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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 1 | Page
An Investigation of the United States Airline Pilot Labor Supply
James Higgins
Kent Lovelace
Elizabeth Bjerke
Nick Lounsberry
University of North Dakota
Rebecca Lutte
University of Nebraska Omaha
Daniel Friedenzohn
Embry Riddle Aeronautical University
Sam Pavel
Southern Illinois University
Bruce Chase
LeTourneau University
University Aviation Association
Paul Craig
Middle Tennessee State University
Aviation Accreditation Board International
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 2 | Page
Contributions
In the Summer of 2012, the industry formed a stakeholders group which sought to
analyze the current state of the airline pilot labor supply. From this stakeholders group, a
subgroup of collegiate aviation researchers formed and endeavored to help provide a scientific
foundation to this process. This group could not have completed their work without assistance.
In particular, the industry helped form the underlying research questions examined by this study,
as well as provide detailed data to help facilitate the analysis. The authors of this study wish to
acknowledge the contributions of many people representing the airline industry. The authors
wish to specifically thank the following people:
Arnie Kraby, Delta Air Lines
Darrin Greubel, ExpressJet
Marc Champion, United Airlines
Robert Fuschino, United Airlines
Scott Foose, RAA
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 3 | Page
Executive Summary
Over the next 20 years, the United States airline industry is expected to hire in excess of
95,000 pilots. This hiring will be the result of new aircraft growth, pilot retirements, and pilot
attrition from the industry for reasons other than retirement. In addition, government regulations
may also cause an increase in the number of new pilots required. Given this increased demand,
will there be enough new pilots to ensure a long-term and continuous supply?
From time to time, the industry is warned of an impending shortage of airline pilots. And
the usual disposition of these warnings is in fact a pilot shortage that never really materializes.
So, what is different now, if anything, that might cause longer-term disruptions or shortages in
the pilot labor supply? Several new considerations are having an impact on future airline pilots
entering the profession: in recent years there has been limited hiring at the major airlines which
predicts that fewer new pilots will be created in the short-term; the numbers of pilots who will be
retiring at major airlines is increasing and will continue to increase over the next several years;
airlines will continue to grow; a smaller number of newly created flight instructors is interested
in a career as an airline pilot; and, the future requirement of obtaining an Airline Transport Pilot
certificate prior to acting as an airline pilot has already caused future pilots to not enter the
industry with a career aspiration of becoming an airline pilot.
There has also been a sizeable increase in the number of foreign pilots who train in the
United States. In 2012, over 45% of commercial written examinations were completed by
foreign pilots. Many (if not most) of these foreign pilots have no intention of working as an
airline pilot in the United States. While this represents a great opportunity for flight instructors
in the United States to accumulate flight experience while training these foreign nationals, the
corresponding decline in United States citizens obtaining their commercial pilot certification
could certainly impact the future airline pilot supply.
When initially considering a career as an airline pilot, approximately 78% of potential
candidates make a consumer decision. This decision involves a risk-reward evaluation, and is
based upon the number of pilots hired at major airlines (reward) and the cost associated with
flight training (risk). The number of pilots hired at major airlines is predictive of the number of
new Certified Flight Instructors created over the next four years. When this number increases,
there is a correlational stimulation in the number of new flight instructors. The cost of flight
training also predicts the number of new Certified Flight Instructors entering the pilot supply
over the ensuing four years. As the relative cost of initial flight training increases, there is also a
correlational reduction in the number of new flight instructors. The interaction of both these
variables (major airline hiring and cost of flight training) also helps to predict the number of
future flight instructors.
As the hiring of airline pilots at major airlines stimulates demand, a new question arises:
Will the hiring at major airlines stimulate enough new pilots to ensure there is a continuous
supply and abate any disruption in the pilot labor supply? Current projections indicate there will
be disruptions in the pilot labor supply unless industry-market fundamentals change, more pilots
can be enticed into an airline pilot career, or the regulatory environment changes. A status quo
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 4 | Page
projection indicates that there will be a shortage of around 35,000 pilots. This is further
complicated because any mitigations put in place by the industry or regulators will take
approximately five to seven years before they realize any fruition; moreover, this is the period of
time required for a pilot to obtain all of their required certification (certificates and ratings up to
Airline Transport Pilot) and become eligible for employment at an airline.
The situation is further exacerbated by the fact that only 53.67% of Certified Flight
Instructors seek employment in the airlines as a long-term career plan. The data further indicates
that approximately 8.53% of future pilots are no longer considering a career as an airline pilot
due to the new ATP airline requirements. There is an additional 32.54% of future aviators who
are reconsidering whether they want a long-term career as an airline pilot due to these new
requirements.
The impact of any pilot labor shortage or disruption could certainly have farther reaching
economic consequences. The most likely consequence of a labor supply disruption would
involve the industry reducing its schedule. In particular, smaller communities served only by
regional airlines could experience airline disruption or even a suspension of service. The results
of such a suspension would likely spur a further-reaching and negative economic impact in an
affected community.
It is not likely that major airlines will experience any disruption in the pilot labor supply
within the next five to seven years. The more likely impact will occur with the regional airlines.
As a consequence, the regional airlines will have to actively compete for a shrinking pool of
qualified pilots. While this will create increased opportunities for new pilots to enter the
industry, it is not clear whether all the regional airlines will be successful in attracting an
adequate number of qualified applicants. Accordingly, there is likely to be service disruptions
until such time the labor supply is able to regain an equilibrium. Given the present market
circumstances, if that equilibrium is able to occur it would not likely happen in the next decade.
