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Reforming Teacher Preparation and Licensing: What Is the Evidence?
Abstract
Using professional self-regulation in medicine as a model, the National Commission for Teaching and America's Future has proposed sweeping changes in the way teachers are trained-and licensed. The commission claims that these reforms are well-grounded in a strong base of research. However, a balanced reading of the literature finds far less support for these reforms than the commission has claimed. In many cases the research is misrepresented. Since the commission's proposals would transfer considerable regulatory power out of the public domain into private education organizations, the burden of proof is on the commission to make a convincing case that such changes promote the welfare of the public and not just the interest of the profession. This burden has not been met.
... According to Ballou and Podgursky (2000), the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (NCTAF) has had an influence on educational policy discussions and is a proponent of state policies requiring teachers to attain master's degrees for full teacher certification. Moreover, several states have implemented policies requiring teachers to attain a master's degree in order to receive full certification. ...
... Hanushek and Rivkin (2007) also suggested master's degrees made little positive contribution to student achievement. Additionally, Ballou and Podgursky (2000) highlighted some areas where the students of teachers with only a bachelor's degree outperformed students of teachers with a master's degree in eighth grade reading achievement. ...
In a time of limited means and continued calls for higher student achievement, school leaders need to be wise in their use of resources. Earlier research has called for greater levels of teacher preparation, and, while many school districts provide greater compensation for teachers with graduate degrees, some districts have begun phasing out this type of compensation. Complicating the question of the value of compensating teachers for graduate training is an absence of quantitative data that supports or rejects the concept that teacher graduate education positively contributes to student achievement. The purpose for this research was to ascertain the degree to which teacher graduate training supports student reading achievement. Results of this research demonstrated master's degrees have a limited positive impact on student reading achievement. However, more study is needed.
... In this study, headmaster supervision, students' attitude and community involvement were the extrinsic factors explored. Studies indicate that heads of institutions in diverse ways provide good leadership to enhance teacher output [5,6]. [5,6] in their study found that headmaster supervisory role enables teachers to get constructive feedback and teaching and learning materials for effective classroom and out of class activities. ...
... Studies indicate that heads of institutions in diverse ways provide good leadership to enhance teacher output [5,6]. [5,6] in their study found that headmaster supervisory role enables teachers to get constructive feedback and teaching and learning materials for effective classroom and out of class activities. Other studies indicate that most teachers are not effective in schools because some factors such as poor attitudes of headmasters unattractive student behaviour and poor relationship between the school and the community [7]. ...
The study investigated the factors contributing to teacher effectiveness in senior high schools in the Kassena Nankana West District. A descriptive survey design with a sample of 100 teachers was used for the study. A self-designed questionnaire was used for the data collection. Means and standard deviations and independent samples t-test were the statistical tools used in the study. The objectives of the study were to find how headmaster supervision contributes to teacher effectiveness; find students' attitude that contribute to teacher effectiveness; how community participation contribute to teacher effectiveness. Means and standard deviations and the independent samples t-test were the statistical tools used in the study. The findings of the study were showed that; headmasters involved teachers in decision making in schools, students' participation in classroom work was appreciable, and communities gave teachers some fringe benefits. It was recommended that headmaster supervision should be strengthened since involving teachers in decision making in school brings about teacher effectiveness. Again teachers should Original Research Article Namale et al.; AJARR, 15(8): 64-70, 2021; Article no.AJARR.76220 65 relate and encourage students to participate in classroom work since that contribute to teacher effectiveness. It was concluded that headmaster supervision is very important since that contribute to teacher effectiveness in school.
... The desire of Ghana to integrate and overhaul the instructor and educational system by licensing strategies has generated much controversy within the teaching fraternity (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Brennan, De Vries, & Williams, 1997). The rank and file of the country's recognized teacher unions have expressed divergent views (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002;Liston & Zeichner, 2013). ...
... There is proof in these claims that demonstrate that the success of students in public schools at the fundamental level has been declining year in and year out over the past decade, and teachers tend to ignore that. It is necessary to remember that training teachers is not a recent phenomenon as they are taught both in the Western world and certain areas of Africa (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Darling-Hammond, 2000). ...
The study sought to explore perceptions and preparedness of teachers in Ashanti Region toward the introduction of professional teacher licensing in Ghana. Three research objectives were used as a guide for the exploration. A descriptive survey, which allowed for an accurate description of activities, objects, processes, and persons, was adopted to help to achieve the objectives of the study. A sample size of 278 teachers from senior high schools in Ashanti Region of Ghana was selected through a multi-stage sampling technique to respond to the Teacher Perception and Preparedness Licensing Questionnaire. Data were analysed using means and standard deviation to answer the research questions. The study revealed that the selected teachers perceived the introduction of teacher licensing would not improve any teacher-student performance but would rather enhance teacher reputation; motivate teachers to practice their profession; and have a positive effect on teacher self-efficacy. The study also found that the implementation of teacher licensing policy could be more effective and friendly when some measures are put in place. Some recommendations for practice, such as the Ghana Education Service through its supervisory unit should institute measures beyond the teacher licensing policy to monitor and influence the delivery approaches used by teachers and the Ministry of Education should educate teachers, using professional development programmes to help teachers to appreciate that the policy is about professionalism.
... Due to this they have inefficient system of teaching and taking exams. Deficiency of money disturbs the progress and improvement of system (Ballou and Podgursky, 2000). The main education structure could not get sufficient financial distributions from the administration which added damaged system physically and academically (Shah, 2003). ...
... Finance is the life blood of any system. Lack of money affects the growth and development of a system (Ballou and Podgursky, 2000). At the time of independence, Pakistan since its inception inherited a poor education system which was already financially handicapped. ...
The article presents the problems faced by the teachers in government schools of Bahawalpur. From the last decade the problems are increasing and came into the comments by the several associations and institutes. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the problems solutions and recommendations to solve the existing phenomena. Data from the different schools of the city are included. There is a great association between teachers’ problem and the behaviors of the students regarding their studies. Other prominent factors like poverty, lack of motivation, lack of skills, lack of training, and lack of fringe benefits are discussed. The analysis of data allow us how to focus the uncover/hidden areas of difficulties. The recommendations provide a clear framework about the current problem.
... Criticism and challenges affecting teacher licensing systems' impact, equity, and efficacy on educational outcomes are encountered globally (Abdallah & Musah, 2021;Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Cochran-Smith, 2006;Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000), including in Pakistan. ...
Quality of teachers’ development, recruitment, and retention holds substantial value when it comes to delivering quality education. In this paradigm, teaching licensing epitomizes the cornerstone of development as it brings professionalism in teaching, executing strict protocols of compliance with quality measures. In the context of Pakistan, the emergence of the Sindh Teaching License Policy has served as a progressive initiative towards elevating the educational caliber in the province to ensure teachers’ adherence and compliance to certain standards of skills, knowledge, and competence and, in turn, bringing professional proficiency to them. The current study is aimed at exploring teacher’s perceptions and readiness concerning the newly introduced teacher licensing system in the context of the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Data was analysed and presented by conducting a thematic analysis of interviews. Findings revealed that when asked about their perceptions, teachers expressed skepticism about licensing policy implementation, cited resource constraints, showed transparency and accountability concerns, called for better stakeholder engagement and support, and finally demanded clarity on policy, benefits, and its impact on their professional status. Moreover, while discussing their readiness and the barriers they encountered, teachers communicated a lack of readiness for the requirements as they felt the absence of formal training and support by their institutions, and the need for supportive resources and test materials. Furthermore, personal financial constraints, resistance to change, and inequity of access were notably hindering access to licensure at the primary individual levels. On the contrary, the senior educational faculty members recognized the significance and need for the policy initiative and careful implementation of the policy. The challenges highlighted include the involvement of private sector schools, the status of existing teachers, the importance of teacher involvement, and the government's responsibility for support. This research study emphasizes the need for dedicated efforts by policymakers and educational stakeholders to enhance teacher licensing and improve the quality of education in Sindh.
