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Need Public Policy Ignore the Third Sector? Government Policy in Australia and the United Kingdom
Abstract
The policy of Australian governments, both Commonwealth, state and territory, toward those organisations that comprise a third sector of the organised economy is patchy and piecemeal. Absent is any recognition that they constitute a distinct sector; absent too is any recognition of their contribution to economy, society and politics. Such a situation is not inevitable. After identifying some of the gaps and contradictions in Australian policy toward the third sector, this article outlines the many policy initiatives to encourage the third sector or social economy (in European Union terms) taken by the Blair government in the United Kingdom. Given that there is a good deal of policy borrowing between Australia and the United Kingdom, the stark contrast between the two countries in this policy field is puzzling. This article concludes by identifying four developments that led to this policy explosion in the United Kingdom and finds them largely missing in Australia. This leads to a conclusion that a similar range of policies are unlikely to develop here.
... In Canada, NPOs have contributed $35.6 billion, or 2.5 per cent of the country's GDP in 2007, and these numbers do not include volunteer labor value and other exceptions (Jackson and Clemens, 2014), meaning that the overall contributions to GDP may be higher. In Australia, 3.3 per cent of the GDP was attributed to NPOs in the year 2000 (Lyons and Passey, 2006). Hume et al. (2012, p. 84, p. 85) noted that "there are as many as 700,000 non-profit organizations in Australia" and "[a]pproximately 35,000 of these firms employ 604,000 people or 6.8 per cent of Australians employ staff with an income of $33.5 billion, contributed $21 billion, or 3.3 per cent, to GDP". ...
... USA, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Hungary and Japan), representing an average of "4.5 per cent of the total labor force". Beyond economic contributions, the value of NPOs is more properly understood through the qualitative social and cultural contributions these organizations make to their communities (Lettieri et al., 2004;Lyons and Passey, 2006). The wildly diverse range of organizational missions that aim primarily to contribute socially and/or culturally sets NPOs apart, as representatives of a distinct sector with a unique set of principles, goals and knowledge needs. ...
... However, there are many differences between FPOs and NPOs, including management structures, operational guidelines and legal requirements, among others (Hume et al., 2012), which impact KM practices, significantly (Ragsdell et al., 2014). NPOs play significant roles in community services in different sectors, particularly those related to health, education and culture (Lyons and Passey, 2006). Unlike FPOs, the purpose of an NPO is not to maximize financial gains but to create "social value for society" (Lettieri et al., 2004, p. 16). ...
Purpose
– This paper aims to present findings from a study of non-profit organizations (NPOs), including a model of knowledge needs that can be applied by practitioners and scholars to further develop the NPO sector.
Design/methodology/approach
– A survey was conducted with NPOs operating in Canada and Australia. An analysis of survey responses identified the different types of knowledge essential for each organization. Respondents identified the importance of three pre-determined themes (quantitative data) related to knowledge needs, as well as a fourth option, which was a free text box (qualitative data). The quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistical analyses and a grounded theory approach, respectively.
Findings
– Analysis of the quantitative data indicates that NPOs ' needs are comparable in both countries. Analysis of qualitative data identified five major categories and multiple sub-categories representing the types of knowledge needs of NPOs. Major categories are knowledge about management and organizational practices, knowledge about resources, community knowledge, sectoral knowledge and situated knowledge. The paper discusses the results using semantic proximity and presents an emergent, evidence-based knowledge management (KM)-NPO model.
Originality/value
– The findings contribute to the growing body of literature in the KM domain, and in the understudied research domain related to the knowledge needs and experiences of NPOs. NPOs will find the identified categories and sub-categories useful to undertake KM initiatives within their individual organizations. The study is also unique, as it includes data from two countries, Canada and Australia.
... Non-profit organisations (NPOs) are a common organisational form within the non-profit segment. According to previous observational evaluation, NPOs have been presented as 'important economic actors' [Lyons and Passey, (2006), p.90]. These organisations contribute significantly to a nation's gross domestic product provide paid employment opportunities and volunteer services. ...
... Beyond the economic contributions, the organisations also added to the value of volunteer labour as well as other exceptions. In Australia, Lyons and Passey (2006) reported that NPO's contribution to the country's GDP was 3.3% in 2000. Likewise, in the USA, NPOs contributed $225.9 billion annually to the value of labour (Andersen et al., 2005;Rathi et al., 2016). ...
... Non-profit organisations (NPOs) are a common organisational form within the non-profit segment. According to previous observational evaluation, NPOs have been presented as 'important economic actors' [Lyons and Passey, (2006), p.90]. These organisations contribute significantly to a nation's gross domestic product provide paid employment opportunities and volunteer services. ...
... Beyond the economic contributions, the organisations also added to the value of volunteer labour as well as other exceptions. In Australia, Lyons and Passey (2006) reported that NPO's contribution to the country's GDP was 3.3% in 2000. Likewise, in the USA, NPOs contributed $225.9 billion annually to the value of labour (Andersen et al., 2005;Rathi et al., 2016). ...
... Non-Profit Organizations (NPOs) play a significant role in the economy (Lyons and Passey, 2006). For example, NPOs contributed around 4% to the Canadian GDP (Holoday and Veldhuis, 2013) and around 3.3% to the Australian GDP in 2000 (Lyons and Passey, 2006). ...
... Non-Profit Organizations (NPOs) play a significant role in the economy (Lyons and Passey, 2006). For example, NPOs contributed around 4% to the Canadian GDP (Holoday and Veldhuis, 2013) and around 3.3% to the Australian GDP in 2000 (Lyons and Passey, 2006). In addition, NPOs' primary focus is to create value for society (Lettieri et al., 2004, p.16) through charitable and outreach work (Teegan et al., 2004). ...