With this status quo projection of a 35,000 pilot shortage, the industry and regulators
should focus on attracting new pilots to the career. Examples of possible mitigations include
focusing on re-attracting qualified pilots who have no intention of pursuing an airline career back
to industry. Current data indicates this number is around 47% of newly created flight instructors.
Other mitigations should focus on the risk-reward consumer decision currently exercised by
approximately 78% of new pilots. Specifically, the industry should adopt measures that outline a
clear path from initial training to a major-airline pilot position. Flight cost control methods, in
terms of scholarships or other remunerative methods, should be explored to increase the number
of new pilots entering the profession.
This analysis does not consider the impact of the upcoming flight-time/duty-time
regulations, foreign carriers hiring lower-time United States pilots, or any further decrease in the
number of new pilots who may decide against an airline pilot career. Each of these factors could
impact the labor supply by increasing the shortage.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 5 | Page
Introduction
The United States airline industry is estimated to contribute $1.3 trillion to the national
economy, 5.2% to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and around 376,000 jobs to the
nation's workforce (FAA, August 2011). The industry faces many dynamic and well-
documented challenges, including high fuel prices, occasionally contemptuous labor disputes,
and sensitivity to general economic conditions. While these issues may be well-known,
obtaining adequate staffing levels amongst employee groups has been the source of both
historical and recent speculation. Specifically, the availability of properly trained and qualified
pilots has garnered recent interest.
Will the United States airline industry have enough qualified pilots to appropriately staff
its aircraft? Several recent forecast efforts have attempted to quantify both the future pilot
demand as well as training capacity. When taken in their totality, every forecast indicates there
will be an increased worldwide demand for commercial airline pilots. The purpose of this
research initiative is to answer a simple question: will the United States experience a future pilot
shortage?
Future pilot demand is generated from three different events: industry growth,
retirements, and attrition for reasons other than retirement. On the supply side, future airline
pilots are created from both civilian and military sources. Historically, the airline industry in the
United States has generally been able to find enough qualified pilots from these two areas.
Given this historically balanced relationship has existed in an equilibrium for years, what, if
anything, has changed?
Current retirement data indicates that over 45,000 pilots will retire from major airlines
over the next 20 years. Given there are currently an estimated 18,000 regional pilots, it doesn't
take an elaborate mathematical analysis to conclude that unless a large number of new pilots
enter the workforce in the coming years, the industry faces a critical shortage.
The situation appears to have been complicated by the introduction of several new rules.
In particular, Congress passed Public Law 111-216 which mandates, among other requirements,
that pilots who operate at an airline would be required to have 1,500 hours (2010). In addition,
the Federal Aviation Administration has also instituted new flight-time and duty-time rules. It is
important to note the purpose of this study is not to evaluate the efficacy of any newly-mandated
rules or laws; rather, the purpose is to evaluate their effects, if any, on the pilot supply.
In the media there has been much written and debated about the possible pending pilot
shortage (Kaufman, 2012, Carey, Nicas, Pastzor, 2102, O’Connor, 2012). It begs the question,
what is meant by “pilot shortage?” Does pilot shortage refer to a situation where the lack of
available qualified pilots results in operational disruptions such as changes in schedule or
reduction of flights? Using this definition, the last pilot shortage occurred in the 1960s (Carey,
Nicas, Pastzor, 2012). In this era it was noted that thousands of hours of flights by major airlines
had to be cancelled and operations adjusted due to the unavailability of qualified pilots to hire
(Simmons, 1969).
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 6 | Page
Or, does pilot shortage mean a lowering of hiring requirements to dip in to the next wave
of applicants who, of course, still meet FAA requirements but are not at the top of the flight
experience hierarchy? There is evidence to support this was the case at the regional carriers in
the most recent hiring wave of 2007 and 2008. Atlantic Southeast Airlines lowered its hiring
minimums twice in six months during that period. At that carrier, average hours of pilots in new
hire classes dropped from 1,200 total time with 200 hours of multi-engine time to 800 hours total
time and 50 hours of multi-engine time. (Lunan, 2007, Robertson, 2009)
Another consideration is that the industry may be facing a hiring wave versus an actual
pilot shortage. Numerous hiring waves have existed in the past. Key periods of hiring include the
mid to late 60s, 1990 and into 1991, late 90s into 2001, and the 2006 to 2008 time frame
(Simmons, 1969: FAPA 2012). Ultimately, these waves came to a grinding halt due to
circumstances in the operating environment, which reduced the demand for pilots. Often these
circumstances are beyond the control of the operators. For example, one can argue that key
factors leading to the decline of hiring waves include economic factors such as the price of oil
and the state of the economy; political events such as the Gulf War and Iraq War; natural
disasters such as hurricanes and tsunamis; and aviation events such as the attacks of 9/11. Major
aviation accidents and other aviation factors such as safety concerns and regulatory changes also
may play a role. Of course these events cannot be examined individually but often occur
simultaneously creating a perfect storm to slow the demand for pilots.
Numerous factors appear to be coming together that will create a significant demand
resulting in a hiring wave at the least and possibly a shortage of qualified pilots. The current pilot
workforce is experiencing a wave of retirements as the 2007 Fair Treatment and Experienced
Pilots Act is now impacting many pilots reaching age 65. Costs for aviation training are on the
rise. Regulatory changes in the areas of fatigue related work rules and changing qualifications for
airline first officers will increase the need for pilots. International aviation is growing quickly
and may result in the hiring of pilots from the US (Jones, 2011). The military supply of pilots has
slowed (Lynch, 2012). Those who are trained in the military are staying in the military longer
(Jones, 2013).
Clearly, an empirical analysis of the United States future pilot labor supply is warranted.
If there are future conditions which could lead to pilot shortages, the nation's economic
conditions could be negatively impacted. Given the reach of the industry, the impact could be
serious and cause widespread negative disruptions throughout the country.