... Finances are the lifeblood of any system. A system's ability to expand and change is limited by financial constraints (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). When Pakistan gained its independence, it inherited a poor educational system that was already struggling financially. ...
The researcher's area of interest was "Problems faced by students in the teaching-learning process at secondary schools level in district Nowshera". The study set out to investigate the issues that male students in district Nowshehra's government high schools faced, as well as the issues that male students in the district's private high schools faced. 200 (100+100) students were chosen at random from the accessible population to gather data from the entire population. District Nowshera provided the data for the study, which was conducted via a questionnaire. Researchers draw the conclusion that students in the public and private sectors encountered distinct types of issues based on their findings. Compared to private schools, the majority of secondary school students in the public system experienced financial difficulties. In contrast to private sector institutions, the majority of students felt that public sector institutions lack enough guidance. Numerous pupils concurred that the examination system does not take into account the students' mental abilities. Compared to pupils in the private sector, transportation is an insurmountable issue for those in the public sector. Students' academics are impacted by load shedding, particularly in public schools. In the public sector, as opposed to the private sector, teacher insincerity also makes it more difficult for them to accomplish their objectives.
... The dynamic nature of teaching makes it hard to summarize different aspects of teaching attributes into one single definition (Wiens et al., 2013). For some researchers, teacher knowledge relies primarily on content knowledge and ''verbal ability'' (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Hess, 2004;Tatto & Senk, 2011). Another set of researchers stated that quality teaching could be achieved by acquiring specialized knowledge and methods (Cochran-Smith, 2004;Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2007). ...
Professional development (PD) programs are considered as essential for improving the teacher quality and performance in schools. Despite introducing several PD programs, the teachers’ quality in the public schools is a matter of concern for Pakistan. It has become a challenge for policymakers and school leaders to design PD programs which can be effective for all teachers. PD programs in Pakistan normally undertakes a standard approach without considering the strengths and weaknesses of different groups of teachers which may not address the specific needs of these groups. There is a need of structuring PD programs to make these learning opportunities more effective for teachers. Therefore, the current study evaluates the teacher competencies of different groups of teachers in Pakistan’s public schools. For that purpose, the study first identifies three key themes of teacher competencies required in 21st century from extant review of recent literature. Interview guide then is designed based on these key teacher competencies to solicit information from seven principals of public schools. The public schools were selected using the criteria of size of school and principal working experience in that school. Structured interviews been used as a medium for collecting data from the principals. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. The deductive content analysis approach was used in analyzing the data. The analytical tool used for the coding of themes was the MAXQDA software. The results highlighted certain differences in teacher competencies varying from gender to age. Female teachers and teachers who are younger in general are found to have more competencies compared to male teachers and senior teachers. The results of this study offer vital information for planning and tailoring TPD programs for teachers. These specially designed learning opportunities can be more effective for the professional development of teachers and can foster teachers’ competence.
... Therefore, it is crucial for the Education board or regulatory authority to develop specific framework to define the criteria that are expected from school leaders in respect of improving curriculum and coursework. Also, during the evaluation of performance, particular guidelines are to be defined as that helps principals to justify the actions they have undertaken in school improvement process (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). It is essential for the policy makers to clear the framework for quality education as student's learning and growth needs are dependent on state's responses. ...
School leaders have had a significantly increased impact on society since inclusive education was recognized as a need in the pedagogy sector. This study investigates the role of principals in promoting inclusivity and differentiating their leadership styles. The study highlights the inclusive behaviors of successful leaders that prepare them to lead effectively in special education schools. The results demonstrate that principals in inclusive schools have an inherent consciousness of inclusivity that enables them to create a culture of equality in the community. In their efforts to foster an inclusive vision, principals undertake and direct various school reform practices to build the capacity of school staff and create a work environment that facilitates collaboration for instructional modification and educational progress.
... Therefore, it is crucial for the Education board or regulatory authority to develop specific framework to define the criteria that are expected from school leaders in respect of improving curriculum and coursework. Also, during the evaluation of performance, particular guidelines are to be defined as that helps principals to justify the actions they have undertaken in school improvement process (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). It is essential for the policy makers to clear the framework for quality education as student's learning and growth needs are dependent on state's responses. ...
The concept of principal licensing has been established in the education sector as a process of reforming school activities and student performance. The main purpose behind licensing is to ensure that school leaders are qualified and possess necessary skills for leading and managing the school activities and exercises. This research is carried out to define the importance of principal licensing in schools and education institutions. Licensing does not only improve teaching quality, but it prominently changes the school environment wherein learning culture is more promoted for schools. In this respect, the study defines how licensing makes the principals accountable towards school improvement activities and environment. Licensing in this research is discussed as a policy framework that comprises school leadership development that defines as well as distinguishes entry-level skills and expertise for principals. In addition to this, the research is supported with discussion about licensing process in the context of UAE and other countries.
... In recent years, a number of review articles have been published providing overviews of quantitative studies that have, for the most part, used distal Baumert et al. indicators of teachers' knowledge and made no distinction between CK and PCK (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;D'Agostino & Powers, 2009;Darling-Hammond, 2000;Floden & Meniketti, 2005;Goe, 2007;Wayne & Youngs, 2003;Wilson & Floden, 2003). ...
There is consensus that, for student achievement, teachers matter. However, providing reliable research evidence for the effects of observable teacher characteristics, such as qualification measures, has been difficult. The current study uses panel data based on register information from teachers and students to estimate effects of teacher characteristics on student achievement in mathematics and Swedish in Grade 6. Applying fixed-effects regression to a large sample of schools, we observed significant positive effects of several teacher characteristics. Having a teaching license was found to be one of the most important qualification measures, but teachers’ level of experience was also important for student achievement. The effects of teacher qualifications were generally stronger for mathematics than for Swedish.
... On the one hand, studies have argued that the human capital development of teachers is vital in determining how well they translate what they know into what pupils learn, particularly in making instructional experiences meaningful to pupils who may possess wide-ranging learning needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005). On the other hand, critics of teacher education have asserted that pre-service teacher education is only useful to the extent that teachers are minimally qualified to be a teacher but may not necessarily translate into effective teaching (Ballou and Podgursky, 2005); therefore, many ponder the policy implications since there is some indication that the higher levels of the educational credentials of teachers do not predict elevated learning gains (Hanushek and Rivkin, 2006). Not to mention that academic skeptics have scrutinized recent policy engagements in China, which promote mass teacher education at the bachelor level (Zhou, 2014;Hu, 2015). ...
Many factors serve as predictors of effective teaching; particularly, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether the educational credentials of teachers are indicative of their contribution to pupil's educational success. Utilizing pupil fixed-effect modeling and the China Education Panel Survey dataset (n = 5,032), this study evaluates the extent to which teachers who hold at least a Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree perform better than those who do not, in terms of pupil learning gains over the course of a full academic year. Empirical results from the pupil fixed-effect model indicate that mean learning gain is 0.042 SDs (95% CI: 0.008–0.083, p = 0.040) higher among pupils who studied with teachers holding higher educational credentials (at least a BEd degree) than those with lower educational credentials. This effect translates to approximately 1 month of additional learning per year, which is significant considering the potential compounding aggregation effects over the course of the entire educational career of pupils. This study adds new evidence that highlights the importance of the educational credentials of teachers as a predictor of effective teaching and that better-educated teachers can lead to improved pupil learning gains.
... In the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, debates concerning teacher accountability tools and their suspect efficacy steadily grew (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Darling-Hammond, 2000). Many of these standardized assessments were criticized for treating pedagogy as generic rather than subject-matter specific (Shulman, 1986); exhibiting poor validity (Goldhaber et al., 2017;Haney et al., 1987); neglecting to measure many observable teaching skills (Madaus & Pullin, 1987); and marginalizing minority representation (Goertz & Pitcher, 1985;Haney et al., 1987). ...