This poster presents key emerging findings from theonline survey which was conducted with a largenumber of Australian non-profit sector units to getinsight into the use of knowledge management (KM)practices as well as the use of social media such asFacebook, YouTube and Twitter, particularly in KMpractices. The findings from the data collected duringthe first month of opening of survey will be presentedin the poster. These findings will provide us withbetter understanding KM, NPO and social medialandscape which will have implications and learningfor NPOs operating in Canada and other countries.Cette affiche présente les principaux résultats issusde l’enquête en ligne qui a été menée auprès d’ungrand nombre d’unités australiennes du secteur à butnon lucratif afin d’obtenir une perspective surl’utilisation et les pratiques en gestion desconnaissances (GC) ainsi que l’utilisation des médiassociaux tels que Facebook, YouTube et Twitter, enparticulier dans les pratiques de gestion desconnaissances. Les résultats des données recueilliespendant le premier mois de l’ouverture de l’enquêteseront présentés sur cette affiche. Ces résultats nousfourniront une meilleure compréhension du paysagede la GC, des OSBL et des médias sociaux, ce quiaura des répercussions et un apprentissage pour lesOSBL en exploitation au Canada et dans d’autrespays.
... It also can be called as not-for-profit or third sector organizations. NPOs present as "important actors" to the national economy (Lyons & Passey, 2006). Overall, the critical purpose of the NPOs is to create social value for the community or society. ...
Knowledge management (KM) is realized as an innovation factor in management to ensure organizational success. The article will present current KM practices from a non-profit perspective in the context of developing countries, covering four critical components of the KM-NPOs domain: knowledge sharing, knowledge resources, knowledge creation, and knowledge needs. Typical knowledge sharing barriers in the NPOs and motivational factors that promote knowledge activities from non-profit environment perspectives will be presented. Critical categories and a range of multiple sub-categories of knowledge resources that support the organizations to achieve sustainable development will be identified. The processes of four knowledge creation components, including socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization will be discussed. Finally, the chapter will re-identify and update the type of knowledge needs in the NPOs, particularly in the context of developing countries.
... These organisations are also called not-for-pro¯t or third-sector organisations. NPOs are presented as \important actors" to the national economy (Lyons and Passey, 2006). Overall, the crucial purpose of NPOs is to create social value for the community or society. ...
This study empirically investigates knowledge creation (KC) in the context of the not-for-profit environment and seeks an understanding of how the dynamic of KC occurs in non-profit organisations (NPOs) in developing countries. The study, qualitative in nature, was applied in international non-profit organisations (INPOs), which is based on the 31 interviews taken at various such organisations in Thailand. The research illustrates the context of interaction dynamic that figures out the exampled NPOs, that is the creation of four types of ba, which enhances the KC process and identifies the specific knowledge types that are managed in these organisations. The investigation offers a holistic approach of the processes of organisational knowledge-creating in the NPOs. Furthermore, it is intended that the evidence presented a critical attitude regarding knowledge management (KM)-NPOs domains, especially in the KC process in the academic community. For NPO practitioners, this paper allows us to discover the organisational practices on the process-creating to enhance KM activities in their organisation.
... Currently, there is a lack of institutional framework for addressing these issues in relation to the non-profit sector in the development planning process. Other studies (Anheier & Toepler, 2019;Lyons & Passey, 2006) have also identified the lack of recognition of non-profits in the policy process. ...
Integrating non-profit organizations (NPOs) and the services they provide into development planning highlights an aspect of government–NPOs relationship that frames NPOs as drivers of development. In South Africa, even though NPOs are typically regarded as private owned organizations, the nature of the services they provide in various policy fields has implications for socio-economic development. However, the development planning process is currently, more public and business sector oriented. Using a qualitative research approach, the findings suggest that non-profit services can be integrated into development planning through the processes of Reality Adjustment, Strategic Engagement, Sector Mapping and Pro-activism.
... The United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and Australia, since the beginning of their income tax regimes, have all permitted a deduction or tax credit for gifts to certain public purpose organizations. In the last decade all these countries have used policy measures such as nonprofit fundraising capacity building, publicity campaigns and tax incentives to encourage philanthropy [19,20]. ...
This study discussed the tax treatment methods of corporate monetary and in-kind donations, which were classified in this study into two main methods: "The Method of Society's Rights and Then Government's Rights and the Method of Government's Rights and Then Society's Rights," with a statement of the disadvantages and advantages of each method. This study also defined the meaning of tax exemption and classified it into two types are: (1) Tax exemption in the sense of deduction; (2) Tax exemption in the sense of restoration\ return. By studying and evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of tax treatment methods of monetary and in kind donations, it would be better to use the method of government's rights and then society's rights, because it reflects the true meaning of the content of the CSR idea and its lofty goals. As well as, the continuation of corporation's to make these contributions with the adoption of the income tax law in the state this method will reflect the degree of perfection and idealism\optimality of the CSR in the community.
... The United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and Australia, since the beginning of their income tax regimes, have all permitted a deduction or tax credit for gifts to certain public purpose organisations. In the last decade, all these countries have used policy measures, such as nonprofit fundraising capacity building, publicity campaigns and tax incentives to encourage philanthropy (Lyons andPassey, 2006; McGregor-Lowndes et al., 2006: 496) . ...
... The United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and Australia, since the beginning of their income tax regimes, have all permitted a deduction or tax credit for gifts to certain public purpose organizations. In the last decade all these countries have used policy measures such as nonprofit fundraising capacity building, publicity campaigns and tax incentives to encourage philanthropy (Lyons andPassey,2006 ; McGregor-Lowndes et al, 2006: 496). ...
