evaluaciones como forma de mediación en la consecución de comprensiones conjuntas
Abstract
El objetivo principal de este trabajo es describir cómo evalúan a sus alumnos un grupo de profesores de secundaria de diferentes niveles de competencia. Concretamente, analizamos las preguntas que formularon a sus alumnos dos profesores expertos y dos profesores principiantes de secundaria. El comportamiento de cada uno de estos profesores se estudió entendiendo que las evaluaciones pueden ser consideradas como una forma de mediación que ha de facilitar la creación de comprensiones conjuntas entre el profesor y sus alumnos.
... En contraste, el discurso de los profesores principiantes está poco contextualizado (estos profesores no se ocupan prácticamente de evocar conocimientos, indagar o dar sentido a su discurso), presenta pocos apoyos y una mayor densidad semántica que dificulta la comprensión de los alumnos (el 70% de su discurso lo forman ideas nuevas, mientras en los profesores expertos el 45% de su discurso son ideas nuevas). Además, los resultados indican "de forma contrastada y sorprendente" que mientras los profesores expertos utilizan la evaluación para valorar la comprensión de las ideas principales, ningún profesor principiante realiza evaluación alguna (Rosales et al. 1997). ...
... Para investigar la comprensión de los alumnos en el aula Rosales et al. (1997) estudian en las clases de 4 profesores de Educación Secundaria (2 expertos y 2 principiantes) las preguntas de los alumnos para determinar la sintonía que se establece entre las explicaciones y su comprensión. Organizan las preguntas de los alumnos en tres grupos: 1) preguntas macroestructurales: preguntas sobre ideas de primer nivel de importancia; 2) preguntas microestructurales: preguntas dirigidas a niveles de importancia inferior; 3) preguntas de confirmación: preguntas que no interrogan sobre un tema concreto, por ejemplo, piden que se repita la información. ...
... Si añadimos a estos resultados que ningún profesor principiante realiza evaluaciones de mediación para sintonizar con la comprensión de los alumnos (no formulan preguntas a los alumnos en relación con lo dado, lo nuevo, ni la evaluación), y que los profesores expertos realizan estás evaluaciones al final de la presentación de las ideas fundamentales (ninguna evaluación de los profesores expertos se situó en otra posición) podemos cerrar el círculo para señalar que los discursos más comprensibles son también más interactivos y, no porque los alumnos en ellos participen más (es cuestión de calidad no de cantidad), sino porque se desarrollan como conversaciones encubiertas de las que emergen intercambios que son verdaderas expresiones de conocimiento compartido (Rosales et al., 1997). ...
En: Aula Abierta Oviedo 2004, n. 83, Junio; p. 107-126 El discurso expositivo es una forma de utilizar el lenguaje en el aula que en los últimos años ha sido objeto de estudio de distintas disciplinas por la importancia que se le otorga en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje. Este artículo ofrece una revisión del discurso expositivo en el aula desde dos enfoques diferentes. En la primera parte, desde la etnografía de la comunicación, se describen las características principales del discurso expositivo considerándolo como un acto de comunicación entre profesores y alumnos. En la segunda parte, se presentan algunas investigaciones de nuestro ámbito en las que se estudia el discurso expositivo en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje desde una teoría de la comprensión. En la parte final se ofrecen algunas orientaciones derivadas del estudio del discurso expositivo desde la doble perspectiva planteada, p. 124-125
... Esto último, condiciona el nivel de integración del mensaje a través de configuraciones más específicas y cohesivas, en el caso de lo escrito y más fragmentarias y transparentes a través de la expresividad y participación personal en el caso de lo oral. Tal y como lo plantean Rosales, Sánchez yCañedo ( , 1997); Sánchez, Rosales yCañedo, ( , 1999); Sánchez y Suárez (1998), se cuenta con algunas evidencias de que los marcadores retóricos orales tienden a ser más elocuentes y expresivos que los marcadores retóricos escritos. Al analizar nuevamente a los profesores, quienes mantienen constantes intervenciones orales con el objetivo de dar " ayudas " para aprender, podemos hacer una comparación justa entre este discurso oral y un texto escrito obtenido de un libro de estudio (extraído deSánchez et al. ,2002).[9]Discurso ...