Background/Context
In the United States, strengthening the professionalization of teaching and teacher education has received extensive attention. Notably, the educative Teacher Performance Assessment (edTPA) has gained traction. Developed by the Stanford Center for Assessment, Learning, & Equity (SCALE) in 2009, edTPA requires teacher candidates to videotape their teaching and reflect via three different tasks: planning, instructing, and assessing. More than one third (900+) of all teacher preparation programs (TPPs) across 41 states are now using edTPA, making it the most widely used licensure assessment in the field.
Objective
In this study, we examine differences in how stakeholders (i.e., administrators, faculty, and staff) within and across TPPs are making sense of edTPA. We then examine why such differences in edTPA sensemaking have transpired, including varying policy designs, organizational contexts, and individual attitudes/values. Finally, we illustrate how these differences reflect a deeper historical dilemma in teacher education between those supporting professionalism (i.e., program-specific attitudes/beliefs) and those supporting the professionalization of teaching (i.e., structural or systemic characteristics across programs).
Participants
Through purposive and snowball sampling, we interviewed 69 stakeholders across eight TPPs in two states, Illinois and Iowa. These stakeholders were interviewed between 2015 and 2018, approximately 1 year after their TPP adopted edTPA (via mandate or voluntarily).
Research Design
We employed a multiple embedded case study design. The first set of cases were the two states selected (Illinois and Iowa) because their policy designs differed (mandated vs. voluntary). The second set of cases were the eight TPPs selected. One-hour interviews were conducted with each of the 69 stakeholders across these case TPPs. Using a sensemaking conceptual framework, instrumental case analysis was then used to examine how stakeholders made sense of edTPA and why.
Findings/Results
We found diverse perspectives across our case TPPs as to how stakeholders viewed and implemented edTPA—as either a professionalization or a deprofessionalization tool. Those espousing a view of professionalization supported the assessment as a means to strengthen the profession’s perceived legitimacy and quality, whereas those espousing a view of deprofessionalization believed that it is detrimental in these regards. We argue that this divergence reflects enduring disagreement concerning the mechanisms that define “good” teaching and how best to measure it.
Conclusions
We found that structural changes, such as edTPA adoption, may move a field toward being more or less professionalized, but those changes do not guarantee alignment or agreement among the professionals within that workforce. Improving this dilemma within teacher education therefore begins with coming to some reasonable consensus on how best to balance professionalization and professionalism.
... However, most teacher quality variables showed no effects on student achievement. Other variables, such as measures of teacher certification, have shown uneven effects and debates continue even today over their importance (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Darling-Hammond, Berry, & Thoreson, 2001;Goldhaber & Brewer, 2001). The teacher quality variables that have most often shown effects are measures of teacher reading ability and subject matter preparation. ...
This dissertation is composed of three journal articles. Each investigates the knowledge of text, language, and reading process needed to teach the elementary subject of reading---referred to as content knowledge for teaching reading (CKT-R). The three interlocking studies make use of an innovative set of multiple-choice survey items designed to measure CKT-R. Article 1 . In this study, I present psychometric analyses of the CKT-R items. Results from ordinal factor analysis and two parameter item response theory scaling conducted with 1,542 elementary teachers indicate that CKT-R includes multiple dimensions defined by the topic areas of word analysis and comprehension and by how teachers use knowledge of reading in teaching practice. Items within constructs form reliable scales. Article 2 . This study examines whether teachers hold specialized knowledge of reading that differs from common reading ability. Teachers in the study (n = 50) score significantly and substantially higher on the measure of CKT-R than non-teachers (n = 55) controlling for reading ability. These results suggest there is specialized knowledge for teaching reading and this knowledge can be studied in large-scale survey research using the CKT-R measures. Article 3 . In this qualitative study, I investigate the content-specific knowledge and reasoning 19 teachers and 19 non-teachers use when responding to the teaching situations and questions presented in the CKT-R items. Teacher responses are characterized by use of knowledge of content, students, and teaching that goes beyond the immediate information provided in the teaching situation, while non-teachers draw on knowledge related to their own personal experience as readers. These differences suggest that teachers use a more relevant and robust knowledge base to reason about the situations encountered when teaching reading. Difficulties exhibited by participants fall primarily into two categories: difficulty diagnosing the teaching situation and lack of understanding of the language and terms used in teaching reading. Together these studies develop a conceptual framework for understanding CKT-R and advance a research tool for studying this knowledge in large-scale survey research. Implications for teacher education, the improvement of reading instruction, and related policies are discussed.
... This mandate has led researchers and policymakers to develop strategies to evaluate the effectiveness of TPPs. The underlying premise of such evaluation efforts is that high-quality TPPs produce high-quality teachers (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005;Crowe, 2010;Levine, 2006;Vergari & Hess, 2002). The fundamental purpose of such evaluation efforts is to create formative feedback across TPPs by identifying effective preparation practices and suggest ideal models of TPPs to improve the overall program quality (Feueret et al., 2013). ...
This study introduces a new approach to measure effectiveness of teacher preparation programs (TPP) at U.S. universities by examining to what extent TPPs produce employable teacher candidates. We use teacher vacancy-application data in Wisconsin public schools from 2014–15 through 2016–17. We find that attending specific TPPs makes a difference for novice teacher applicants’ hiring outcomes, but the competitiveness of these TPPs is inextricable from their geographic locales. Our findings complement the existing acontextual and absolute TPP rankings and suggest that graduates of TPPs with strong school and community partnerships are more competitive in the local labor market.
... In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was a barrage of critiques of university teacher preparation from both university outsiders and insiders. Outsiders charged that there was a lack of evidence showing that university preparation was effective, that certification procedures and processes were cumbersome and unnecessary, and that alternate pathways were a superior policy model (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Duncan, 2009;United States Department of Education, 2002, 2003. Meanwhile a powerful professionalization agenda from within the university community called for rigorous and uniform professional standards and accountability systems across preparation, program approval, and licensure (National Commission on Teaching & America's Future, 1996, 1997. ...
This article takes a multi-case perspective on teacher preparation at new graduate schools of education (nGSEs) across four sites. The article argues that teacher preparation at nGSEs is a study in contrasts. On one hand, nGSE leaders frame teacher preparation at their institutions in terms of the marked contrasts they perceive
between their programs and teacher preparation programs at universities, which is one of their principal justifications for the relocation of teacher preparation to new non-university organizations. On the other hand, there are stark contrasts within and across nGSE sites in how teacher preparation is conceptualized and enacted, depending primarily upon the interplay of underlying assumptions and values and the larger professional and political purposes to which particular nGSEs are attached.
... Many researches showed that a large number of teaching standards supporters claimed that professional qualification and academic specialization were positively associated with increased gain in student achievement while the opponents declared that the available researches did not support this assertion. Many recent work stated that professional qualification of teachers do not have any effect on student achievement, but do raise hurdles, preventing qualified candidates from entering into this profession (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). The same finding was found in the study of Rowan, Correnti, and Miller (2002), in which a small scale research was conducted on the impact of teachers' professional qualification on the achievement of elementary school students and results revealed no discernable effect. ...
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... Department of Education, 2002, 2003. Proponents of deregulation also asserted that no definitive research had shown that university preparation significantly impacted either teacher or student performance (Abell Foundation, 2001;Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). Thus they called for the deregulation of preparation/licensure coupled with expansion of alternate routes (Abell Foundation, 2001;Hess, 2001;Kanstoroom & Finn, 1999). ...