... Accordingly, locally-based community organisations have different ways of practising, organising and managing from the other organisations involved in the community services industry such as large non-government organisations, for-profit organisations and government bureaucracies. Their unique governance, organisation and practices make crucial contributions to the quality of community life but remain largely unacknowledged by those outside the community sector (Harris, 2001;Lyons, 2001;Lyons & Passey, 2006). ...
The Illawarra Forum is the regional peak and resource organisation for community organisations, groups and individuals who provide social and welfare services for disadvantaged communities and people in the Illawarra and the Shoalhaven.
... The United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and Australia, since the beginning of their income tax regimes, have all permitted a deduction or tax credit for gifts to certain public purpose organizations. In the last decade all these countries have used policy measures such as nonprofit fundraising capacity building, publicity campaigns and tax incentives to encourage philanthropy (Lyons andPassey 2006 ;McGregor-Lowndes et al, 2006:496). ...
... European emergence, for example, is potentially the most advanced with scholars considering welfare pluralism equal to immediate economic metrics (Evers & Laville, 2004). In Australia, Governments have been slow to identify the role of the third-sector and provide a policy platform to encourage its growth (Lyons & Passey, 2006). However, to a large degree, social entrepreneurs in their infancy have created significant responses to global challenges. ...
Contemporary society is characterized by the prevalence of wicked problems to which
the efforts and actions of some entrepreneurs have negatively contributed to social
problems. Corporate social responsibility emerged as an early response to multifactor
problems that are difficult to conceptualize or structure, but it has had limited
success in engendering significant structural societal change. Social entrepreneurship
is a contested construct that typically includes the social entrepreneur. A definition of
social entrepreneurs is provided drawing on the literature. Social entrepreneurs offer
leadership for social innovation outcomes as an antidote to prevailing social issues.
This contributes to the literature on social entrepreneurs by examining how social
entrepreneurs lead in the digital era. Importantly, this chapter considers the role
that authentic leader behaviors (awareness, sincerity, balanced processing, positive
moral perspectives, and informal influence) has in enabling social entrepreneurs
to create and innovate.
... While interest in the function of social enterprises as new public governance actors is growing, we note that explicit policy support for social enterprise remains piecemeal in most Australian jurisdictions (Lyons and Passey, 2006;Mason and Barraket, 2015). The state of Victoria is our research setting because it has historically been a leader in investing in community and social enterprise development (Barraket, 2008) and is the only Australian jurisdiction at the time of data collection and writing that has a current social enterprise strategy. ...
Purpose
The social economy – including not-for-profits, cooperatives, mutual organisations and social enterprises – is playing a stronger role than ever in the delivery of public policy. Yet, these organisations are often anecdotally viewed as relatively inefficient providers. The purpose of this paper is to compare the profitability and labour productivity of social enterprises in the State of Victoria in Australia with that of small- and medium-sized business enterprises (SMEs) in the same state. This paper found that, although social enterprises generally generated smaller profits and, therefore, could be less profitable, their relative level of labour productivity (value added and income to labour employed) was comparable or higher than that of SMEs. This paper responds to the need for comparative insights about social enterprise performance and considers the implications of these findings for new public governance.
Design/methodology/approach
The social economy – including not-for-profits, cooperatives, mutual organisations and social enterprises – is playing a stronger role than ever in the delivery of public policy. Yet these organisations are often anecdotally viewed as relatively inefficient providers.
Findings
This paper found that, although social enterprises generally generated smaller profits and, therefore, could be less profitable, their relative level of labour productivity (value added and income to labour employed) was comparable or higher than that of SMEs. This paper responds to the need for comparative insights about social enterprise performance and considers the implications of these findings for new public governance.
Originality/value
This is the first work that has been done of this sort that has looked specifically at Australia circumstances.
... The literature on this SE issue has studied policies in different countries, including the UK, Australia, Poland, Canada and Spain (Chaves 2002;Lyons and Passey 2006;Loxley and Simpson 2007;Rymsza 2009;Alcock 2012;Phillips and Goodwin 2014;OECD/EU 2017;Chaves and Monzon 2018a). However, there is a scarcity of studies concerning the impacts of the economic crisis and of austerity policies on the implementation of policies promoting SE. ...
Governments face the challenge of fostering the social economy in a context of economic crisis and austerity policies. Despite the high levels of institutional recognition for the considerable social and economic value added by the social economy (SE), government policies following this approach have been scarce during the latest economic recession. This article analyses the case of Spain, a country that has endured deep austerity policies and has a strong SE sector. Building on the SE approach that combines quantitative and qualitative data, this study examines the policies that promoted the SE during two periods: before and during the economic crisis. As a novel contribution, the study compares the political discourse with the policies implemented. The findings highlight a gap between the discourse and the policies implemented during the crisis, showing that the SE has not been prioritized by policymakers, and link that gap with the recent EU economic policy.
... A third factor that might explain why social policy tends not to feature too highly during Australian election campaigns is that Australia has not often been a notable social policy innovator. For example, some claim that Australia has been intellectually and institutionally 'slow' to cultivate its third sector (see Althaus, Bridgman and Davis 2007: 19;Lyons and Passey 2006). In recent times, the last significant 'big picture' policy social agenda was the Rudd-Gillard 'social inclusion' initiative-which had been adopted first by a range of Australian Labor State governments, and other countries including the UK (Manwaring 2016). ...
... With the election of the Rudd Labor government in 2007, expectations rose that the federal government might engage in a more substantive policy programme analogous to the Westminster government (Lyons and Passey, 2006). Initial moves saw the government place social inclusion on its agenda and develop a Compact with the sector modelled on that established under Blair (Casey et al, 2010). ...