... Esto último, condiciona el nivel de integración del mensaje a través de configuraciones más específicas y cohesivas, en el caso de lo escrito y más fragmentarias y transparentes a través de la expresividad y participación personal en el caso de lo oral. Tal y como lo plantean Rosales, Sánchez yCañedo ( , 1997); Sánchez, Rosales yCañedo, ( , 1999); Sánchez y Suárez (1998), se cuenta con algunas evidencias de que los marcadores retóricos orales tienden a ser más elocuentes y expresivos que los marcadores retóricos escritos. Al analizar nuevamente a los profesores, quienes mantienen constantes intervenciones orales con el objetivo de dar " ayudas " para aprender, podemos hacer una comparación justa entre este discurso oral y un texto escrito obtenido de un libro de estudio (extraído deSánchez et al. ,2002).[9]Discurso ...
... Esto úl- timo, condiciona el nivel de integración del mensaje a través de configuraciones más es- pecíficas y cohesivas, en el caso de lo escrito y más fragmentarias y transparentes a través de la expresividad y participación personal en el caso de lo oral. Tal y como lo plantean Ro- sales, Sánchez y Cañedo ( , 1997; Sán- chez, Rosales y Cañedo, (1994,1999); Sán- chez y Suárez (1998), se cuenta con algunas evidencias de que los marcadores retóricos orales tienden a ser más elocuentes y expre- sivos que los marcadores retóricos escritos. ...
... Un segundo supuesto de partida tiene que ver con el contenido y la función referencial de las ayudas. Para establecer una definición inicial de las tareas de aprendizaje y conectarla con la información nueva, los profesores expertos presumiblemente evocarían más frecuentemente aquellas experiencias o conocimientos previos que conforman el marco social o específico de referencia (Coll, Colomina, Onrubia y Rochera, 1995;Sánchez et al., 1994;Wells, 2004); evaluarían mejor la comprensión del alumno (Nystrand, 1997; Rosales et al., 1997) y, en lugar de corregir directamente sus equivocaciones, proporcionarían más o mejores ayudas dirigidas a conseguir que ellos mismos las reelaboren. ...
The study analyses verbal exchanges recorded during 12 support sessions given to 2 groups of students with special education needs. The results show that the teacher-student participation structure is particularly dyadic and interactive. More than a third of the verbal interactions produced were chained sequences consisting on Initiation-Answer-Help-Answer. Their aim was to stimulate students to articulate a response and subsequently re-elaborate their internal representation of the task until they were able to produce a correct definition of the meaning. The teacher's help focused mainly on correcting wrong answers or giving instructions, while it was observed that a high number of students' actions were aimed at classroom participation (e.g. evaluating, recalling, listing, summarising, or justifying ideas,…). When a response was incomplete, teachers usually asked the student for more information. If a student did not reply, the most frequent help was to recover previous relevant knowledge. The most experienced teachers interacted nearly twice as much, obtained less wrong replies, and were more efficient in helping students re-elaborate than those less experienced.