A controversial innovation within the rapidly expanding field of teacher education is the relocation of teacher preparation to new graduate schools of education (nGSEs), which are not university-based, but are state-authorized and approved as institutions of higher education to prepare teachers, endorse them for initial teacher certification, and grant master's degrees. Despite media attention and both public and private funding, however, there is little empirical research about the phenomenon of teacher preparation at nGSEs based on access to actual programs, participants, materials, and institutional records. This article is the first in a planned series that draws on a Spencer Foundation-funded study of teacher preparation at nGSEs to introduce the phenomenon. It has three purposes: to situate the emergence of teacher preparation at nGSEs within larger professional, policy, and political contexts; to define and clarify the characteristics of teacher preparation at nGSEs and identify its institutional domain; and to present a field-and theory-informed analytic framework for studying teacher preparation at nGSEs.
... Jacob (2011) established that full certification is either unrelated or positively related to student achievement. On other hand, Ballou (2016) established that emergency certification is generally unrelated or negatively related to curriculum delivery. Teacher's subject area of certification or authorization is one of the teacher qualification most consistently and strongly associated with curriculum implementation. ...
This study assessed teachers' demographic variables and the implementation of Junior Secondary School Social Studies curriculum in Calabar Municipality, Cross River State, Nigeria. Two research questions were formulated to guide the study. Literature review was carried out based on the variables under study. Survey research design was utilized. Proportionate and Purposive sampling techniques were used in selecting the 78 respondents
... For example, Fox and Peters state that "teacher self-efficacy levels have a direct relationship to student learning and performance" (2013, p.2) and reference three studies in support of this claim. Regarding this supporting evidence, however, the study by Wayne and Youngs (2003) does not contain the word "efficacy", the one from Ballou and Podgursky (2000) neither directly supports this claim, nor has a closely related focus, and the third, a research review on teacher quality and student achievement (Goe and Stickler 2008), also does not directly provide support for this claim. Fox and Peters also state that "teacher self-efficacy influences teacher effectiveness" (2013, p.2) with reference to the work of Flores et al. (2004), which does not contain the word "effectiveness" in its conclusion in the sense of "teacher effectiveness" and whose paper is centred on comparing teacher preparation routes. ...
This study examines the learning of teachers on one English employment-led secondary teacher preparation route. An interpretivist perspective is taken using a teacher self-efficacy survey with a larger sample of teachers following a range of routes and semi-structured interviews with 13 secondary schoolteachers who had previously qualified through an employment-led route. The literature base identified teacher preparation as workplace learning as an under-researched field, and employment-led routes as under-researched generally. Hence this study contributes to developing knowledge in these fields. It also gives voice to those learning in schools who are under represented in the existing research on workplace learning.
The findings of the survey are cautious and indicate similar levels of selfefficacy for those who had followed school-led (including employment-led) and university-led teacher preparation routes. It also finds greater variation in selfefficacy for those who had followed a school-led route compared with those who had followed a university-led route. These findings contribute additional findings to the very limited published research regarding the self-efficacy of English teachers.
Participants identified a number of meaningful experiences from their employment-led secondary teacher preparation including practising and belonging in a school. The interview data identified transformation, identity development, relational development through reflexivity and recontextualisation as key processes impacting on their learning. The study proposes an adaptation of Fuller & Unwin’s (2008) expansive/restrictive framework for apprenticeship to suit the learning experiences in school of those on employment-led teacher preparation routes. Use of this framework,and analysis against key features of situated learning and apprenticeship,found that aspects of these modes of learning were present through experiences where secondary pre-service teachers were both learners and employees, through being part of communities within a school, and through extensive opportunities to practice teaching.
... Through time, teacher education has broadened its scope of interest to accommodate the increasingly diverse structural, social, and professional issues. In the U.S., EU and elsewhere, it has embodied such issues as the knowledge base of teachers (for example, see Ben-Peretz, 2011;Shulman, 1987;Verloop;Driel;& Verloop, Driel, & Meijer, 2001); teaching, teacher educators and student learning (Bransford, & Bransford, J, 2005;Day, 2017;Goodwin & Kosnik, 2013;Lee & Day, 2015;Korthagen, 2016;Livingston & Flores, 2017;Loughran, 2006;Lunenberg, Murray, Smith, & Vanderlinde, 2017;Mena, Clarke, & Barkatsos, 2016;Nilsson, 2009); social justice as an essential purpose of teaching and cultivating teachers for inclusive education (Apple, 2011;Cochran-Smith et al., 2009;DeLuca, 2012;Dyches & Boyd, 2017;Florian & Linklater, 2010;Hopkins, Round, & Barley, 2018;Mills & Ballantyne, 2016;Pale, 2019;Zeichner, 2009); the form, process, and site for teacher preparation (for example, Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R. (Eds.), 2000;;Tatto, Burn, Menter, Mutton, & Thompson, 2018;Zeng & Day, 2019) More recently, as quality assurance issuessuch as teacher competence and the effectiveness of teacher education programmeshave received growing attention from policymakers, discussions on teacher certification (Ballou & Podgursky, 1999;Livingston & Flores, 2017;Walsh, 2001) and on the assessment of teachers and programme effectiveness have been revived (Baker et al., 2010;Floden, 2012;Henry et al., 2013). In a different societal context, teacher education in China has also treated curricular and pedagogical issues as its central concern (Chen, 2003;Liu & Xie, 2002;Zhang, 2000). ...
This paper adopts an inductive analytical approach to reviewing the major state policies to reform teacher education in China. Based on the perceived impact on teachers and teacher education, 21 policy documents have been selected for this review. Five themes emerge in the analysis, which include: Expansion of teacher education by institutional diversification; structural changes through upgrading, merging and eliminating institutions and school; innovations on modes of teacher preparation, curricula and teaching practicum; certification and examinations; and strengthening teacher supply for the rural schools. The paper also analyses the contextual and systemic factors that affect the formulation and implementation of reform policies in teacher education and critically reflect the effect of these policies on Chinese teacher education.
... Many researches showed that a large number of teaching standards supporters claimed that professional qualification and academic specialization were positively associated with increased gain in student achievement while the opponents declared that the available researches did not support this assertion. Many recent work stated that professional qualification of teachers do not have any effect on student achievement, but do raise hurdles, preventing qualified candidates from entering into this profession (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000) [10] . The same finding was found in the study of Rowan, in which a small scale research was conducted on the impact of teachers' professional qualification on the achievement of elementary school students and results revealed no discernable effect. ...
The objective of the study to discover the factors which develop the interest of students in academic performance and enhance examination learning. The main method of data collection was a semi-structured questionnaire administered to 50 students and assessment and evaluation of the students after specific duration. The specific objectives of the study were to determine if factors such as teaching methodology and students' participation in class affected academic success. The data were analyzed quantitatively and the results showed that factors such as teaching methodology and students' participation in class affected students' academic scores. The use of past year examination papers as a learning method improved students' academic scores compared to other methods. Introduction Learning is an instinct of living creatures. In human beings, the process of learning starts with their birth. Students' learning achievement has always been an issue of great concern for teachers, parents, school administrative bodies, educational policy makers, and students themselves. More importantly, parents concern about their children's outcomes, which is common throughout the world. "Many studies showed that achievement is dependent and affected by a number of other independent, moderate, and intervening variables, whereas, many other direct and indirect factors are also involved". In student achievement, a teacher's role has been very pivotal. Ferguson (1991) [32] identified that "The examination score of the students are greatly influenced by the good teacher" (p. 465). Ediger and Rao (2005) [26] noticed that "As teachers always monitor and assess the students, teacher observation proved to be a good tool for assessing student achievement" (p. 12). According to teaching is a respectable profession and effective teaching is always being important for producing the desired outcomes. Good teaching is important and helpful in multiple ways as students differ from one another and make betterment in learning opportunities for these differences (Ediger& Rao, 2005) [26]. Students usually do not concentrate on gaining the knowledge or developing the concepts. They don't make efforts in acquiring the in-depth knowledge of the subject and focus on exam related preparation. In Asia, in specially south Asia, good academic results has great importance in getting admissions in professional institution particularly for the students of grade XI and XII (Intermediate classes). There is strong need of achieving good academic results along with good subject knowledge. This study will help in synchronization of these two aspects of education. It will help in devising new methodologies and techniques which will not only useful in developing the interest of students towards academic growth but very helpful for the achievement of good grades. Studies on teaching methods are not something new in educational research. A large number of studies have been done on this area. Have written a compendium of research studies conducted in this area over the past three decades. Even before that, Feldman and Newcomb (1973) [30] mentioned decades of similar research studies in the area of teaching methods. These show both increased interest and knowledge in the area of teaching strategies and learning theories. Suggests that these studies on teaching methods conducted in the past decades are so overwhelming that it would be impossible to go over them all in detail.