This article analyses social enterprise policy in the United Kingdom and Australia, comparing the different ideational strategies adopted by policymakers in each country. Drawing upon a unique policy dataset, it reveals that in the United Kingdom policymakers combined several ideas into a sophisticated narrative that sought to reflect sector growth and engage more deeply with the public. In comparison, Australian policy actors focused on a single idea, which underlined a more pragmatic approach to the utilisation of policy narratives. Through this analysis, the article makes a number of contributions. Empirically, it provides the first examination of the interplay between ideas and rhetoric in the field of social enterprise policy. Theoretically, it demonstrates the utility of discursive institutionalism in the field of policy analysis, and develops its analytical leverage by identifying the different strategies available to policymakers.
... While there is a range of ways in which governments routinely interact with the social economy through service purchasing, explicit public sector interest in advancing the social economy in general and social enterprise in particular in Australia has been largely characterised by marginal investment and small-scale policy developments (Lyons and Passey, 2006;Barraket, 2008). Public policy with an explicit focus on supporting social enterprise growth was initiated first by the Victorian State Government in 2004, with the establishment of an A$4m Volunteering and Community Enterprise Strategy (Barraket, 2008). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to document the nature of social enterprise models in Australia, their evolution and institutional drivers.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper draws on secondary analysis of source materials and the existing literature on social enterprise in Australia. Analysis was verified through consultation with key actors in the social enterprise ecosystem.
Findings
With its historical roots in an enterprising non-profit sector and the presence of cooperative and mutual businesses, the practice of social enterprise in Australia is relatively mature. Yet, the language of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship remains marginal and contested. The nature of social enterprise activity in Australia reflects the role of an internally diverse civil society within an economically privileged society and in response to an increasingly residualised welfare state. Australia’s geography and demography have also played determining roles in the function and presence of social enterprise, particularly in rural and remote communities.
Originality/value
The paper contributes to comparative understandings of social enterprise and provides the first detailed account of social enterprise development in Australia.
... While there is a range of ways in which governm ents routinely interact with the social economy through service purchasing, explicit public sector interest in advancing the social economy in general and social enterprise in particular in Australia has been largely characterised by marginal investment and small-scale policy developments (Lyons and Passey 2006;Barraket 2008). Public policy with an explicit focus on supporting social enterprise growth was initiated first by the Victorian state government in 2004, with the establishment of an A$4 million Volunteering and Community Enterprise Strategy (Barraket 2008). ...
... They share what John roskam of the Institute of Public Affairs (IPA) calls an ideology with a 'moniker' that is 'free market or liberal or conservative or some combination of the three' ( roskam 2005). The left-leaning (that is not neoliberal) groups are 34% of the total and the university-based independents are 23%, which makes the right-leaning think tanks the largest group of Australian think tanks ( Lyons and Passey 2006;Murray and Pacheco 2006;t'Hart and Vromen 2008)-but now only just. These think neoliberal tank figures in Australia in the 1990s were higher: 83 ( Herd 1999) and 90 ( Marsh 1994Marsh , 2007), respectively. ...
Neoliberal strategies implemented in Mexico from the 1980s onward have rolled back the frontiers of the state from many different economic and social spheres. As a consequence, planning research, monitoring, and evaluation tasks that formerly were undertaken in house by the state are increasingly being outsourced to think tanks, opening many points of access and pressure, both in the executive and legislative apparatus. The field of think tanks becomes more powerful within the national structure of power as the organizations involved in the field weave an increasingly dense network, and as the production and legitimation of policy knowledge and policy discourse are controlled by a smaller group of experts, political intermediaries, and large corporate leaders who have become key links connecting the most influential elites in the region.
... They share what John roskam of the Institute of Public Affairs (IPA) calls an ideology with a 'moniker' that is 'free market or liberal or conservative or some combination of the three' ( roskam 2005). The left-leaning (that is not neoliberal) groups are 34% of the total and the university-based independents are 23%, which makes the right-leaning think tanks the largest group of Australian think tanks ( Lyons and Passey 2006;Murray and Pacheco 2006;t'Hart and Vromen 2008)-but now only just. These think neoliberal tank figures in Australia in the 1990s were higher: 83 ( Herd 1999) and 90 ( Marsh 1994Marsh , 2007), respectively. ...
The aim of this book is to go beyond the largely descriptive accounts of think tanks that currently dominate the literature. This means it is necessary to look analytically at the place in society occupied by think tanks, together with their control of global resources, both in the economic and political policy fields, and their inroads into structures of power. To advance in this direction, the following questions are addressed: How have think tanks reached positions of power? Who funds and controls them and for what purpose? How is policy-making knowledge created? How are new policy ideas propagated and validated? This means looking at intrinsic connections between think tanks and power—either coercive or consensual—and how these organizations are also mechanisms whereby elites construct, exercise and challenge power, particularly through knowledge production, concentration, and mobilization.
... While there is a range of ways in which governm ents routinely interact with the social economy through service purchasing, explicit public sector interest in advancing the social economy in general and social enterprise in particular in Australia has been largely characterised by marginal investment and small-scale policy developments (Lyons and Passey 2006;Barraket 2008). Public policy with an explicit focus on supporting social enterprise growth was initiated first by the Victorian state government in 2004, with the establishment of an A$4 million Volunteering and Community Enterprise Strategy (Barraket 2008). ...
... Based on these findings, Australian SEs are less likely to see public investment in core services, which is a contrast to other countries, such as the United Kingdom, where in the recent past government commitments to "growing" SE were seen as concomitant with public sector spending. This is also consistent with past analyses of the relationship between governments and third sectors in these countries (see Lyons & Passey, 2006). ...