This forecast assumes that when there are short-term disruptions in the supply of new
pilots, the industry and regulators will not react. Of course, this is unlikely, as scarcity of
required labor will most certainly cause individual airlines to react, and could cause a
reexamination of the current regulatory environment. Some examples of this reaction from an
industry view could include signing bonuses, scholarships for flight training, pathway programs
which outline a clear path to a major airline job, and/or increased wages. It is important to note
that, at present, no correlation has been found linking these factors to new pilots, but unless the
pilot labor market follows fundamentals which are different from other industries, there likely is
a relationship yet to be identified. It should also be noted that the airlines may find they have
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 7 | Page
limited ability to react monetarily given they may be constrained by their current operational and
market dynamics. The regulators could have a role to play and react by lessening some barriers
in obtaining pilot certification. Any of these above measures would likely change the following
analysis. Accordingly, this forecast should be viewed as a hypothetical, or a “what-if,” which
details the effects of the continuation of current market forces without mitigation.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 8 | Page
Supply-Side
Background
There are three pilot certificates which allow for employability — commercial, Airline
Transport Pilot (ATP), and Certified Flight Instructor (CFI). A pilot holding one of these
certification levels is able to be compensated for operating aircraft. On August 2, 2013, pilots
who are employed at part 121 air carriers will be required to hold an ATP certificate.
1
Current
requirements needed to obtain the ATP will likely require several years of academic instruction
and flight training. Figure 1 depicts the basic flow pilots follow on their way to the airlines.
Figure 1. Flow of Pilots to the Airlines.
When examining the historical number of pilots holding each type of certificate, trends
can be seen. Because the FAA tracks all active pilots—those that hold a current medical
certificate—an actual census can be examined (FAA, 2012). Figures 2, 3, and 4 depict historical
numbers of active CFI, commercial, and ATP certificates along with newly created pilots on a
yearly basis, respectively.
1
This requirement could possibly occur sooner if the FAA passes a final rule which requires ATP certification to
operate at a 121 airline.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 9 | Page
Figure 2. Historical CFI Population.
Figure 3. Historical Commercial Pilot Population.
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Total CFI Population New CFIs Sources: FAA US Civil Airmen
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Total Commercial Population New Comm Pilots Sources: FAA US Civil
Airmen Statistics;
GAMA Statistical Databook
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 10 | Page
Figure 4. Historical ATP Population.
The typical path to the airlines for a civilian-trained pilot involves several steps. Most
pilots begin with obtaining a private pilot certificate and then advance to a commercial certificate
with a multi-engine rating. Most of these pilots also obtain a CFI which allows for them to
obtain an entry-level flight position wherein they can obtain more flight time and experience. As
part of this research project, over 1,600 collegiate aviators were surveyed as part of a Career
Aspirations Survey (CAS) regarding their long-term career plans. The results indicated that only
53.67% of CFI certificate holders have a long-term career plan of working at the airlines. While
this variable has not been tracked longitudinally and only represents a snapshot of current
opinion, it belies the notion that the vast majority of aspiring or recently-earned CFIs seek long-
term major airline jobs.
The Forecast Model
Determination of the Outcome Variable
One complicated aspect involved with predicting the future airline pilot labor supply is
identifying an appropriate outcome variable. In previous years, the number of new commercial
pilots seemed to be a plausible candidate as a commercial certificate represented the basic unit of
employability. The use of new commercial pilots is no longer a viable variable due to the
following reasons:
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Number of New ATP Pilots
Total Number of ATP Pilots
Historical Airline Transport Pilot Population
Total ATP Population New ATP Pilots Sources: FAA US Civil
Airmen Statistics;
GAMA Statistical Databook
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 11 | Page
1. In the future, an ATP certificate will be required to become employed at an
airline.
2. A large number of foreign pilots are now training in the United States. These
pilots will obtain their commercial certificates yet have no intention of working as
commercial pilots in the United States.
Because of Public Law 111-216, an ATP certificate will be required to be employed at an
airline. Accordingly, pilots will have to accumulate enough flight time to become eligible to
obtain this certification. According to data collected in the 2010 Pilot Source Study, 85.2% of
civilian-trained ATP pilots hired at the airlines held a CFI certificate at some point in their career
(Smith et al, 2010). It is important to note this percentage has occurred prior to the enacting of
the Public Law; accordingly, given the increased hour requirements needed in the future, even
more pilots seeking employment at airlines will likely have to obtain CFI certification. This
theme was further identified qualitatively in the CAS.
There has been a sharp increase in the training of foreign pilots in the United States.
Using data supplied by the FAA's certification branch, in 2004, for every 4.80 pilots with United
States citizenship training for their commercial pilot certificate, there was one foreign pilot
training in the United States. In 2012, that ratio changed to 1.19 to 1 (1.19 U.S. pilots for every
one foreign pilot). This data is encapsulated in Figure 5, which depicts the number of pilots,
based upon citizenship, completing the commercial pilot written/knowledge tests by year. For
the periods from 2009-2011, the percentage of commercial written tests completed by foreign
pilots has hovered above 40%. In 2012, this percentage jumps to around 45%. The number of
pilots completing their commercial written is significantly correlated to new commercial pilots
the following year, R2 = .52, F(1,7) = 7.67, p = .03.
The authors of this study note that the training of foreign pilots in the United States is not
a negative happening; moreover, these pilots provide for opportunities for United States CFIs to
obtain flight experience. In addition, from an economic point of view, this training represents a
national export-surplus. In terms of impact to using new commercial pilots as an outcome
variable for a pilot supply study however, given their proportion of impact to new commercial
pilot numbers, the presence of foreign-training confounds the use of commercial pilots as an
outcome variable.