... Dutt stated that apart from lack of parental support, general public support is another problem [24]. Without general public support teachers feel more alone and emotionally drained and with this more and more teachers become distressed and burnout. ...
It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to enhance adult literacy and quality education
at primary level through provide free and compulsory education to all children between the
ages of 5-16 years. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s progress regarding
education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging behind in achieving EFA targets
and its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for education call for an analysis of the
education system of Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing so that
workable solutions could be recommended. The problems of female school teachers are
one of the main issues which effect quality of education at higher level. In this book the
problems of female school teachers were identified using the tools such as a questionnaire,
and an interview schedule. Conclusion of this study presents that most of teachers affected
due to their appointments, transfers, place of posting and individual promotions, rapid
rate of bribery, political affiliations and interference relatively high than the merit. In many
cases female teachers appointed in far flung areas where transportation is very pitiable. In
addition that female teachers are overburdened with extra classes due to lack of teaching
staff in primary schools, especially on one side female teachers face huge shortage of
teaching and learning resources in schools and on the other hand there are smaller amount
proficient development opportunities for all teachers especially for female teachers. These
few mentioned factors have very much affected the procedure of schooling and education
quality. The study recommends this problem could be resolved by considering some basic
measures e.g. system of accountability, schooling environment and education assets,
providing ongoing talented advancement opportunities and incentives, making transparent
appointments system and on merit promotions procedure, provide enough teaching and nonteaching
staff to female primary schools and control political interference and involvement.
The other side this book will help policy makers and administrators to understand the core
issues in the field and help them to overcome for future.
... Pituch (1999) measured the interaction effects of student level predictors with those in teacher and school levels. Other studies explored the effect of teacher degree and experience on student mathematics achievement (Ballou and Podgursky, 2000;Goldhaber, and Brewer, 1998;Howley, 1996;Lippman, Burns, & McArthur, 1996;Monk, 1994;Rice, 2003). In a study in California, Shields et al. (2003) found that about 50% of the novice teachers (first or second year) employed at high-poverty schools were under-prepared compared with 30% in low poverty schools. ...
In this article, we predicted students’ mathematics gain scores employing two-level hierarchical linear models (HLM) through value-added approach using data from one of the largest urban school districts in the United States of America. Effects of teacher quality or teacher effectiveness, characterized by teacher’s certification in mathematics content area and teacher experience, were measured on students’ gain scores. The results showed significant impact on mathematics gain scores due to teacher’s content certification and teacher experience at teacher level and pretest scores as well as free and reduced lunch status at student level including cross-level interaction effects of teacher content certification with student level predictors. We also reported proportions variance explained and d-type effect sizes for teacher level models in order to measure teacher effectiveness.
... Teachers forced to complete the syllabus within the given timeframe. In this situation teachers fail to deliver meaningful objectives in schools [14]. ...
AJK (Azad Jammu & Kashmir) government is a small administrative unit under overall sovereignty of Pakistan. It has a total area of 13297 sq kilometers with a population of about 3.8 million. This study critically examines the problems of primary education system in AJK State specifically in govt. primary schools in Pakistan administrative Kashmir, a part of former princely state called Azad Jammu & Kashmir. For this purpose a significant review of on hand literature was passed out. On the basis of deeper and critical investigation into the literature, the study found that primary education is the most neglected, poorly financed and poorly managed. There is political interference in the system which breeds corruption, favoritism and nepotism. The system of supervision is weak and traditionally characterized having no effective mechanism for teacher training with poor system of accountability, teachers are underpaid and successive educational policies have failed to bring any positive changes in the system due to poor implementation. The curriculum of the primary education is outdated. Assessment is based on the memory of the students rather than their performance. On the basis of this study it is recommended that the problems can be solved by robust system of accountability, eradication of corruption, quality assessment system, non political interference, and quality curriculum and teachers motivation.
... Evidence associating teacher characteristics observable at the time of hire and their performance in the classroom has been mixed (Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1996;Hanushek, 1997;Palardy & Rumberger, 2008). For instance, whereas some scholars have contended that teacher certification strongly predicts student achievement , others have questioned the validity of this evidence (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000). In their systematic review, concluded that the impact of certification and degrees on student achievement is inconclusive at best, with the exception of advanced degrees in mathematics predicting gains in student achievement in math (Goldhaber & Brewer, 1997;Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000). ...
Teacher effectiveness is the single most important in-school factor influencing the rates at which school children learn. Large variations in performance exist between teachers and this translates into missed learning opportunities for students. Whilst the impact of highly effective teachers on student learning is understood, the factors that account for the variance in teacher performance are less clear. In this study, novice teachers (N = 313), with six or fewer years of experience working at a tuition free public charter school, completed measures of positive affect, optimistic explanatory style, grit and satisfaction with life. At the end of the school year, teacher effectiveness was measured by student growth, principal ratings and parent satisfaction. Multiple linear regression showed that none of the traits predicted teacher performance as assessed by student growth or by parent satisfaction. Positive affect and life satisfaction were shown to positively predict principal ratings; however this finding was dismissed as likely the result of principals awarding higher scores to teachers with personality traits they found more desirable. Positive traits may not have significantly predicted teacher performance at NHA because of the charter school management organization’s adherence to systems thinking with fidelity. Teachers at NHA are asked to follow best practices and compliance is considered key to success over creativity in many circumstances. Adherence to these best practices may stamp out the individual performance variation through which the effect of positive traits would be most evident.
... Other studies (e.g., Cohen-Vogel & Smith, 2007;Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002;Darling-Hammond, Holtzman, Gatlin, & Heilig, 2005;Evans, 2010;Friedrichsen et al., 2009;Konold et al., 2008) framed the problem in terms of the outcomes and consequences of "traditional" versus "alternative" entry pathways and/or certification credentials. This latter construction of the teacher quality problem, which reflects larger debates about professionalization and deregulation (Cochran-Smith & Fries, 2001;Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005;Zeichner, 2003) and larger questions about whether preparation adds value to teacher effectiveness (Ballou & Podgursky, 2000;Darling-Hammond, 2000), emerged from early critiques of alternative certification policies and concerns about growing disparities in the nature and extent of teachers' preparation prior to taking on full teaching responsibility . ...
Introduction: This research examines the primary school education system in District South Karachi, focusing on pertinent issues. An essential component of any society's progress is education. It is one of society's primary cornerstones. Everything that has happened in the world has its roots in education. Methodology: Using a simple, descriptive survey, this research analyzes primary school education in District South Karachi. A sample of one hundred primary school teachers is randomly selected from public sector schools. Data is collected through a questionnaire assessing primary education challenges, with responses quantified on a Likert scale. Analysis entails frequency, percentage, and mean score calculations. Results/Findings: Teachers highlight prevalent issues in primary education, emphasizing the need for increased knowledge and motivation to address challenges in coordination with management, administrators, and policymakers. This focus is crucial for enhancing academic performance and student achievement. Future Direction: The study recommends policymakers and school management prioritize addressing identified issues to improve teacher performance and student outcomes. Efforts should concentrate on enhancing teacher knowledge and motivation to resolve challenges collaboratively with stakeholders.