... According to Lyons and Passey (2006) the Cross Cutting Review of the voluntary and community sector in the UK found that while the sector was playing an increasingly important role in delivering public services the UK government did not provide parallel support for the sector to develop its infrastructure and management capacity. This has, according to Lyons and Passey resulted in the erosion of core financial and management capacity of many voluntary and community organisations in the UK. ...
Accounting skills are important for the continued viability and growth of organisations. However, many organisations in the community sector are faced with problems unique to the sector making the acquisition of accounting skills particularly difficult. This paper explores the issues faced by Community Organisations (CO) to gain access to appropriate accounting skills. The study is centred upon answering three questions: What are the accounting skills required by community organisations? What level of understanding of accounting is there in the Victorian community sector? How accessible are accounting skills to the community sector? The answers to these questions were obtained through interviews with people involved with the community sector either as managers of intermediate organisations or community organisations. The findings of this research show that access to accounting skills in the sector is uneven. The evidence also suggests that the uneven access is the result of a number of barriers including: A lack of funding; A lack of time; Limited availability of appropriate accounting courses; A lack of awareness by volunteer and paid staff, and board members of the need for basic accounting knowledge. Recommendations to overcome these barriers are also made.
... According to Lyons and Passey (2006) the Cross Cutting Review of the voluntary and community sector in the UK found that while the sector was playing an increasingly important role in delivering public services the UK government did not provide parallel support for the sector to develop its infrastructure and management capacity. This has, according to Lyons and Passey resulted in the erosion of core financial and management capacity of many voluntary and community organisations in the UK. ...
The study investigates the relationship between CEO compensation and performance of State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in South Africa, using data for the period 2009 to 2011. The results indicated that there exist no positive relationship between CEO compensation and SOEs performance as measured by return on assets. The results also indicated a positive relationship between CEO compensation (base salary) and the size of SOEs as measured by total revenue and number of employees. The results suggest that board members of SOEs in South Africa should hold CEOs accountable for the performance of SOEs, and should not pay huge salaries and bonuses to non performing CEOs.
... A third viewpoint observes that the growing attention to the role of NGOs has downplayed the role of governments in service delivery, creating the perception that services provided by government are inferior to those provided by NGOs (Edwards 2002;MacDonald & Marston 2002;Lyons & Passey 2006). This perspective suggests that NGOs have been elevated to a new status as the custodians of community wellbeing, and that this has created a problem for governments. ...
In the mid-1990s the Australian federal government started to outsource social services to non-governmental organisations (NGOs), creating new institutional relationships between NGOs and governments and inf luencing the ways NGOs operate. While much has been written about the effect of this change on NGOs, little attention has been paid to how this new way of operating has affected the communities with whom NGOs work. This paper draws on data from an ethnographic study of African community organisations in three Australian states (Tasmania, South Australia and Victoria) between 2010 and 2012. Findings reveal that grassroots community organisations' relationships with NGOs are affected by the way that NGOs work with governments. While NGOs seek to support and empower disadvantaged communities, the structural constraints they face often create relationships that are disempowering for these communities in practice.
... Based on these findings, Australian SEs are less likely to see public investment in core services, which is a contrast to other countries, such as the United Kingdom, where in the recent past government commitments to 'growing' SE were seen as concomitant with public sector spending. This is also consistent with past analyses of the relationship between governments and third sectors in these countries (see Lyons and Passey, 2006). ...
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the prior work on social enterprise (SE) model comparisons by exposing the difficulties in producing universally comparative SE models. Furthermore, this paper seeks to trace different dominant stories of SE based on a combined historical and discursive analysis of Australian institutions shaping SE development.
Design/methodology/approach
– This paper emulates the methodological approach taken by Kerlin (2013) and uses the same indices and measures adopted in this original model comparison. Although the valuable contribution of macro-level model comparison studies to the growing SE knowledge base is noted, it is proposed that categorisations are naturally exclusionary by their design, omitting emergent SE models and their institutional influences. These omissions pose difficulties for recognising and conceptualising hybrid organisations that often traverse institutional boundaries and frameworks (Doherty et al. , 2014). A discourse analysis of SE policies in Australia was used to illustrate how micro-level appraisals of SE models differentiate from, and complement, the macro-level approach.
Findings
– A combinatory analysis of Australian SEs, based on historical and discursive institutional theories, provides two stories about these organisations. The first story emerges that Australian SEs are partly shaped by institutions, the historical path-dependencies of which are associated with particular SE characteristics. Alternatively, using a discursive lens, the second story of Australian SEs emerges as a political subject, captured within a broader idea (e.g. social inclusion) that is coordinated between political domains and communicated within the public sphere. Therefore, it is argued that a combinatory approach shows SE models as they are, as well as how they might be – contingent on the implementation of identified policies.
Research limitations/implications
– The major contribution is to critique and extend Kerlin’s (2013) approach by complementing the macro-level study of SE models with an analysis that considers the local-level innovations that drive unique SE models and applications. To enact this, the authors explore how closely macro-level approaches to SE categorisation are the subject of discursive construction, as well as historical events. Consequently, this paper contributes to existing knowledge by advancing existing approaches to SE model studies, illustrating how different stories of SE can be drawn out from combinatory methods and local knowledge.
Practical implications
– The practical implication arising from this paper is that SE discourses are both a subject of capture and a site of contestation, meaning that various institutional actors play a role in shaping the “reality” of the field.
Social implications
– The main social implication of this paper is that Australian SEs make a diverse contribution, but there are dangers that the discursive construction of civil society could narrow and constrain this.