For the aforementioned reasons, this study uses the creation of new CFIs as the outcome
variable. This outcome variable recognizes that the vast majority of civilian ATPs (presently
over 85%) have been a flight instructor at some point in the career and that this percentage will
increase given the future ATP-airline requirements. This outcome variable also successfully
deals with the confounding issue of foreign-pilot training, as a relatively small number of
foreign-trained pilots will require or seek CFI certification in the United States.2
2 According to recent CFI written test data, from 2004 to 2012, an average of 10.68% of CFI written examinations
were completed by foreign pilots.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 12 | Page
Figure 5. Commercial Pilot Written Examinations by Citizenship
Another important aspect considered when selecting newly created CFIs (NCFI) is that it
can take several years from the time a pilot starts their initial training until they achieve CFI
certification. Further complicating this fact is that while the NCFI data is tracked by the year,
some pilots can complete their CFI training in a year, and some may take several years3. This
part of the variable is difficult to track and measure. Because of this difficulty, the determination
of length of time it takes to obtain certification can be determined using a post hoc determination
of model fit. This post hoc method will be discussed in further detail, but through multiple
model builds, the largest significant R2 values were found when the outcome variable included a
mixture of new CFIs of 5% in two years, 25% in three years, and 70% in four years. This study
uses this "mixture" as a weighted yearly average and is used as the outcome variable in this
study.
Determination of Predictor Variables
When attempting to predict the future supply of airline pilots in the United States, there
are several candidate predictor variables which could be descriptive. In 2009, researchers at the
University of North Dakota attempted to identify useful predictors. Among the list of potential
predictor variables included: starting pay at regional airlines, high school student interest in
3 Some pilots may train in a collegiate environment where it can take 3-4 years on average to obtain CFI
certification, and some pilots might achieve CFI certification from an ab initio environment.
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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 13 | Page
aviation careers, prestige of being an airline pilot, job satisfaction of being an airline pilot, the
cost of flight training, hiring at the airlines, and hiring at major airlines.
Several of these potential data sources were eliminated because there was no useful
historical data source. The historical data is needed to determine whether there is a predictive
correlation between newly created CFIs and the metrics of the predictive variable. Some
predictor variables had valid historical data, but no correlational relationship between newly
created CFIs was demonstrable. Table 1 lists the potential predictor variable, potential data
sources, and the disposition for use as a predictor.
Candidate Predictor Potential Data Source(s) Disposition
Starting pay at regional
airlines
Airlinepilotcentral.com; UND
Contracts Database
No relationship found
High school student
interest in aviation careers
National Research Center for
College and University
Admissions (NRCCUA)
No relationship found
Prestige of being an airline
pilot
General Social Survey (GSS);
Gallup
No meaningful historical data
source found
Job satisfaction of being an
airline pilot
General Social Survey (GSS) No meaningful historical data
source found
Cost of flight training Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association (AOPA);
University Aviation
Association (UAA)
Relationship found in model
Hiring at major airlines Future and Active Pilot
Advisors (FAPA)
Relationship found in model
Table 1. Candidate Predictor Variables, Data Sources, and Disposition
From the predictors in Table 1, two variables showed relationships with the future
creation of CFIs. The first variable is Major Airline Hiring (MAH). Figure 6, generated from
data gathered from Future and Active Pilot Advisors (FAPA), shows historical hiring at major
airlines. FAPA's data starts in 1989 and continues through present day. Table 2 lists the major
airlines tracked by FAPA. Many of these carriers have merged or ceased to exist, but still prove
useful when examining the efficacy of MAH as a predictor.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 14 | Page
Figure 6. Historical Hiring of Pilots at Major Airlines.
Major Airlines Tracked by FAPA
ABX Air FedEx
AirTran Airways JetBlue
Alaska Airlines Northwest
America West Southwest Airlines
American Airlines United Airlines
ATA UPS
Continental Airlines US Airways
Delta Air Lines
Table 2. Major Airlines Tracked by FAPA.
A regression was conducted with MAH versus NCFI. A significant relationship was
found,
β
= .78, t(18) = 5.06, p < .001. MAH also explained a significant proportion of variance in
NCFI, adj. R
2
= .60, F(1, 17) = 25.60, p < .001. Figure 7 depicts the regression scatterplot of this
relationship. The regression is expressed as Y = .42X + 3789.87, where Y = NCFI and X =
MAH.
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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 15 | Page
Figure 7. MAH vs. NCFI
The other predictor variable from Table 1 which indicated a relationship with NCFI is
Cost of Flight Training (CFT). Using data collected from the University Aviation Association
(UAA) member schools, the average cost of private pilot certification (initial flight training) was
$4,270 in 1990 (adjusted to 2012 dollars) and rose to $9,476 in 2012. This cost is just for the
initial certification. Figure 8 depicts the historical CFT adjusted for inflation along with the
percent change in cost year-over-year. It should be noted that data was collected by the UAA in
4-5 year periods, and intermediate points were straight-line interpolated. From 1990 to present,
inflation, as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and tracked by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics (BLS), grew at a 2.8% annual rate. CFT grew an average of 3.9% during that same
period, which demonstrates that CFT is growing faster than inflation.
A regression was conducted with CFT versus NCFI. A significant relationship was not
found,
β
= -.43, t(18) = -1.95.06, p = .068. CFT did not singularly explain a significant
proportion of variance in NCFI, adj. R
2
= .18, F(1, 17) = 3.81, p = .068. Figure 9 depicts the
regression scatterplot of these two variables. While the regression for CFT was not significant,
its p value of .068 makes it a candidate for use in a multivariate regression model. This variable
can also be measured for moderation effects, if any, on MAH.
y = 0.4152x + 3789.9
R² = 0.601, p < .001
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Major Airline Hiring vs. Weighted Yearly Average
-- New CFIs
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 16 | Page
Figure 8. Historical CFT.