Competencia escritora, más allá de la alfabetización tradicional
- Evaluación de la comprensión lectora y la expresión escrita
- Discrepancias de la teoría con la práctica real del aula
Aportaciones desde la Investigación: Texto y Contexto
- Perspectiva Evolutiva
- Perspectiva Sociocultural
Propuestas que contemplan algo más que contenidos curriculares en el aula
- Niveles de conciencia: Planificación, Reflexión y Colaboración
En este trabajo se analizan los mecanismos comunicativos que emplean los docentes para facilitar y favorecer el aprendizaje de los alumnos de secundaria y promover el establecimiento de un clima de aula emocionalmente positivo. Los objetivos planteados se orientan a: 1) analizar los comportamientos comunicativos, verbales, no-verbales y prosódicos que profesores y maestros emplean en el aula; 2) conocer si existen diferencias en dichos comportamientos discursivos entre maestros y profesores y 3) caso de existir diferencias, averiguar si la formación psicopedagógica inicial que recibieron los maestros es un factor decisivo que dé respuestas a las mismas. El procedimiento metodológico seguido se centra en un enfoque descriptivo-interpretativo con tres técnicas de recogida de datos: observación a través de videograbación, entrevistas y cuestionarios. Los resultados encontrados indican la existencia de diferencias entre los dos grupos de docentes pero éstas no se deben a la formación inicial psicopedagógica de los maestros.We analyse the communicative mechanisms that secondary school teachers use to facilitate and foster their students' learning, and to help establish an emotionally positive atmosphere in the classroom. The aims of the study were: (1) to analyse verbal, non-verbal, and prosodic communicative classroom behaviour of Secondary Education teachers, distinguishing two groups - those with an education degree and those with an academic degree; (2) to determine whether the two groups differed in these types of discourse; and (3) to determine whether, if such differences existed, they responded to the initial psychopaedagogical education received by the education degree teachers. The methodological approach was descriptive-interpretative with three data collection techniques: observation through videorecordings, interviews, and questionnaires. The results showed that, while there were indeed differences between the two groups of teachers, these were not due to the initial instruction in psychopaedagogy received in the education degree courses.
In conversation, two people inevitably know different amounts about the topic of discussion, yet to make their references understood, they need to draw on knowledge and beliefs that they share. An expert and a novice talking with each other, therefore, must assess each other's expertise and accommodate to their differences. They do this in part, it is proposed, by assessing, supplying, and acquiring expertise as they collaborate in completing their references. In a study of this accommodation, pairs of people who were or were not familiar with New York City were asked to work together to arrange pictures of New York City landmarks by talking about them. They were able to assess each other's level of expertise almost immediately and to adjust their choice of proper names, descriptions, and perspectives accordingly. In doing so, experts supplied, and novices acquired, specialized knowledge that made referring more efficient.
The achievement of labelling was investigated in a longitudinal study of one mother–infant dyad, using video-recordings of their free play in a period between 0; 8 and 1; 6. Analysis of joint picture-book reading revealed that this activity had very early on the structure of a dialogue. The child's lexical labels might be regarded as more adult-like substitutes for earlier communicative forms that he had utilized in the dialogue. These were smiling, reaching, pointing and babbling vocalizations, all of which were consistently interpreted by the mother as expressing the child's intention of requesting a label or providing one. Participating in a ritualized dialogue, rather than imitation, was found to be the major mechanism through which labelling was achieved.
In conversation, speakers and addressees work together in the making of a definite reference. In the model we propose, the speaker initiates the process by presenting or inviting a noun phrase. Before going on to the next contribution, the participants, if necessary, repair, expand on, or replace the noun phrase in an iterative process until they reach a version they mutually accept. In doing so they try to minimize their joint effort. The preferred procedure is for the speaker to present a simple noun phrase and for the addressee to accept it by allowing the next contribution to begin. We describe a communication task in which pairs of people conversed about arranging complex figures and show how the proposed model accounts for many features of the references they produced. The model follows, we suggest, from the mutual responsibility that participants in conversation bear toward the understanding of each utterance.
Extracts of classroom discourse involving teachers and groups of 9‐year‐olds are analyzed in terms of what they reveal about the establishment of shared knowledge between teacher and pupils. This shared knowledge is identified with the “context” of the discourse as this develops through time, context being defined as “intermental,” in Vygotsky's (1978) terms, that is to say, as existing intersubjectively for the participants rather than objectively for the investigators. The analysis focuses upon a specific aspect of the process: the way in which classroom events are recalled and reconstructed (after Bartlett, 1932). These reconstructions serve as the shared conceptions and understandings that are then the context for further teaching and learning. The notion of education as an inculcation of pupils into an established culture of educated thought and practice is offered as a necessary synthesis of the usually opposed child‐oriented and transmissional approaches to education.