Originality/value
– The novelty inherent in this approach lies in bringing together two frameworks to explore the same field of action. By replicating Kerlin’s (2013) approach and bringing in a discursive analytical framework, it is shown that macro-level studies of SE sectors are enhanced by combinatory methodologies.
... Despite this growth in interest, little is known about the dimensions or impacts of the existing social enterprise sector in Australia (Barraket 2004; Lyons & Passey 2006; Barraket 2008). This is in part due to the lack of a self-identifying social enterprise movement or coalition in this country. ...
... Whatever the geneses of this emergent interest, very little is known about the scale and scope of social enterprise in Australia (Lyons & Passey 2006;Productivity Commission 2009). While it is arguable that the practice of social enterprise in Australia has a well-established history (see Lyons 2001), as a distinct field of activity, it has received little attention from researchers and policymakers. ...
In the last ten years, there has been growing interest in social enterprise by governments, the not-for-profit sector and philanthropy in Australia The drivers of this interest have been variously understood to be: increasing demand for innovative responses to social and environmental problems; pressure on not-for-profit organisations to diversify their income sources; and an increasing emphasis by government on the role of civil-society actors in partnering to develop and (more commonly) deliver services in response to social policy priorities. Whatever its genesis, very little is known about the scale and scope of the emerging social-enterprise sector. In order to research the scope of the sector, an important first step is to understand just what social enterprise is and how it may be operationalised. This paper presents the findings from the first stage of a national research project conducted by the authors in conjunction with a new social-enterprise development company. The purpose of the project was to provide a comprehensive snapshot of the social-enterprise sector in Australia. In this paper, we focus on the definitional debates arising from our workshop discussions, what these mean for understanding contemporary discourses of social enterprise, and their implications for research, policy and practice.
Contemporary society is characterized by the prevalence of wicked problems to which the efforts and actions of some entrepreneurs have negatively contributed to social problems. Corporate social responsibility emerged as an early response to multi-factor problems that are difficult to conceptualize or structure, but it has had limited success in engendering significant structural societal change. Social entrepreneurship is a contested construct that typically includes the social entrepreneur. A definition of social entrepreneurs is provided drawing on the literature. Social entrepreneurs offer leadership for social innovation outcomes as an antidote to prevailing social issues. This contributes to the literature on social entrepreneurs by examining how social entrepreneurs lead in the digital era. Importantly, this chapter considers the role that authentic leader behaviors (awareness, sincerity, balanced processing, positive moral perspectives, and informal influence) has in enabling social entrepreneurs to create and innovate.
Knowledge and technology resources are the most crucial sources for the achievement of sustainable development in competitive advantage. Meanwhile, few empirical studies have clarified the types of knowledge and technology resources that nonprofit organizations (NPOs) use and develop. This study aims to categorize knowledge and technology resources in NPOs that both researchers and practitioners can use to develop the nonprofit sector further. A qualitative research method was used for the study. Data were collected from 31 interviews with senior and founding members of NPOs in Thailand. Analysis of qualitative data identified five critical categories of knowledge resources: human resources, organizational practices, partnership or stakeholder involvement, operational practices, and other resources. This study also illustrates both internal and external technology resources, which are used in sample organizations. The study's findings contribute to developing a body of knowledge management literature related to the knowledge and technology resources of NPOs.
The present research outlines a diversified selection of successful practices in public policies
regarding the Social Economy across different European countries. It focuses on the policies
deployed by governments, at the European and national levels, towards the social economy in
the period 2010-16. This research is linked to other two studies, one recently carried out by
CIRIEC for the EESC, entitled Recent evolution of the Social Economy in the European Union
(2017)2
. Another one carried and published by CIRIEC3
entitled The Emergence of the Social
Economy in Public Policy. An International Analysis.
The United Nations Agenda 2030 has recognized that Social Economy (SE) entities play an important role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). In order to maximize the impact of the SE, governments have recently deployed new policies regarding these entities. The objective is to understand the context of policy change that has allowed these policies to emerge, their main characteristics and the critical factors in their construction and implementation. Successful policy cases in Europe and Spain have been studied. Qualitative data have been collected through key policy documents, experts, and focus groups. As a main finding, the study shows that this new model of policies exhibits the following features: it focuses on transformative change, follows the public-community partnership governance approach and the mainstream approach in the sense of a broader policy context, and finally, it is innovative in terms of means and of complex systematization of strategies. Difficulties in the implementation of the partnership approach, in the deployment of the policy-mainstreaming approach, and in the acceptance of the SE framed by all policymakers, SE representatives, and government staff, and constraints in financial endowment are the main critical factors in the implementation of these policies.
The Australian think tank is predominantly a neoliberal think tank so how does this influence the distribution of power? Historically, neoliberal think tanks have had larger numbers that have enabled them to fund, fight, and win the war of ideas. Questions to be asked are—does this numeric dominance mean that these neoliberal permanent persuaders can now absolutely influence the common-sense notions that Australians hold about politics, the family, work, education, and the role of the state? And who have been the beneficiaries of this shift of ideology? This chapter argues, with supportive evidence, that in Australia think tanks and lobby groups have pushed neoliberalism because these ideas benefit ruling-class interests, and in turn ruling-class interests keep them funded—it is all cyclical.