Figure 9. CFT vs. NCFI
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of Labor Statistics CPI
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Average -- New CFIs
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 17 | Page
Building the Multivariate Model
Because MAH was singularly significant, and because CFT approached significance, a
multivariate model may appropriately be able to better explain the overall relationship, if any,
between all three variables (MAH, CFT, and NCFI). In addition, the relationship can be probed
for interactive effects between the predictors to possibly increase the predictive power of the
model.
Interactive regression involving multiple variables is similar to a factorial Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA), except the continuous nature of the predictor variables can be maintained.
One issue that sometimes surfaces in interactive regression is the problem of multicollinearity —
a condition where one or more predictor variables are highly correlated with the interactive term.
As indicated in several texts on the subject (Jaccard & Turrisi, 2003; Franzese & Kam, 2007;
among others), the problem of multicollinearity is avoided by centering the predictors.
Another way to envision an interactive model is to examine whether one predictor
moderates another predictor's overall effect on the outcome variable. In this case, MAH was
seen as singularly significant. An interesting question is: does CFT moderate MAH's effect on
NCFI?
One limitation of the data set is the sample size is limited to 19. This is due to data only
being available on an annual basis and only from 1990 onward. The limited size is further
narrowed because NCFI is spread out over four years (2013 - 4 years = 2009). The limited
sample size also precluded other statistical techniques such as Vector Auto Regression (VAR),
which may have also been helpful in demonstrating a relationship. Of course, a limited sample
size affects the power of the model. Having an n=19 equates to only being able to detect large
effect sizes. An a priori power analysis indicated that a sample size of 19 had a reasonable
expectation of detecting an effect size of around .8.
A simultaneous stepwise multivariate regression was conducted with three predictors,
MAH, CFT, and MAH * CFT (interaction of MAH and CFT) and a single outcome variable,
NCFI. MAH, CFT, and the interaction of MAH and CFT significantly predicted NCFI, adjusted
R2 = .774, F(3, 15) = 21.55, p < .001. In addition, each of the three predictors indicated
individual significance: MAH,
β
= .58, t(18) = 4.74, p < .001; CFT,
β
= -.25, t(18) = 12.16, p =
.003; MAH*CFT,
β
= -.42, t(18) = -3.52, p = .047.
The regression equation is given by:
Where,
y = Future Certified Flight Instructors over the next 3 years;
x = Number of pilots hired at major airlines;
z = Percent change in cost of obtaining Private Pilot certification (adjusted for inflation).
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 18 | Page
In order to examine the moderation effect of CFT on MAH, Figure 10 depicts the various
slopes of MAH regressed against NCFI at three different levels of CFT. The interactive effect is
demonstrated by the differing slopes across the levels of CFT. From these slopes, CFT
moderates MAH by increasing NCFI at a faster rate than at the two higher CFT levels.
Figure 10. MAH versus NCFI at Three Levels of CFT.
Multicollinearity was avoided in the regression as indicated by all tolerances (MAH
at.84, CFT at .90, MAH * CFT at .93) being greater than .1 and all Variable Inflation Factors
(VIFs) near 1 (MAH at 1.19, CFT at 1.07, MAH * CFT at 1.11). In addition, the lowest
eigenvalue noted is .56 which further indicates avoidance of multicollinearity issues.
While this model predicts that for every pilot hired at a major airline there is .31 new
CFIs are created over the next 4 years. In addition, for every percent increase in the cost of initial
flight training, there is a loss of 84.6 new CFIs over the next 4 years. According to Tracz (1992),
causation can be demonstrated if three elements are present: temporal order, existence of
correlation, and control of other causes. Given the significance of the model, the large overall
R2 value, and the temporal nature (MAH and CFT occur years before NCFI), this model may
demonstrate causation.
It is possible the MAH variable is behaving in an exogenous capacity and is masking a
more latent underlying relationship. For example, MAH could actually represent the higher
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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 19 | Page
wages and/or work rules associated with employment at a major airline. While this could be
construed as a “substitution effect,” the underlying premise remains. Whether MAH is a
surrogate for increased wages or not, the model demonstrates a stimulation of new pilots
whenever hiring occurs at major airlines. The impact of whether this is part of a larger
substitution effect will more likely influence overall industry reaction and mitigation initiatives,
rather than the identified relationship itself. Although the available dataset is limited by
annualized data, a possible measurement of the impact (if any) of concessionary and growth
labor contracts at MAH carriers could be examined to determine if MAH was impacted. If so,
the substitution effect concept would become stronger and deserving of more investigation.
Given causation and the prevailing substitution accommodation of MAH (if necessary),
this model demonstrates that 77.4% of people considering entering the aviation industry make a
consumer decision. At its core, this decision is based upon a risk-reward paradigm. The risk is
encapsulated by CFT (due to the fact that most people have to self-fund their own training). The
reward is represented by MAH. In essence, a potential future commercial pilot evaluates the cost
they will incur (risk) against the potential for getting hired at a major airline (reward).
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 20 | Page
Demand Side
Using the Model to Forecast Future Supply
In order to determine the future number of NCFI going forward, a separate forecast must
be made for the two predictors—MAH and CFT. Future MAH is dependent upon three factors:
growth of an airline, pilot retirements, and attrition for reasons other than retirement. Figure 11
outlines the flow of staffing on the demand-side.
Figure 11. Outline of Pilot-Staffing Needs.