The early development of the ability to discuss past experiences in conversation is examined. The data consist of 186 conversations about past events between two Spanish‐speaking girls (21–31 and 24–38 months) and their families. Each description is analyzed in terms of its length, the familiarity and specificity of the event described, the truth of the statements, the reason for mention, the use of grammatical forms, and the role of an adult in initiating and maintaining the conversation. Based on these analyses, three phases of development are identified, characterized by: (a) dependency on adult participation; (b) the discussion of elements common to many instances of an event, rather than the unique occurrences of a specific event (i.e., dependence on a “script” of the event); and (c) talk about unique occurrences, but difficulty in planning a lengthy discourse. The results are discussed in terms of children's knowledge of event structures and the early organization of their memories.
The goal of this article is to provide an overview of recent advances in the study of the psychology of question answering. Investigators have identified numerous stages of question processing including question encoding, question categorization, selection of an answering strategy, memory search, comparison, and response. Understanders may adopt the strategy of directly retrieving a questioned fact or of judging its plausibility on the basis of general knowledge. Strategy selection is influenced by extrinsic factors such as questioning delay and explicit task instructions and intrinsic ones such as fact familiarity. Memory search in question answering is accomplished by the execution of search procedures that are linked to different conceptual categories of questions. Whereas wh‐questions are answered by formulating a reply from retrieved information, yes‐no questions require the comparison of the retrieved information to the interrogated idea. Although the componential analysis discussed in this article oversimplifies question processing, it has permitted useful advances in this field.
En este trabajo tratamos de estudiar cómo podemos construir nuevos conocimientos a través de las palabras ofrecidas por alguien a quien no es posible interpelar de manera directa. De manera más específica, nos proponemos estudiar los recursos comunicativos que encierran los textos divulgativos de gran calidad, basándonos para ello en la consideración del texto como un acto comunicativo que debe respetar las reglas que encierra el compromiso entre lo dado y lo nuevo (Hariland y Clark, 1977). Para ello analizamos un texto divulgativo de una calidad contrastada en el que identificamos tres recursos específicos: la presencia sistemática de evocaciones, reflejos y evaluaciones encubiertas, mediante las cuales el autor satisface ese compromiso. Así mismo consideramos la dificultad que encierran los textos en los que no se puede apreciar tan claramente esos rasgos y el reto educativo que ello supone The study examines how new knowledge is constructed through words offered by someone with whom it is not possible to speak directly. Our aim is to study the communicative resources of high quality divulgative texts. For this purpose, a text is considered a communicative act that must respect the rules that govern the compromise between material that is already known and material that is new (Haviland and Clark, 1977). A high quality divulgative text was analysed; three specific resources used by the author to satisfy the above compromise were identified: evocation, reflection and covert evaluation. We consider the difficulty of texts in which these characteristics could not be clearly appreciated together with their educational challenge.