This article explores the use of action research (2008–2014) based on a case study of the Sustainable Online Community Engagement (SOCE) Project, a service-learning project in which University of South Australia students build websites for not-for-profit (NFP) organisations, to demonstrate that effective teaching, public service and research are interdependent. A significant problem experienced in the SOCE project was that, despite some training and ongoing assistance, the community organisations reported that they found it difficult to make effective use of their websites. One of the proposed solutions was to develop an online community of the participating organisations that would be self-supporting, member-driven and collaborative, and enable the organisations to share information about web-based technology. The research reported here explored the usefulness of developing such an online community for the organisations involved and sought alternative ways to assist the organisations to maintain an effective and sustainable web presence. The research used a three-phase ethnographic action research approach. The first phase was a content analysis and review of the editing records of 135 organisational websites hosted by the SOCE project. The second phase was an online survey sent to 145 community organisation members responsible for the management of these websites, resulting in 48 responses. The third phase consisted of semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 18 of the website managers from 12 of these organisations. The research revealed the extent to which organisations were unable to manage their websites and found that the proposed solution of an online community would not be useful. More importantly, it suggested other useful strategies which have been implemented. In Furco’s (2010) model of the engaged campus, public engagement can be used to advance the public service, teaching and research components of higher education’s tripartite mission, but this requires a genuine and sustained process of listening to the community of which the institution is a part. The article argues that, with recent changes to government policy reducing funding to the community sector, an important role for universities is to engage with their communities in both teaching and research. Service-learning projects are often evaluated for learning and teaching outcomes and valued as aligning with university policy on community engagement, but there is potential to do more harm than good for community partners. The experience with the SOCE project demonstrates that effective community engagement must be based on research of what the community partners genuinely want and then assessed against those objectives. Research and community engagement should not be framed as mutually exclusive but understood as part of the same process. Keywords: Service-learning, community engagement, not-for-profit organisations, websites, information and communication technology, ethnographic action research
Purpose
This paper aims to present findings from a study conducted with non-profit organizations (NPOs) in Canada and Australia, focusing on the use of tools and technologies for knowledge management (KM). NPOs of different sizes and operating in different sectors were studied in two large-scale national surveys. The paper is useful to both practitioners in NPOs for understanding tool use for KM activities and to scholars to further develop the KM-NPO domain.
Design/methodology/approach
Two nation-wide surveys were conducted with Canadian and Australian NPOs of different sizes (i.e. very small to large-sized organizations) and operating in different sectors (e.g. animal welfare, education and research, culture and arts). An analysis of responses explores the use of tools and technologies by NPOs. Respondents identified the tools and technologies they used from nine pre-determined themes (quantitative data) plus an additional category of “other tools” (qualitative data), which allowed for free text responses. The quantitative data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques and the qualitative data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach.
Findings
Quantitative data analysis provides key findings including the popularity of physical, print documents across all NPO sizes and sectors. Statistical tests revealed, for example, there is no significant difference for the same-sized organizations in Canadian and Australian NPOs in the use of tools and technologies for KM activities. However, there were differences in the use of tools and technologies across different sizes of NPOs. The qualitative analysis revealed a number of additional tools and technologies and also provided contextual details about the nature of tool use. The paper provides specific examples of the types of tools and technologies NPOs use.
Originality/value
The paper has both practical and academic contributions, including areas for future research. The findings on the use of KM tools and technologies by NPOs contribute to the growing body of literature in the KM domain in general and also build the literature base for the understudied KM-NPO domain. NPOs will also find the paper useful in better understanding tools and technological implementation for KM activities. The study is unique not only in the content focus on KM for NPOs but also for the comparative study of activities in two countries.
Using two recent nationally representative Canadian surveys, this paper investigates how secularization affects civic participation, inclusive of political engagement and philanthropy. Three mutually exclusive categories of secularized individuals are considered. The analysis suggests that Canadian secular groups are relatively less engaged with politics and volunteer fewer hours, compared with the actively religious. They are, however, found to contribute significantly more money to secular causes, controlling for a wide range of individual attributes. Various explanations are explored.
Since 2000, increased taxation incentives along with other measures have been used by the government to encourage philanthropy in Australia. Since the new incentives were introduced, claimed gift tax deductions have increased. However, generally, donors are not aware of the new tax incentives for giving and in any case they report that their motivation for giving is not primarily, if at all, to obtain tax incentives. This article examines this paradox and seeks some possible explanations.
From 2007 to 2010, there were national Labour governments in Britain and Australia, the longest and only third time this had occurred since the second World War. The period of New Labour was closing in the UK, and in Australia the Rudd government came to power after 11 years in opposition, directly influenced by the, at times, trailblazing UK Labour government. In the domain of social policy, New Labour was a source of policy inspiration and transfer. Specifically, the Rudd/Gillard governments borrowed heavily its ‘social exclusion’ agenda, and also the use of ‘compacts’ with the third sector. This article examines the policy diffusion and transfer between the UK and Australia, and in doing so offers critical insights into the policy transfer literature. The article examines the reasons for the Australian Labor Party's adoption of these policies, and links this to wider dilemmas and identity crisis that are afflicting centre-left governments across the globe.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the challenges confronting Christian-based organisations operating in the employment services quasi-market in Australia. It focuses on the tensions that arise for these organisations as they endeavour to deliver services that reflect their distinctive mission and values, while remaining competitive in an environment characterised by the typical market values of commercialism, competition and compliance.
Design/methodology/approach
– The data on which this paper is based has been derived from 48 semi-structured interviews with church leaders, senior managers and frontline staff in four Christian-based organisations.
Findings
– The paper demonstrates that the Christian-based organisations under consideration are constrained in their ability to deliver a distinctive and holistic mission. The pressure to survive has resulted in these organisations emulating the business practices of others considered to be more successful in the field.
Research limitations/implications
– This paper draws attention to the commercialisation that has occurred within Christian-based organisations delivering privatised employment services. As markets are formed in other welfare areas, further research opportunities will present to examine how Christian-based organisations respond to the pressures that arise in these fields.