Education determines how well people can relate to and communicate with one another. Despite this view, the gaps in education opportunities in most developing countries are large. Public schools in Kakamega East Sub-County haven’t escaped the waves of gender disparities that have affected both private and public schools in Kenya. This study, therefore, sought to establish the influence of human resource factors on gender disparity among ECDE teachers. The study was supported by social role theory. A descriptive survey study design was used, which is primarily concerned with the generic statistics that derive from the extraction of data from respondents. The area of study was Kakamega East sub-county, situated in Kakamega County, Kenya. The target population was 1,106, including head teachers, deputy head teachers, teachers, program officers, and quality assurance officers (QUASO). Data was collected from a sample of 260, comprising 37 head teachers, 37 deputy head teachers, and 184 teachers, using questionnaires and interviews. A pilot study was conducted to appropriately validate the research instruments in advance before the real research commenced. Cronbach’s alpha (α) as a coefficient method to establish the reliability of the research instruments revealed a coefficient of 0.783, which shows that the instrument was reliable. Data was collected from the teachers in line with the three study objectives using questionnaires and interview schedules. Data obtained from the research instruments were analyzed inferentially and descriptively with the help of a statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 22. Quantitative data was summarized to quantify the strength of the association between the variables, and the researcher conducted a regression analysis to establish the effect of selected factors on gender disparity. Results were presented in tables. The findings revealed that human resource factors have a positive influence on gender disparity (t = 14.572, p<0.05) and explain 45.9% of the variance. It was concluded that human resource factors had a significant influence on gender disparity in the early childhood education profession. It was therefore recommended that human resource factors be considered in the recruitment of early ECD teachers. It is hoped that this study may help policymakers consider encouraging males to enroll in ECDE teaching.
This study aims to determine the instructional time use and its effectiveness in Turkish secondary schools from the perspectives of teachers and principals. Research based on the mixed research method. A total of 400 teachers participated in the quantitative part and 20 principals and 20 teachers in the qualitative part of the study. The quantitative research results shows that teachers' views varied significantly in personal, organizational time traps, managerial and conceptual regulation dimensions according to service duration variable. According to half of principals instructional time wasn’t managed effectively. Increasing the students' readiness level, teachers and instructional quality were suggested.
Many teacher education researchers have expressed concerns about the lack of rigorous impact evaluations of teacher preparation practices. I summarize these various concerns as they relate to issues of internal validity, measurement, and external validity. I then assess the prevalence of these issues by reviewing 166 impact evaluations of teacher preparation practices published in peer-reviewed journals between 2002–2019. Although I find that very few studies address issues of internal validity, measurement, and external validity, I highlight some innovative approaches and present a checklist of considerations to assist future researchers in designing more rigorous impact evaluations.
Texas reduced new teacher preparation requirements in 2001 to allow more alternate paths to licensure. Within 5 years, this policy change resulted in more than half of the state’s new teachers being alternatively licensed. Using a series of first difference models, this study examines the relationship between the increased supply of new teachers in Texas and new teacher salaries prior to the policy change and in the 15 years thereafter. We find that the policy change did increase the supply of new teachers via alternative licensing, but pay for new EC-6 teachers declined by 2%–13% with differential effects based on the rate at which districts hired alternatively licensed teachers.
The teaching of English language holds an important position in the educational curricula of the whole world. The educationists of all times have advocated the study of more than one language for multi purposes. In the past classical languages like Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit in the East, and Latin and Greek in the West were held in high esteem. The study of one or more of these languages was considered vital for the complete education of the young people. In current era, the study of only modern and living languages is considered important because of the mass communication at the national level for students in the middle and western middle schools; the modern language is the second language. (Abbott, 2012).
This paper analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of three of the major approaches to teacher education reform in the United States: the professionalization agenda, the deregulation agenda, and the social justice agenda. Although each of these approaches to reform has contributed in positive ways to improving teacher education in a manner that would lessen the achievement gap in U.S. public schools, they each have certain weaknesses that undermine this goal. There are also important issues of inequality in U.S. society that are not addressed by any of the reform agendas.
By drawing on quantitative data and qualitative analyses of five major national education policies implemented in India over the last 15 years, this comprehensive volume explores their impact on teacher quality and perceived effectiveness, explaining how this relates to variations in student performance. Responding to a national agenda to increase the quality of the Indian teacher workforce, Teacher Quality and Education Policy in India critically questions the application of human capital theory to Indian education policy. Chapters provide in-depth and strategically structured analyses of five national policies - including the recently approved National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 -\ to see how Indian policymakers use teacher quality as a driver and measurement of education and national economic development. Ultimately, the text offers evidence-based policy recommendations to improve teacher quality in India, suggesting that while all five policies have contributed significant frameworks and recommendations for teacher quality reform, they have failed to move beyond a symbolic function. Given its rigorous methodological approach, this book will be a valuable addition to the under-researched question of education policymaking in postcolonial contexts. It will be an indispensable resource not only for scholars working on policymaking in the Indian context, but also for those working at the intersection of education, teacher development, and policymaking in developing countries.
The relocation of teacher preparation to new graduate schools of education (nGSEs) is a highly controversial “innovation” within the rapidly expanding field of teacher education. This introductory article to a guest-edited issue of The New Educator focused on nGSEs defines teacher preparation at nGSEs and analyzes their characteristics. The article identifies the intersecting political, professional, and policy contexts and conditions out of which teacher preparation at nGSEs emerged, pointing out that popular and professional reactions and responses to this innovation have been extremely mixed. The article also provides information about the design of the larger study from which all the articles in the issue draw.
What teachers know about their content area plays a role in how they effectively enhance the scientific literacy of their students. This leads to questions about teacher content knowledge as they enter the field. The Praxis Earth and Space Science: Content Knowledge Test is the most widely used licensure assessment for aspiring Earth science teachers in the United States. There are few previous reports on the personal and professional characteristics of those test-takers which would provide information about Earth science teacher candidates. This study presents findings based on analysis of trends in reported demographic variables and scaled scores for examinees assessed by the licensure exam from June 2006 to May 2016 in order to identify which have the highest correlation with their performance. Three major themes emerged as a result of the study: there is currently a large proportion of out of field teaching, a lack of diversity among test-takers, and underperformance of Black/African American test-takers when compared to their White counterparts as well as in females compared to males. Our analysis uncovered more subtle differences in performance based on undergraduate GPA and age group as well. Findings from this study suggest recommendations for improving focused recruitment and retention efforts to support identified at-risk populations enrolled in Earth science teacher preparation programs.
The study examined the effect of teachers’ qualification on the academic achievement of Senior Secondary School Students in biology. The area for the study was Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State. The study applied ex-post-facto survey research design. Random sampling was used to select six (6) in Ethiope East Local Government Area. The SS II student’s 2014/ 2015 sessional result formed the data which was analysed using simple percentage and t - test statistic. Three research questions were answered and the findings of the research showed that academic achievement of Senior Secondary School students in Biology subject was independent of the teachers’ qualification, teachers’ experience and type of school attended. It was concluded that the learning of Biology depends on the way it is presented to the learner, the way the learner actively interacts with the learning experiences presented to him and the environment within which the learning takes place. Recommendation is made for organization of more regular in-service and refresher training of biology teachers to enable them embrace and conform to the emerging technologies in pedagogy. Also students should be enlightened on the relevance of biology and be adequately motivated to have a positive attitude towards the subject.
Career and technical education (CTE) continues to face an annual shortage of qualified teachers in the profession. This shortage has caused an increase in the use of alternative certification/licensure pathways across all 50 states and the District of Columbia. These alternative pathways are highly divergent from state to state. Limited research has investigated the alternative certification/licensure requirements that may contribute to CTE teacher shortage. This predictive correlational study looked to determine if CTE alternative certification/licensure requirements could predict CTE teacher shortages. It was found that CTE alternative certification/licensure requirements were not a good predictor of CTE teacher shortage.