El objetivo de este artículo es comparar el discurso expositivo de profesores expertos y principiantes: los medios que usan los profesores con distinto nivel de competencia para vertebrar y dar coherencia a lo que exponen en clase. Los sujetos que han participado en este estudio son nueve profesores con una experiencia docente superior a tres años y no superior a diez, y otros nueve profesores que estaban iniciando su formación. Consideramos el discurso expositivo como una de las formas de explicación dentro del aula, que como cualquier otro acto comunicativo, puede respetar un conjunto de reglas que se condensan en el compromiso entre lo dado y lo nuevo. Lo dado es todo aquello que consideramos compartido con nuestros interlocutores. Y lo nuevo es la parte del discurso que es informativa y relevante para el alumno, y ha de presentarse de forma coherente y organizada. Las diferencias encontradas entre profesores expertos y principiantes son relevantes en varios aspectos: los profesores expertos son más retóricos que los novatos, particularmente cuando exponen ideas importantes dentro del discurso. Los profesores principiantes exponen un mayor volumen de información nueva que los profesores expertos y además los profesores expertos parecen guiarse por una regla simple: nunca empieces una información nueva sin señalarla y sin recapitular lo que ya se ha expuesto. Los profesores novatos por el contrario pareren ignorar este principio. The aim of this research work is to compare the discourse of expert and novice teachers: how they organize their daily discourse in the classroom, how they achieve continuity and coherence, what resources they use to get close to their pupils, etc. Subjects in this study were eleven teachers with a 3 to 8 yrs. teaching experience, and seven others who had just started their teacher training. Expository discourse is used to explain classroom material and, like any other communicative act, it follows a set of rules which may be summarized as the compromise between the material already seen in class and that which is new. The former refers to all the things which have already been shared with the interlocutors. The latter refers to the part of the discourse which is informative and relevant to the student, and has to be presented in a coherent and organized manner. The differences found between expert and novice teachers are significant in several aspects: experts are more rhetorical than novices, particularly when expressing important ideas within the discourse, while novices put forth larger quantities of new information. Expert teachers seem to guide their actions by a simple rule: never give new information without indicating the fact and always summarize previous information. In contrast, novice teachers seem to ignore this rule.
Vygotsky’s notions of speech, language and thought have recently begun to receive more attention in the west, but some of his basic distinctions are not well understood. The first part of this paper deals with some of the confusions that have arisen due to inaccurate translation and misunderstanding of Vygotsky’s general theoretical framework. The focus of this analysis is on Vygotsky’s distinction between language and speech. The second part of the paper deals with the emergence of self-regulative capacities in ontogenesis – a central theme in the work of Vygotsky and his followers. It is argued that their ideas about self-regulation can be properly understood only if we conduct a genetic analysis that goes back to the origins of self-regulation. These origins are to be found in adult-child interaction where adults provide the ‘other-regulation’ necessary for a child to carry out a task. We argue that it is by coming to function in communicative settings involving other-regulation that the child can develop self-regulative capacities. These self-regulative capacities are seen as emerging as the result of the child’s taking over the communicative and regulative responsibilities formerly carried out by the adult.
Identifies some of the intellectual forces at work in the 1920s and 1930s in the USSR to clarify and extend L. S. Vygotsky's account of social, egocentric, and inner speech. The influence of Soviet semiotics on Vygotsky's theoretical framework and implications of Vygotsky's notions for contemporary cognitive psychology are discussed. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Our number system is a legacy of our culture. The study of how mothers teach their children about number provides important insights into the way in which children come to interweave their own developing understandings with achievements that have occurred in our culture's social history.
Suppose a speaker gestures toward four flowers and asks a listener, “How would you describe the color of this flower?” How does the listener infer which of the four flowers is being referred to? It is proposed that he selects the one he judges to be most salient with respect to the speaker's and his common ground—their mutual knowledge, beliefs, and suppositions. In a field experiment, it was found that listeners would accept demonstrative references (like this flower) with more than one potential referent. Three further experiments showed that listeners select referents based on estimates of their mutual beliefs about perceptual salience, the speaker's goals, and the speaker's presuppositions and assertions. Common ground, it is argued, is necessary in general for understanding demonstrative reference.
Linguistically, sentences contain both Given information (what the listener is expected to know already) and New information (what the listener is not expected to know already). According to a proposed Given-New Strategy, the listener, in comprehending a sentence, first searches memory for antecedent information that matches the sentence's Given information; he then revises memory by attaching the New information to that antecedent. To provide evidence for this strategy, we presented subjects with pairs of sentences, where the first (the context sentence) provided a context for the second (the target sentence). The subjects were required to press a button when they felt they understood the target sentences. Consistnet with the proposed strategy, Experiment I showed that a target sentence with a definite noun phrase presupposing existence took less time to comprehend when its Given information had a direct antecedent in the context sentence than when it did not. Experiment II ruled out a repetition explanation for Experiment I, and Experiment III demonstrated the same phenomenon for target sentences containing the adverbs still, again, too, and either.