Practical implications
– The findings from this study raise significant questions for Christian-based organisations. The particular dilemma being whether they should accept government funding in circumstances where their mission is likely to be compromised.
Originality/value
– This paper serves to highlight, that despite their intentions to deliver a distinctive mission, Christian-based organisations are indistinguishable from other organisations delivering privatised employment services.
Non-profit organizations (NPOs) are major providers of services in many fields of endeavour, and often receive financial support from government. This article investigates different forms of government/non-profit funding relationships, with the viewpoint being mainly, though not exclusively, from the perspective of the non-profit agencies. While there are a number of existing typologies of government/NPO relations, these are dated and in need of further empirical analysis and testing. The article advances an empirically derived extension to current models of government/NPO relations. A future research agenda is outlined based on the constructs that underpin typologies, rather than discrete categorization of relationships.
‘Social innovation’ is a construct increasingly used to explain the practices, processes and actors through which sustained positive transformation occurs in the network society (Mulgan, G., Tucker, S., Ali, R., Sander, B. (2007). Social innovation: What it is, why it matters and how can it be accelerated. Oxford: Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneurship; Phills, J. A., Deiglmeier, K., & Miller, D. T. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 6(4):34–43, 2008.). Social innovation has been defined as a “novel solution to a social problem that is more effective, efficient, sustainable, or just than existing solutions, and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals.” (Phills, J. A., Deiglmeier, K., & Miller, D. T. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 6(4):34–43, 2008: 34.)
The voluntary or third sector in England is now receiving more sustained attention from policy
makers than ever before. This paper claims that this situation, particularly as given tangible
expression through the development of a Compact between the Government and representatives of
the third sector, amounts to the mainstreaming of the third sector onto the public policy agenda. It
seeks to explain why this has happened in the late 1990s, framed by the “multiple streams” approach
of US political scientist John W. Kingdon. The paper draws upon a review of relevant policy and
political literature, and interviews with stakeholders in the Government and the third sector, to
examine the respective contributions of individual and collective actors in the policy, problem and
politics streams.
The advocacy work of non-government organisations can be either constrained or embraced by government attitudes and practices. Although it is widely accepted that NGOs are an essential component of a healthy and robust democracy, serving as essential intermediaries between community and government, and providing a voice for marginalised groups to make claims on governments between elections, the current dominance of the public choice paradigm in public administration has seen the legitimacy of NGOs come under attack. Questions have been raised about the representativeness of NGOs and the legitimacy of their standing as policy advocates. As a result of this shift many disadvantaged groups that had taken years to organise themselves sufficiently to have a voice have found themselves increasingly constrained and excluded from the policy-making process. The threats that many NGOs are now facing have the effect of reducing government accountability, sustaining existing inequities and, ultimately, diminishing the quality of Australian democracy. This article is developed from the discussion paper Silencing Dissent: non-government organisations and Australian democracy, by Maddison, S., R. Denniss, and C. Hamilton, published by The Australia Institute in June 2004. The authors wish to thank the anonymous reviewers at the Australian Journal of Political Science for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article.
The term “social entrepreneurship” is being adopted and used more extensively, but its meaning is not widely understood. In particular, the scope of social entrepreneurship in both business and the voluntary sector has not been mapped effectively. This paper seeks to do this. It begins by defining social entrepreneurs and social entrepreneurship. Then, using projects considered for a charter award under the Duke of York’s Community Initiative, it looks at what social entrepreneurs do and achieve for the community, at the wide scope of their world, and at the help that is available and needed. The paper includes two case studies of successful social entrepreneurs as a means of drawing out a number of important issues and lessons. It provides a new map for understanding the complexity and the many facets of the world of the social entrepreneur and the voluntary sector. It questions whether the UK government’s stated desire for an “explosive act” of volunteering can happen without more substantial support, and concludes that whilst the growth of this sector is urgent and vital, a number of hurdles remain to be overcome.
A major problem for voluntary organisations service providers under contract has been their independence in regard to both the relatively narrow issue of the terms and conditions of service provision, and the broader issue about the part voluntary organisations might play in policy shaping and democratic renewal. I examine the way in which New Labour has developed its ‘partnership’ approach to the voluntary sector since 1998. I argue that better terms and conditions have been secured for voluntary organisations providing services, and that large and umbrella organisations now have more impact on the implementation of central government policy. However, the more equal partnership required for a policy-shaping role in the sense of agenda-setting is likely to remain elusive, while at the local level there are tensions between the idea of voluntary organisations as agents of ‘civil renewal’ and as service providers.
Nonprofit organisations comprise a growing and important sector of the Australian economy. Moreover, this sector is being used by governments to an increasing extent for the delivery of services. The most common manner in which nonprofit organisations are funded by government departments is through the provision of grants, contracts or service agreements. Nonprofits discharge their accountability for these funds through reporting guidelines issued by the government funders. This paper examines the financial accountability requirements of government funders, in one jurisdiction in Australia to support the central argument in the paper that the emphasis on ‘upward and external’ accountabilities serve as a functional and control tool on the sector. This emphasis detracts from the development of the ‘downward and internal’ mechanisms of accountability which are the essential building blocks for the strategic development of the capacity of the sector to respond to calls for greater accountability. The paper will be of interest to government funders, nonprofit practitioners and accounting standard setters, auditor practitioners and regulators.
New Mutualism and the Third Way
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To Our Mutual Advantage
- C Leadbeater
- I Christie
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Improving Government-Community Sector Relations
- M Lyons
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National Roundtable of Nonprofit Organisations Nonprofit Regulation Reform Program. An Initial Statement by the National Roundtable of Nonprofit Organisations
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