Future Hiring at Major Airlines
For every airline operating aircraft, there is a corresponding staffing ratio of required
pilots. For example, at American Airlines, they operate 618 aircraft and have 8,481 pilots
(airlinepilotcentral.com, 2013); this yields a staffing ratio of 13.72 pilots per aircraft. These
staffing ratios can be determined for each airline. Table 3 lists each of the airlines that comprise
MAH (or their consolidated surviving carriers) and their corresponding staffing ratios. The
aggregated weighted staffing ratio for all the passenger MAH carriers is 14.44 and for the MAH
cargo carriers 12.37.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 21 | Page
Number
Pilots
Number
Aircraft
Ratio
Alaska 1472 120 12.26667
American 8481 618 13.72330
Delta 11770 720 16.34722
United 11005 705 15.60993
US Airways 5085 346 14.69653
AirTran 1526 129 11.82946
JetBlue 2377 180 13.20556
Southwest 6327 565 11.19823
ABX 460 35 13.14286
FedEx 4541 351 12.93732
UPS 2573 229 11.23581
Table 3. Staffing Ratios for MAH Carriers.
The number of new pilots needed for growth can be calculated by multiplying the
weighted staffing ratios by the number of future aircraft. There are a few forecasts that predict
the future number of airline-utilized aircraft. The FAA publishes a publicly-available annual
forecast which projects the number of aircraft expected to be in service several years into the
future. The Airline Monitor is a commercially-available aircraft forecast used by financial
companies and other businesses reliant upon forecast information for strategic planning
purposes. Given that the Airline Monitor has more of a business focus, this study made an a
priori determination to utilize this forecast for future aircraft growth. Figure 12 indicates the
number of pilots who will be needed by the MAH carriers.
Retirements at major airlines are easily predictable given that all airline pilots must retire
by the time they reach 65 years of age. Not all pilots make it to the age of 65 because they
become medically disqualified prior to reaching that age. It is unclear what percentage of pilots
actually make it to age 65, so this forecast makes the assumption that all pilots make it to full
retirement age. Figure 13 indicates projected retirements at the major airlines from 2013 to 2031.
Airline pilots may leave their professions for reasons other than retirement. Examples of
this attrition could include loss of medical certification, separation from employment (furloughs,
voluntary layoffs, terminations, etc.), or a personal decision to change careers. Determining this
rate historically is difficult. An examination of the entire population of both commercial pilot
and ATP certificate holders adjusted for new pilots created and retirements can help determine
this level in retrospect. The problem with this approach is the combined population of
commercial pilot and ATP certificate holders are obviously not all major airline pilots. Using the
data from Table 3, the population of the major airline pilots (MAH carriers used) is 55,617. This
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 22 | Page
Figure 12. Pilots Needed at MAH Carriers due to Growth.
Figure 13. Forecast Retirements at Major Airlines.
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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 23 | Page
figure can be used as a numerator over the combined commercial pilot and ATP certificate
holders (263,376) as a denominator. This metric, calculated at 21.12%, was used as a percentage
estimate of the number of pilots who fly for major airlines. Figure 14 indicates a historical year-
by-year calculation of attrition for reasons other than retirement at the major airlines. The
historical average attrition rate at the major airlines was calculated to be 1.52%.
Figure 14. Historical Rate of Attrition for Reasons Other than Retirement.
Figure 15 depicts the forecast hiring at major airlines. These figures were derived from
the sum of new pilots needed for growth (Figure 12), new pilots needed because of retirements
(Figure 13), and using the historical other attrition rate of 1.52% (Figure 14). In the period from
2013 through the end of 2031 it is predicted that major airlines will hire 95,790 pilots.
Future Cost of Flight Training
Forecasting the future cost of flight training in terms of year-over-year percent cost
change (CFT) presents a new set of challenges. Figure 8 depicted the historical percent changes.
Given the involvement of multiple macroeconomic influences, a time-series methodology is
appropriate. Due to the lack of seasonality, a simple Holt exponential smoothing algorithm is
appropriate and was applied.
4
Figure 16 depicts the future cost forecast using this method,
MAPE = 37.4, Stationary R
2
= .73.
4
Several models were built using the SPSS model builder. The model that led to the lowest MAPE was selected.
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Historical Rate of Attrition for Reasons
Other Than Retirement
(Major Airlines, Mean = 1.52%)
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 24 | Page
Figure 15. Forecast Hiring at Major Airlines
Figure 16. Historical and Forecast Change in Flight Costs.
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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 25 | Page
Forecasting NCFI
Using the data from Figures 15 and 16 and applying the regression model going forward,
a year-by-year calculation can be made which forecasts the number of new CFIs. Once this
calculation is determined, 53.67% of the NCFI are considered potential candidates for airline
employment due to findings in the previously mentioned CAS. In addition, due to the new
requirements to obtain an ATP certificate prior to operating as a pilot at an airline, a CFI will not
become available for airline employment for a period of time. While the length of time needed
for a CFI to achieve ATP minimums will vary, a period of two years
5
was used in this study.
Figure 17 indicates newly available pilots for airline hiring.
Figure 17. Newly Available Pilots for Airline Hiring.
One additional supply of pilots available for hire at airlines is the military. The number
of retiring military pilots will change based upon several factors, including sequestration and/or
changing military missions. United Airlines recently completed a study of future available
military pilots from all branches (2013). While variation in the yearly supply of military pilots is
inevitable, a calculation of an annually-averaged 1,244 military pilots will be hired by major
airlines during the forecast period. This number could be affected by diminishing military pilot
populations as defense budgets are reduced, the increase in the UAS military pilot population
5
Two years was selected simply because the FOQ NPRM recently published by the FAA outlined some restricted
ATP minimums.