In the summer of 2013, the National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ) issued public ratings of teacher education programs. We provide the first empirical examination of NCTQ ratings, beginning with a descriptive overview of the ratings and how they evolved from 2013–2016. We also report on results from an information experiment built around the initial ratings release. In the experiment we provided targeted information about specific programmatic changes that would improve the rating for a randomly selected sample of elementary teacher education programs. Average program ratings improved between 2013 and 2016, but we find no evidence that the information intervention increased program responsiveness to NCTQ’s rating effort. In fact, treated programs had lower ratings than the control group in 2016.
Teacher preparation programs (TPPs) have received a great deal of policy and research attention of late. And despite the commonsense notion that preparation for formal classroom responsibilities should improve the readiness of teacher candidates, the value of formalized preservice teacher education is unclear. In this review of the quantitative evidence about TPPs, I find that most studies show only minor differences in the value added of teachers who graduate from different programs, and that there are only a few studies that focus on the association between the features of teacher preparation and teacher workforce outcomes. The lack of evidence on the importance of the features of teacher preparation is primarily due to data deficiencies: data often do not permit connections between TPP features and teacher workforce outcomes. As a consequence, feedback loops that could theoretically provide TPPs with actionable information about program design typically do not exist.
In keeping with the theme of the 40th anniversary issue of EJTE, this article looks back and forward at US teacher education accountability. It argues that “holding teacher education accountable” has been the major approach to reforming teacher education in the US for the last two decades, assuming that enhanced teacher education quality depends on vigilant public evaluation and monitoring of outcomes related to teacher education institutions, programs, and teacher candidates. This article looks back at the “era of accountability” by examining five policy, political, and professional developments that contributed to its emergence and strong hold on US teacher education. Looking forward to the future of teacher education accountability in the US, the article argues that we need a new approach – democratic accountability in teacher education – which is based on intelligent professional responsibility for students’ learning including democratic knowledge and skills, strong equity, and genuine collaboration with multiple stakeholders.
This chapter examines the nature of teacher knowledge and its implications for the assistance required by PSTs and ECTs within virtual communities of teachers. The chapter characterises teacher knowledge by identifying two key types of knowing and their relation to teaching practice. From this characterisation, it is argued that novice teachers especially need opportunities for collaborative reflection with other teachers in order to construct, develop, and transform their teacher knowledge. Some conditions for this collaborative reflection—especially trust and collegial-like conversation—are then examined, and the authors contend that virtual communities need to promote high levels of engagement and social presence among the members of the community. The chapter concludes with five general implications for the design of virtual communities of teachers.
AJK (Azad Jammu & Kashmir) government is a small administrative unit under overall sovereignty of Pakistan. It has a total area of 13297 sq kilometers with a population of about 3.8 million. This study critically examines the problems of primary education system in AJK State specifically in govt. primary schools in Pakistan administrative Kashmir, a part of former princely state called Azad Jammu & Kashmir. For this purpose a significant review of on hand literature was passed out. On the basis of deeper and critical investigation into the literature, the study found that primary education is the most neglected, poorly financed and poorly managed. There is political interference in the system which breeds corruption, favoritism and nepotism. The system of supervision is weak and traditionally characterized having no effective mechanism for teacher training with poor system of accountability, teachers are underpaid and successive educational policies have failed to bring any positive changes in the system due to poor implementation. The curriculum of the primary education is outdated. Assessment is based on the memory of the students rather than their performance. On the basis of this study it is recommended that the problems can be solved by robust system of accountability, eradication of corruption, quality assessment system, non political interference, and quality curriculum and teachers motivation.
Schools play a key role in child and youth development as both social microcosms of the broader society and reciprocally influencing people and communities. As such, schools can function as a protective factor that promotes safety, motivation, relationships, and support for positive student outcomes. However, schools may also function as a risk factor with inflexible bureaucratic structures that employ harsh and exclusionary discipline that contributes to negative outcomes. This chapter discusses schools as a social institution by examining the student-, teacher-, and building-level predictors of academic and social and emotional success, as well as schools as a locus for preventive interventions.
One of the greatest challenges facing our global society is the preparation of teachers to teach in culturally and linguistically complex classrooms worldwide. This chapter reports on the author’s recent research focusing on the preparation of teachers to teach diverse student populations in culturally and linguistically complex classrooms across national boundaries; and in particular, focusing on the preparation of teachers to work with students from historically marginalized, disenfranchised, or underserved groups. Part of a larger study that looks at teacher preparation in four transnational contexts, this chapter focuses on the efforts of a U.S. and a South African teacher education program designed to prepare pre-service teachers to teach in complex classrooms and examines the teachers’ generative change after participating in a professional development institute focused on using writing as a pedagogical tool to affect teacher change. Building on generative change theories and Ball’s Model of Generative Change (2009), the work explores what teachers learn through participation in a professional development that used writing as a pedagogical tool to become metacognitively aware of their own identities and the identities of their students. The findings confirm that teachers’ discourses combine with their subsequent actions to give evidence of shifts in their beliefs and understandings. The chapter concludes by offering writing as a pedagogical tool that can be used by teacher education programs worldwide to assist them in gauging their effectiveness in affecting conceptual growth, depth of understanding, and change in teachers’ attitudes and perceptions concerning the students in their classrooms.
In this chapter, we draw conclusions on the strengths and weaknesses of the two dominant approaches to teacher training and professional development described in Chaps. 2 and 3. It is shown that none of them has been sufficiently validated, and questions can be raised about the impact of each of these two approaches on the quality of teaching. It is argued that reflection and critical thinking are or should be important elements in all aspects of learning and performance. However, critical thinking is necessary, but not sufficient for improving teaching and student learning. There need to be both knowledge and bodies of intellectual and performance skills that form the basis for critical analysis. Without these, and the ability to translate the critical analysis into action in order to improve performance, there is little overt social benefit to be gained from engagement in critical analysis and reflection approaches more generally. In this context, the rationale for merging the two main approaches to teacher training is presented in the second part of this chapter. A critical review of research on teacher training helps us to identify six main characteristics of effective teacher training and professional development programmes, which are also discussed in this chapter. Finally, a summary is provided of the main issues raised in the first part of this book. There is support for the view that teacher training and professional development should take into account the main findings of teacher effectiveness research, which are concerned with the characteristics of effective teaching practices. For this reason, the next part of this book is concerned with the main foundations of research into teacher effectiveness.
This paper reports statistical analysis of the determinants of average student performance on standardized examinations, and also the determinants of the extent to which students fail such examinations. Unlike most other cross-sectional studies of performance among school districts within one state, this study uses the quality of teachers, as measured by standardized test scores, as a determinant of performance. Perhaps the most striking empirical result of the study is the finding that a 1% increase in teacher quality, as measured by standardized test scores, is accompanied by a 5% decline in the rate of failure of students on standardized competency examinations. The corresponding impact on average or mean achievement of teacher quality is. by contrast, quite modest: 0.5%–0.8% per 1% improvement in teacher quality.
[Excerpt] What causes differences in secondary school achievement across these four nations? The first two sections of the paper describe the achievement differences among the four countries and examine the proximate causes of the differentials. I conclude that these achievement differentials are caused by differences in the quality of teachers and of student time and effort inputs devoted to academic achievement.
Educational reformers increasingly seek to manipulate policies regarding assessment, curriculum, and professional development in order to improve instruction. They assume that manipulating these elements of instructional policy will change teachers' practice, which will then improve student performance. We formalize these ideas into a rudimentary model of the relations among instructional policy, teaching, and learning. We propose that successful instructional policies are themselves instructional in nature: because teachers figure as a key connection between policy and practice, their opportunities to learn about and from policy are a crucial influence both on their practice, and, at least indirectly, on student achievement. Using data from a 1994 survey of California elementary school teachers and 1994 student California Learning Assessment System (CLAS) scores, we examine the influence of assessment, curriculum, and professional development on teacher practice and student achievement. Our results bear out the usefulness of the model: under circumstances that we identify, policy can affect practice, and both can affect student performance.