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Certified Flight Instructors Seeking Employment at the
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(Based on y = .31x - 84.60z - .14xz + 4593.78)
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 26 | Page
that would not be eligible for airline pilot hiring, and the effect of stop-loss orders by the
Department of Defense if military pilot populations moves to an unacceptable attrition rate.
Quantifying the Shortage
A simple year-by-year calculation can be conducted which simply compares the available
new pilots to the pilots leaving the industry. A simple equation for this calculation is given as:
Surplus/Shortage = (R+OA+G) – (M+I)
R=Retirements;
OA =Other Attrition;
G=Pilots Needed for Growth;
M=New Military Pilots;
I=Available and Qualified CFIs;
Figure 18 depicts the year-by-year and cumulative forecast shortages for airline pilots in the
United States. For the years 2013 to 2031, there is a forecasted 35,059 pilot shortage. It should
be noted that all forecasts lose accuracy over longer periods of time simply due to changing
macro conditions. In the case of this forecast, no reaction by the industry or regulators is taken
into account.
Factors Not Considered by this Forecast
This study does not take into account three major issues affecting US airline pilot supply:
1. Increased staffing requirements for the newer flight time/duty time requirements for Part
121 operations,
2. Foreign hiring of US pilots, and
3. Any further career aspiration changes as a result of Public Law 111-216.
The effects of the new flight time/duty time requirements are not fully understood at this
time. The new rules will most likely affect the major mainline air carriers to a lesser degree than
the regional air carriers due to the differences in the contractual work rules with their pilot
groups. Anecdotally, due to several conversations with operations managers for various airlines,
many of them have not yet determined its full impact; many are in the midst of making that
determination. Some data does exist. Two regional air carriers projected increased pilot staffing
by 7% due to the new flight time/duty time regulations. One major carrier expected it would
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 27 | Page
Figure 18. Forecast Yearly and Cumulative Shortages of Pilots to Staff the US Airline Fleet.
need to increase its pilot staffing requirements by 2.7% to 3.1% in order to handle the increase of
the reserve contingencies of their flight operation schedule due to the new regulations.
While these data points may be of interest, there currently is no aggregated quantifiable
metric that will allow for the measurement of the impact, if any, of the new flight-time/duty-time
on the overall industry. That being said, in almost all scenarios, the implementation of these new
rules will likely require additional staffing not contemplated in the forecast above.
How foreign hiring will continue to affect US airline pilot supply is also unclear. Over
the past decade many US pilots have left their country to fly for foreign air carriers because of
increased worldwide demand for pilots. Given the coming ATP requirements in the US, will
new, lower-time pilots leave the country in order to circumvent Public Law 111-216? According
to the CAS, when asked the question from the study’s survey, ‘How likely are you to relocate to
another country if flight time requirements were lower for second-in-command?” 796 individuals
answered ‘likely’ or ‘very likely’ to do so, out of a total of 1340 respondents. This represents
59.4%. In another related question, “If a non-US airline opened up a base in the US, how likely
would you consider a career at that airline?”, 1016 individuals out of 1342 (or 75.7%) indicated
they were ‘likely’ or ‘very likely’ to consider that situation. Both of these responses indicate a
willingness to work abroad if the employment opportunities are more positive for younger pilots
entering the industry today.
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Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 28 | Page
The final issue is not taking into consideration the affects of Public Law 111-216
concerning the perception of younger people’s attitudes towards their career aspirations as US
airline pilots. Again, from the survey that was recently completed, 1410 respondents answered
the question of how the new ATP requirement and 1500 hours to fly as a first officers had
affected their career aspirations, 112 (7.9%) indicated it had changed their mind about pursuing a
career with airlines due to the proposed rule change. Another 469 (33.2%) indicated they were
starting to think twice about a career with the airlines based on the proposed rule changes. Based
on the survey, a small population (7.9%) of up and coming pilots have elected not to pursue the
airlines as a career. The group that is starting to think twice is much larger and could have a
significant negative impact on US airlines pilot supply if they also move away from an airline
career.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 29 | Page
Conclusion
It is clear from the data that the United States faces a shortage of airline pilots. The
current forecast calls for a shortage of over 35,000 pilots in the US between 2013 and 2031.
While shortages have been predicted from time to time, this particular shortage forecast is based
upon factors not previously experienced. These factors include the following:
1. New pilots who may enter the profession make a consumer decision based upon
cost of flight training and the potential to obtain employment at major airlines.
The cost of flight training is increasing which will negatively impact the future
pilot supply.
2. Major airline retirements are accelerating and will accelerate in the future.
3. Growth will continue within the airline industry.
4. Only a small majority of CFIs intend to work for the airlines as a long term career
aspiration.
5. The future requirement of obtaining an ATP prior to operating as a line pilot at an
air carrier is negatively impacting the pilot labor supply, and may further
negatively impact the pilots supply further in the future.
Other factors not specifically considered by this forecast:
1. The impact of the new flight-time/duty-time rules.
2. Foreign carriers may decide to aggressively compete and employ lower-time
entry-level pilots.
From the data, it appears that the larger major carriers will likely not experience any
shortage in the next five to seven years. However, the same cannot be said for the regional
carriers. It is likely that the regional carriers will experience large-scale shortages, and that a
relatively small population of newly-available and qualified pilots will have ample opportunities
to obtain employment as the regional airlines compete for employees. Regarding this
competition for employees, the regional airlines will likely become aggressive in their recruiting
tactics. Today, some regional airlines are already offering "signing bonuses" and "gateway"
programs to help attract new pilots.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 30 | Page
Impact
Most airlines in this country operate the majority of their flights via a hub-and-spoke
model. Passengers fly into the hub and then transfer to another flight that will carry them to their
final (spoke) destination. Successful hubs rely on service from both mainline as well as the
regional carriers.
Atlanta’s Hartsfield Jackson International Airport, is the world’s largest airport when
measured by aircraft movements and passengers (Airports Council International, 2012). It also
serves as the largest hub for Delta Air Lines and will be an important hub for Southwest, as it
continues to implement its merger with AirTran.
Nearly one in three aircraft departures out of Atlanta are operated by regional airlines
(Regional Airline Association, 2012). At Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport, a hub airport
for both American and United Airlines, over 64% of departures are operated by a regional carrier
(Regional Airline Association, 2012). Regional flights allow carriers to support existing
domestic and international service. Without regional airline flights, many markets would not
receive the same level of service (or any service) as they do today.
The importance of the regional airlines in providing air service throughout the country
cannot be understated. Regional airlines serve 681 airports throughout the United States. About
70% of those airports, 476 airports in total, are served exclusively by regional airlines. This
means that in the event that regional airlines have to reduce service due to the inability to hire
qualified pilots, many communities will see a reduction in air service. Assuming a constant or
increase in demand, airfares in many of those cities would rise.
In order to appreciate the potential consequence of this situation, one can examine the
economic impact that a loss of airline service would have on the city of Abilene, Texas and its
airport. Abilene is a city with a population of nearly 120,000 people (U.S. Census Bureau,
2013). The Abilene Regional Airport has scheduled airline service provided by one carrier,
American Eagle Airlines. A review of the February, 2013 flight schedule shows that Eagle
operates seven round-trip daily flights and one additional flight scheduled for every day except
on Saturday to Dallas Ft. Worth International Airport (City of Abilene, 2013).
The vast majority of passengers flying out of Abilene are connecting onto another flight
in Dallas to go to another destination. The average fare for passengers flying out of Abilene
during the third quarter of 2012 was $5216 (Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2013). This
relatively high fare is most likely due to the fact that only one carrier provides service to Abilene.
In the event that American Eagle was to reduce service due to its inability to find qualified pilots
to support its scheduled flying, it would have to reduce service to various cities. Abilene could
6 Provided by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Airline Origin & Destination Survey. Average fares are based
on domestic itinerary fares, round-trip or one-way for which no return is purchased. Fares are based on the total
ticket value which consists of the price charged by the airlines plus any additional taxes and fees levied by an
outside entity at the time of purchase. Fares include only the price paid at the time of the ticket purchase and do not
include other fees, such as baggage fees, paid at the airport or onboard the aircraft. Averages do not include
frequent-flyer or 'zero fares' or a few abnormally high reported fares. Airports* ranked by U.S. originating domestic
passengers in 2011.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 31 | Page
experience a reduction in service, which would very likely result in an increase in fares due to
the fact that there are less seats available for sale. This may deter some passengers from flying
which can lead to a reduction in economic activity at the airport.
Airline service can be an important revenue stream at many airports and their
communities. In addition to transporting passengers, airline service supports the movement of
air cargo and jobs at the airport (CDM Smith, 2010). With the so-called 1500 hour rule due to
go into effect on August 2, 2013, many airports-both large and small-may face a reduction in air
service over the next several years, if airlines are unable to find a sufficient number of qualified
pilots to fly their planes.
In 2010, the University of North Texas’ Center for Economic Development and Research
published some data on the economic impact of airport related activity in Abilene (University of
North Texas Center for Economic Development and Research, 2011). The study highlighted the
importance that commercial, general aviation and military operations have on the airport
(University of North Texas Center for Economic Development and Research, 2011). The report
stated that commercial and general aviation activities at the airport generated over $148 million
in economic activity (University of North Texas Center for Economic Development and
Research, 2011).
Again, in the event that the airport were to see a reduction in air service due to American
Eagle’s inability to find a sufficient number of pilots, cities like Abilene could see a reduction in
air service. The airport would also experience a reduction in economic activity.
Potential Solutions
In the face of the upcoming pilot supply disruptions and shortages, the industry must seek
solutions; otherwise, the effects can be catastrophic both on multiple local levels as well as the
national economy. There are two areas which the data suggest might provide the most relief:
1. Given the consumer decision made by potential pilots, the industry should focus on both
the risk (CFT) and reward (MAH) variables. This concentration should focus on
reducing of costs related to flight training, such as paid scholarships or funding in return
for future employment; or, providing a clear pathway to the major airlines from early
pilot training, such as a gateway program which outlines a career progression culminating
in major airline employment.
2. The industry should focus their efforts on recruiting and attracting CFIs who have no
intention of obtaining employment in the airline industry. The data currently suggests
that around 47% of CFIs fall into this category and have no intention of becoming airline
pilots in the long-term. If these pilots can be attracted to the airline industry, the effects
of the shortage could be mitigated.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 32 | Page
Final Remarks
In the face of forecasting and the errors associated with forecasting methodology, one
fact is certain: as time passes, the industry will know for sure if previous forecasts were accurate.
Unfortunately, given that it takes several years for a pilot to enter the airline pilot labor supply,
the industry cannot afford to "wait and see" if there will be enough pilots in the future.
Accordingly, the industry must make its best efforts to forecast and mitigate, if necessary, any
future shortages. These efforts should begin now and in earnest. The likely result of inadequate
staffing will be the reduction of flying in smaller-communities and other markets served by
regional airlines. The overall effect could also cause harm and disruption to the entire airline
industry. Given the far reach of the airline industry and its effect on the national economy, this
threat should be taken seriously, and mitigations should be enacted in an attempt to circumvent
this potential hardship.
Copyright © 2013 By the Authors 33 | Page
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