The purpose of this study was to examine the concurrent and predictive validity of the Weighted Common Examinations and Education in the Elementary School test scores from the National Teacher Examinations for a group of teachers who were graduates of one university. Results of the study of both tests were similar and support the findings of other researchers. Suggestions for use of the results of the study in teacher selection were advanced.
A universe of education production function studies was assembled in order to utilize meta-analytic methods to assess the direction and magnitude of the relations between a variety of school inputs and student achievement. The 60 primary research studies aggregated data at the level of school districts or smaller units and either controlled for socioeconomic characteristics or were longitudinal in design. The analysis found that a broad range of resources were positively related to student outcomes, with effect sizes large enough to suggest that moderate increases in spending may be associated with significant increases in achievement. The discussion relates the findings of this study with trends in student achievement from the National Assessment of Educational Progress and changes in social capital over the last two decades.
A 10-year comparison of graduates from 4- and 5-year teacher education programs at the same institution revealed significant differences between graduates of the two programs. Significantly more 5-year graduates entered and stayed in teaching than graduates of the 4-year program. Graduates of the 5-year program were more satisfied with their career and perceived the quality of their program to be higher than the 4-year graduates did. Limitations of the study and alter native explanations for these differences are discussed.
The authors found that Education majors become more progressive in their attitudes toward educational practices after experiencing professional courses and clinical and field experi ences, particularly when those experiences are organized and directed by Education faculty members who hold progressive views. The results contradict often-found conclusions from less rigorously designed studies and suggest that the contradictory findings of different research paradigms may be reflecting the different factors that make up the various attitude constructs.
Educational reformers increasingly seek to manipulate policies regarding assessment, curriculum, and professional development in order to improve instruction. They assume that manipulating these elements of instructional policy will change teachers' practice, which will then improve student performance. We formalize these ideas into a rudimentary model of the relations among instructional policy teaching, and learning. We propose that successful instructional policies are themselves instructional in nature: because teachers figure as a key connection between policy and practice, their opportunities to learn about and from policy are a crucial influence both on their practice and, at least indirectly, on student achievement. Using data from a 1994 survey of California elementary school teachers and 1994 student California Learning Assessment System (CLAS) scores, we examine the influence of assessment, curriculum, bear out the usefulness of the model: under circumstances that we identify, policy can affect practice and both can affect student performance.
Prologue: Learning from the Past 1. Progress or Regress? 2. Policy Cycles and Institutional Trends 3. How Schools Change Reforms 4. Why the Grammar of Schooling Persists 5. Reinventing Schooling Epilogue: Looking toward the Future Notes Acknowledgments Index
Meta-analytic techniques for summarizing information about the relationship between school resources and student performance are capable only of addressing the narrow and uninteresting hypothesis that resources are never used effectively by schools. The data show clearly that resources are sometimes used effectively, although this happens infrequently and there is no description of the circumstances under which resources are used effectively. This article relates the basic evidence on school effectiveness to the specific application of meta-analytic methods employed by Greenwald, Hedges, and Laine (1996). Their analysis, suffering from the narrowness of the inquiry inherent in their statistical methods, is also based on a very highly selected sample of results that biases their analysis precisely toward their conclusions. As a result, their summary of existing work provides a distorted and misleading view of the potential implications of school resource policies. Both detailed econometric evidence and aggregate performance of U.S. schools point toward serious problems with inefficient use of resources. This evidence in turn suggests that lack of resources is not the largest problem facing schools and that more fundamental reforms are needed in schools.
Using data from a 50-state survey of policies, state case study analyses, the 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS), and the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), this study examines the ways in which teacher qualifications and other school inputs are related to student achievement across states. The findings of both the qualitative and quantitative analyses suggest that policy investments in the quality of teachers may be related to improvements in student performance. Quantitative analyses indicate that measures of teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and language status. State policy surveys and case study data are used to evaluate policies that influence the overall level of teacher qualifications within and across states. This analysis suggests that policies adopted by states regarding teacher education, licensing, hiring, and professional development may make an important difference in the qualifications and capacities that teachers bring to their work. The implications for state efforts to enhance quality and equity in public education are discussed.
The annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education is discussed. Collaboration among and within universities, schools, teacher organizations, and public agencies are seen as the key to educational reform. The goal is the improvement of some aspect of teacher education, research, or schooling. (MLW)
The supply of traditional school of education graduates must be augmented to meet the demand for science and mathematics teachers. This report examines recent programmatic responses to breaking down institutional barriers. In most instances examined, special programs were designed to prepare mathematics and science teachers, and each program was targeted on a specific population such as retired persons, persons changing careers, or recent college graduates. The problems identified underscore the need to move teacher education to the graduate level. Descriptions are given of a number of special teacher preparation programs which are classified into three categories: (1) nontraditional recruitment programs which provide potential teachers from nontraditional pools with course work and other requirements for certification in mathematics or science; (2) alternative certification programs, designed to prepare teachers to meet revised state certification requirements for entering teaching; and (3) retraining programs, designed to help teachers already trained in other fields to obtain endorsement or certification in mathematics or science. (JD)
An evaluation is reported of an intensive 15 month non-traditional certification program for secondary teachers in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry and earth sciences. The program integrated pedagogical content from empirical, experiential and theoretical perspectives. The rational for developing the progam was that in order to be considered as viable content for a teacher preparation program, the concept, principle or process must be: (1) related to student growth as revealed by empirical evidence; (2) identified as a necessary curricular component by expert opinion based on experience; or (3) logically explained by theory from social science and/or philosophy. Content maps and instructional models are presented along with course offerings. The results of the observations completed for the evaluation are discussed in the areas of: (1) student achievement; (2) teaching practices; (3) reflective thinking about teaching; (4) collaboration between schools and university; and (5) recruitment and selection of interns. Data analyses and subsequent interpretation of the analyses suggested that the efforts to integrate different epistemologies or extant content of pedagogy into an effective teacher preparation program were successful. Included in the appendices is a sample observation form and a copy of the high school biology examination used in the earth science course. (JD)
This study was conducted to determine differences between: (1) supervisors' ratings of instructional competencies of education majors and non-education majors in a semester of student teaching; and (2) evaluations by education majors and non-education majors of their morale during a student teacher program. Data were collected during one semester from 82 student teachers and their supervisors participating in a competency based program for secondary level teachers. University supervisors were required to evaluate their student teachers on two scales. One rated the instructional effectiveness of the student teacher, while the other rated two curricular units developed and implemented by the student teacher. All student teachers completed "weekly reflection sheets," providing information on their activities and their feelings of confidence or lack of confidence for each week. Findings revealed that non-education majors were rated significantly higher on instructional competencies during the first curricular unit, although this trend reversed itself during the second unit. Differences in morale ratings between the groups were minor, and both groups displayed a common pattern; there was a drop in morale about 2 weeks into the experience, followed by a subsequent rise in self confidence. (JD)
A meta-analysis was conducted of studies which addressed characteristics (gender, course-work, IQ, etc.) as the independent factor, and: (1) their teaching behavior in the classroom (questioning behavior, teaching orientation, etc.); and (2) student outcome characteristics (achievement, attitude toward science, etc.) as the two dependent factors. The population under study was science classes, ranging from kindergarten through twelfth grade, located in the United States, and the teachers of these classes. The studies integrated were reported in dissertations, journal articles, and other forms. Relationship data obtained from the studies were converted to Pearson product moment correlations. In general, quite low relationships were found between teacher background characteristics and (1) their touching behavior in the classroom and (2) student outcome characteristics. Summary tables showing the relationships are presented along with discussion of the strongest relationships.
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